The Perfect Answer Revision Guide CIE IGCSE Co Ordinated Sciences

The Perfect Answer
Revision Guide To…

Co-ordinated Sciences
CIE IGCSE
Double Award
9-1 / A*-U
1st Edition
Copyright © Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey 2020 1
Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey
For use by junwoo Yang junwooyang93@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.
Biology
B1. Characteristics of living organisms ................................................................................................3
B2. Cells ................................................................................................................................................ 4
B3. Biological molecules .......................................................................................................................7
B4. Enzymes .........................................................................................................................................8
B5. Plant nutrition .................................................................................................................................9
B6. Human nutrition ............................................................................................................................ 10
B7. Transport ...................................................................................................................................... 14
B8. Gas exchange and respiration ...................................................................................................... 17
B9. Coordination and response .......................................................................................................... 19
B10. Reproduction ..............................................................................................................................22
B11. Inheritance ..................................................................................................................................26
B12. Organisms and their environment ..............................................................................................30
B13. Human influences on ecosystems ............................................................................................. 31
Chemistry
C1. The particulate nature of matter ...................................................................................................32
C2. Experimental techniques .............................................................................................................. 34
C3. Atoms, elements and compounds ...............................................................................................36
C4. Stoichiometry ...............................................................................................................................40
C5. Electricity and chemistry .............................................................................................................. 42
C6. Chemical energetics .....................................................................................................................44
C7. Chemical reactions ....................................................................................................................... 45
C8. Acids, bases and salts .................................................................................................................47
C9. The periodic table .........................................................................................................................51
C10. Metals ......................................................................................................................................... 52
C11. Air and water ..............................................................................................................................55
C12. Sulfur .......................................................................................................................................... 58
C13. Carbonates ................................................................................................................................. 58
C14. Organic chemistry ......................................................................................................................59
Physics
Units and symbols ..............................................................................................................................64
P1. Motion ...........................................................................................................................................65
P2. Work, energy and power ............................................................................................................... 70
P3. Thermal physics ........................................................................................................................... 74
P4. Properties of waves, including light and sound ............................................................................79
P5. Electricity and magnetism ............................................................................................................84
P6. Electric circuits ............................................................................................................................. 88
P7. Electromagnetic effects ................................................................................................................90
P8. Atomic physics ............................................................................................................................. 93


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NOTE: Core content is given in this format (Grades 1-5). Supplement content is given in italics
(grades 5-9)
NB. Core content will be examined in papers 1 (MC) and 3. Supplement AND Core content will be
examined in papers 2 (MC) and 4
Biology
B1. Characteristics of living organisms
Characteristics all living organisms show:
• Movement
• Respiration
• Sensitivity
• Nutrition
• Excretion
• Reproduction
• Growth
Define movement
• Action by all or part of an organism
• Causes change in position or place
Define respiration
• Chemical reactions in cells
• Nutrient molecules broken down
• Energy released for metabolism
Define sensitivity
• Detecting and responding to changes in the environment
• Sensing stimuli in the internal or external environment

• Making appropriate responses
Define growth
• Permanent increase in size
• Increase in dry mass
• Cell numbers and/or cell size increase
Define reproduction
• Processes that make more of the same kind of organism
Define excretion
• Removal from organisms of toxic materials and substances in excess of requirements
• Removal of waste products of metabolism
Define nutrition
• Taking in materials for energy, growth and development
Plants require:
• Light
• Carbon dioxide
• Water
• Ions
Animals require:
• Organic compounds
• Ions
• Usually need water

B2. Cells
B2.1 Cell Structure
Plant and animal cells both have:
• Nucleus
o Contains genetic material (DNA) - controls activities and characteristics of cell
o Chromosomes visible during cell division
• Cytoplasm
o Contains water and dissolved substances
o Contains mitochondria for aerobic respiration
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) to make proteins
• Cell membrane
o Surrounds cytoplasm
o Controls entry and exit of dissolved substances
o Forms barrier between cell and surroundings
Plants also have:
• Chloroplasts
o Packed with chlorophyll
o Contain enzymes to produce glucose through photosynthesis
• Vacuole
o Contains water
o Provides turgor pressure to maintain shape of cell
o Filled with cell sap
• Cell wall
o Protects and supports the cell
Describe the structure and function of the following specialised cells…
Red blood cell
• Function: transport oxygen around the body for respiration
• Contains haemoglobin which binds to oxygen forming oxyhaemoglobin
• Biconcave disc shape increases surface area to volume ratio
• Very flexible enabling it to pass through small vessels
• No nucleus - more room for haemoglobin so more oxygen can then be transported
Ciliated cell
• Function: move mucus out of the trachea and bronchi
• Have layer of tiny hairs (cilia)
• Cilia can move and push mucus
• Mucus traps dust and microbes
• Mucus is expelled via mouth and nose
Sperm cell
• Function: reproduction
• Haploid nucleus
• Flagellum beats to swim cell towards ovum
• Acrosome contains enzymes to penetrate egg cell
• Mitochondria in cytoplasm release energy for movement
Egg cell (ovum)
• Function: reproduction
• Haploid nucleus
• Jelly coat changes at fertilisation
• Allows entry of male nucleus

Root hair cell
• Function: absorption
• Long extension called root hair
• Large surface area
• For absorption of water by osmosis
• For absorption of mineral ions by active transport
Palisade mesophyll cell
• Function: photosynthesis
• Contains many chloroplasts to absorb light
• Tall thin cells - densely packed to maximise area that light can hit
• Maximises photosynthesis
How do you calculate magnification?
• Magnification = measured length / actual length
How do you calculate Actual (true) length?
• Actual length = measured length / magnification

B2.2 Movement in and out of cells
What is diffusion?
• Net movement of particles
• From region of higher concentration to lower concentration
• Due to random movement
Why is diffusion important?
• Many life processes depend on it:
o Oxygen entering blood from lungs
o Glucose and amino acids pass from gut to blood
o Plants absorb CO2 in to leaves
How do substances enter cells?
• By diffusion through the cell membrane
How can diffusion speed be increased in some organisms?

• Reduced diffusion distances: Shorter distance = faster diffusion
• Concentration gradients kept high: Equilibrium is not reached so diffusion continues
• Large surface area for diffusion to take place across cell membranes
• Higher temperature: Particles have more kinetic energy
What is osmosis?
• Diffusion of water through partially permeable membranes
• Net movement of water molecules from region of high water potential to low water
potential
• Through a partially permeable membrane
How does water enter cells?
• By osmosis through the cell membrane
How does osmosis affect plant and animal cells differently?

• Plant cells not permanently damaged
• Cell walls give plant cell support
• Animal cells permanently damaged
• Animal cells shrink with water loss and burst if swell too much
What is plasmolysis?
• When too much water moves out of a plant cell the cell contents shrink
• This pulls the cell membrane away from the cell wall
What is the result of putting plant tissue in high concentration solution?
• Plant cells have higher water potential
• Water lost from plant into solution
• Plant cells become flaccid
If plant tissue placed in dilute solution
• Plant cells have lower water potential
• Water enters plant through osmosis
• Plant cells become more turgid
Plants are supported by

• Water pressure inside cells pushing outwards
• Water pressure acts against inelastic cell wall - turgor pressure

B3. Biological molecules
What are the chemical components of organic molecules (including carbohydrates and lipids)?
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Proteins also contain Nitrogen and Sulphur
• Nucleic acids also contain Phosphorous and Nitrogen
What is a carbohydrate?
• Made of simple sugar molecules
• Monosaccharides e.g. Glucose – one sugar
• Polysaccharides e.g. starch, glycogen - many sugars (made from many glucose
molecules)
What is a lipid?
• Made up of fatty acids and glycerol
• 3 fatty acids to 1 glycerol molecule
• Fats are solid at room temp, oils are liquid
What is a protein?
• Chain of amino acids
What is the food test for starch?
• Iodine
• Positive result: turns blue/black
What is the test for reducing sugars (e.g. glucose)?
• Heat with water and Benedict’s reagent
• Blue solution turns brick red in the presence of glucose
What is the test for protein?
• Biuret reagent
• Positive result: purple
What is the test for fat?
• Add ethanol
• Add water
• Shake
• Positive result: milky white emulsion
What is the role of water in organisms?
• Important as a solvent for digestion, excretion and transport

B4. Enzymes
What is a catalyst?
• Increases rate of chemical reaction
• Not changed or used up by the reaction
Define enzyme
• Protein that functions as a biological catalyst
Why are enzymes important?
• Speed up biochemical reactions
• High reaction speed necessary to sustain life
How does an enzyme work?

• Enzyme has a complementary shape to substrate
• Substrate molecules bind to active site of enzyme
• Enzyme-substrate complex formed at active site
• Complementary shape of active allows specificity
• Product is produced
• Each enzyme is specific for one shape of substrate
• One reaction occurs each time substrate binds
How does the shape of an enzyme determine its function?

• Enzyme has active site
• Active site has specific shape
• Only target molecule can fit in the active site
How does increasing temperature affect enzymes?
• Up to optimum temperature: enzyme activity increases with increasing temperature
• Enzyme and substrate have more kinetic energy
• More likely to bind to active site due to more effective collisions

• Over optimum temperature: enzyme activity decreases with increasing temperature
• Over optimum temperature enzyme loses shape - denatured
• Denatured enzyme cannot bind substrate
How does a change in pH affect enzymes?
• Activity highest at optimum pH
• Above or below optimum, activity decreases
• Changes in pH alters 3D shape of enzyme
• If 3D shape changes, enzyme is denatured and cannot fit substrate

B5. Plant nutrition
What is photosynthesis?
• Process plants use to produce carbohydrates
• Uses energy from light
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
• Carbon dioxide + Water —> Glucose + Oxygen
• Requires light and chlorophyll
• 6CO2 + 6H20 —> C6H12O6 + 6O2
What is the function of chlorophyll?

• Transfers light energy to chemical energy
• Energy produced used for synthesis of carbohydrates
How are the carbohydrates made in photosynthesis used by the plant?

• Glucose used in respiration
• Stored as starch for later use
• Forms cellulose to make cell walls
• Broken down to produce amino acids for growth
• Broken down to produce lipids for storage in seeds
Define a limiting factor

• Something in such short supply it restricts life processes
• E.g. light, carbon dioxide, water
What factors can limit photosynthesis?

• Sunlight in cloudy/dark places
• Water in dry places
• Temperature in too hot or too cold conditions
• Carbon dioxide levels
How is the internal structure of the leaf adapted for photosynthesis?

• Palisade mesophyll: tightly packed to maximise light absorption, contain lots of
chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts: can move to maximise absorption of light
• Waxy cuticle / Upper epidermis: transparent to allow light to reach chloroplasts, waxy to
prevent evaporation of water and stops pathogen entry
• Air spaces in spongy mesophyll - allow gases to diffuse
• Xylem: allows entry of water and mineral ions by transpiration stream
• Guard cells: control opening and closure of stomata
• Stomata: allow carbon dioxide to enter, oxygen and water to leave
• Leaf shape: thin and broad (large surface area)
What is the importance of nitrate ions for amino acids?
• Amino acids contain nitrogen
• Amino acids form proteins
• Deficiency causes stunting, weakness, yellowing
Why are magnesium ions important?
• Magnesium forms part of chlorophyll
• Deficiency causes chlorosis - leaves turn yellow

B6. Human nutrition
B6.1 Diet
What is a balanced diet?
• Provides all the nutrients in correct amounts needed to carry out life processes
How does age affect dietary needs?

• Children need less total dietary energy (kJ) than adults
How does gender affect dietary needs?

• Men need more total energy (kJ) than women
How do activity levels affect dietary needs?

• Increased activity levels need more total energy (kJ)
How does pregnancy affect dietary needs?

• Pregnant women need more total energy (kJ) than non-pregnant women
What is the energy requirement in pregnant and breastfeeding mothers?

• Pregnancy needs less energy than breastfeeding
What is deficiency in total energy AND protein called?

• Marasmus
Give the role, source and deficiency disease of the following nutrients:
Deficiency
Nutrient Dietary importance Principal source
Disease
Growth and repair of muscles, Meat, fish, eggs,

Protein Kwashiorkor
enzymes, hormones, antibodies legumes, mycoprotein
Rice, Potatoes, wheat,
Carbohydrates Energy store
cereals
Insulation and concentrated
Fat Meat, eggs, milk, cheese
energy store
70% of body. Tissue fluid,
Water Dehydration
cytoplasm, blood.
Fibre prevents constipation,
Constipation
(roughage) encourages peristalsis
weak bones,
Calcium Strong teeth and bones Milk, cheese and fish poor clotting,
spasms, rickets
Red meat, liver, leafy
Iron Healthy blood Anaemia
greens
Sticks together cells lining the Scurvy - bleeding
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, leafy greens
mouth gums
Liver, dairy products,
Vitamin D Strong bones Rickets
eggs

B6.2 Alimentary canal
Define ingestion
• When food/drink enters the mouth
Define digestion
• Breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water-soluble molecules using
mechanical and chemical processes  
Define mechanical digestion

• Breakdown of food to smaller pieces, no chemical change
• E.g. chewing, stomach muscles churning food
Define chemical digestion

• Breakdown of large insoluble molecules to small soluble ones
• E.g. amylase in saliva breaks down starch into simple sugars
Define absorption
• Movement of small food molecules and ions through intestine wall into blood stream
Define assimilation
• Movement of digested food into cells where they are used
Define egestion
• The removal of food not digested or absorbed (faeces) from the anus
What are the functions of the following parts of the digestive system?
Site Function
Food converted to bolus by teeth during
Mouth
mastication (chewing)
Produce saliva, transport to mouth by salivary
Salivary Glands
ducts
Food moves to stomach by peristalsis
Oesophagus
(contraction of circular muscles)
Food mixes with hydrochloric acid - forms
Stomach
chyme
Covered in villi to to increase absorption of
Small Intestine (Duodenum And Ileum)
digested food
Duodenum Semi liquid food mixes with pancreatic juice
Ileum Digested food absorbed in to blood
Produces bile - neutralizes acid and emulsifies
Liver
fat in the small intestine
Produces pancreatic juice, transported into
Pancreas
small intestine by pancreatic duct
Stores bile - transported in to duodenum by
Gall Bladder
bile duct
Large Intestine - Colon Reabsorbs water
Anus Exit for faeces- two sphincter muscles

B6.3 Digestion
What is the function of the teeth?
• Mechanical digestion
• Incisors cut/bite
• Canines hold/cut
• Premolars crush and chew
• Molars grind and chew
Describe the structure of human teeth
Structure Function
Root Embedded in the gum to anchor the tooth in the mouth
Enamel Hardest substances made by animals. Covers the tooth and provides a tough
surface for biting and chewing
Dentine Bone-like structure under the enamel. Contains cytoplasm and tubes running
from the pulp cavity outwards which are filled with blood vessels and nerves
Pulp Cavity Hollow middle of the tooth. Contains nerves and blood vessels which supply the
cytoplasm with food and oxygen
Cement Covers the root of the tooth
Nerves Allow teeth to sense pressure and pain
What are the causes of tooth decay?

• Bacteria in the mouth stick to teeth and makes plaque
• Bacteria respire sugars, makes acid
• Acid erodes enamel and dentine
Describe proper tooth care
• Diet low in sugar
• Regular effective brushing
• Eat crisp veg or rinse mouth after meals
What is the role of chemical digestion?
• Producing soluble small molecules that can be absorbed and assimilated
What is role of amylase?
• To break down starch into simpler sugars (maltose)
Where is amylase secreted?

• Mouth and small intestine (salivary and pancreatic)
What is the role of protease?

• To digest proteins into amino acids
Where is protease secreted?

• Stomach
• Small intestine
What is the role of lipase?

• To digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Where is lipase secreted?

• In bile in to small intestine

Describe the functions of hydrochloric acid in the stomach
• Killing bacteria in food
• Low pH denatures enzymes in harmful microorganisms
• Provides acidic pH for enzymes
• Optimum pH for protease activity
What is the role of bile?

• Neutralises acidic food mixture from stomach
• Provides suitable pH for enzymes in small intestine
• Emulsifies fats to increase surface area for chemical digestion
Where is digested food absorbed?

• Small intestine
What is the purpose of villi and microviili?

• Increases surface area for absorption
Describe the structure of a microvillus

• Epithelium one cell thick - short diffusion pathway
• Goblet cell produces mucus to protect lining of small intestine
• Good blood supply from capillaries to transport glucose to rest of body
• Lacteal transports fatty acids and glycerol

B7. Transport
B7.1 Transport in plants
What is the function of the xylem?
• Water carried from roots to leaves in xylem
• Transports water and minerals up the plant
What is the function of the phloem?
• Carries sugar from the leaves up and down rest of plant
How is a root hair cell adapted?

o Increases rate of water absorption by osmosis
o Increases ion uptake by active transport
Describe the pathway of water in a plant
• Root hair cell
• Root cortex
• Xylem
• Mesophyll cells
How could you investigate the path of water in a plant?
• Cut a piece of celery
• Put in water
• Add stain (methylene blue or eosin)
• Wait a few hours and cut surface - dye appears in xylem
What is transpiration?
• Loss of water vapour from leaves by evaporation at surface of mesophyll cells
• Water vapour then diffuses through stomata
• Water loss related to large surface area of leaf
• Water evaporates in to air spaces in plant
• Water diffuses out of stomata down concentration gradient
• Loss of water at leaves reduces water potential
• Causes transpiration pull
• Column of water drawn up xylem, held by cohesion
Investigate effect of temperature and humidity on transpiration rate
• Use bubble potometer connected to plant with rubber tubing
• Record speed of air bubble in capillary tube (dependent variable)
• Vary temp or humidity as independent variables
• Increased humidity slows transpiration —> Decreases water potential gradient
• Increased temperature increase transpiration —> Increases water holding capacity of air
Describe and explain how rates of transpiration may be increased

• Hot - water evaporates faster
• Dry - increases the concentration gradient between the leaf and the surrounding air
Describe and explain how rates of transpiration may be decreased

• Cold - water evaporates slower
• Humid - small concentration gradient between the leaf and the surrounding air
What is translocation?
• Movement of sucrose and amino acids
• From source (where produced) to regions of storage OR where used in respiration (sink)
• Some parts of plant act as source and sink at different times 

B7.2 Transport in mammals
What is the circulatory system?
• System of blood vessels with pump and valves causing one way movement of blood
What is meant by double circulation?

• Blood passes through heart twice per circuit
• Increased blood pressure through lungs
• Increased pressure to tissues
What is the function of the septum?
• Separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the heart
Describe the movement of the blood around the body starting at the right atrium
• Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava
• Right atrium contracts forcing blood through tricuspid valve into right ventricle
• Blood enters the right ventricle and leaves via the pulmonary artery
• Blood flows to the lungs
• Blood become oxygenated
• Blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
• Left atrium contracts forcing blood through bicuspid valve into the left ventricle
• Left ventricles contracts forcing blood into the aorta
• Oxygenated flows around the body and is used in respiration
What is coronary heart disease?

• Blockage of coronary arteries
• Part of heart muscle stops contracting, causing heart attack
• Vital tissues don’t get oxygen
What are the risk factors?

• Diet
• Stress
• Smoking
• Genetic predisposition
• Age
• Gender
How can diet and exercise prevent coronary heart disease?

• Poor diet and lifestyle are risk factors
• Low levels of cholesterol and low saturated fatty acids in diet
• Exercise strengthens heart muscle and reduces stress
What does physical activity do to pulse rate?

• Increases it
Explain the effect of exercise on pulse rate

• Muscles burn more oxygen in respiration
• Muscle creates waste products
• Increased oxygen demand and waste products needs increased circulation
• Pulse rate increases to keep up with demand
Name the main blood vessels going to and from the heart
• Vena cava
• Aorta
• Pulmonary vein

Name the main blood vessels going to and from the lungs
• Pulmonary artery
• Pulmonary vein
Name the main blood vessels going to and from the kidney
• Renal artery
• Renal veinDescribe the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries
Describe the structure and function of the major blood vessels
Vessel Description How is it adapted to

function?
Artery Thick wall, muscular, carries Elastic walls expand and
blood away from heart relax, hick walls withstand
high pressure
Vein Thin walled, wide lumen, Valves prevent back flow, low
takes blood back to heart pressure, large diameter
creates low resistance
Capillary One cell thick, branched Short diffusion distance, large
structure, extends through all surface area maximises
tissues exchange of substances
State the functions of the main components of the blood
Blood component Function

Red blood cell Transport oxygen bound to haemoglobin
White blood cell Phagocytosis and antibody production
Platelet Used in clotting
Plasma Transports all blood cells and dissolved substances

B8. Gas exchange and respiration
B8.1 Gas exchange
What are the features of a gas exchange surface?

• Thin surface
• Good blood supply
• Good ventilation with air
Name the main components of the ventilatory system
• Lungs
• Diaphragm
• Ribs
• Intercostal muscles
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Alveoli
State and explain the differences in composition of inhaled and expired air
Component Inspired air (%) Expired air (%) Explanation

Oxygen 21 18 Oxygen moves from lungs into blood
Carbon dioxide 0.04 3 CO2 has moves from blood in to lungs
Water vapour variable Saturated Water evaporates from inside alveoli
How do you test for carbon dioxide?
• Bubble air through limewater indicator
• Limewater turns milky/cloudy in presence of carbon dioxide
In what ways does breathing change during exercise?
• Increased rate – more breaths per min
• Increased tidal volume – more air per breath
How does exercise affect breathing rate and depth?

• Exercise produces more carbon dioxide in muscles due to increase in respiration
• Carbon dioxide in blood increases
• Detected by brain
• Causes increased breathing rate and depth
How is the gas exchange surface protected from pathogens and particles?
• Mucus produced by goblet cells
• Traps particles and pathogens
• Cilia on surface beat to move mucus
• Mucus moved up and out of lung
Describe the negative health effects of tobacco smoking
• Can cause COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), lung cancer and coronary heart
disease
• Smoke damages gas exchange surfaces by heat
• Cilia destroyed (can cause emphysema)
• Carbon monoxide – reduces oxygen supply to rest of body
• Nicotine – stimulant, causes addiction
• Tar – Irritant, reduces surface area of gas exchange system, causes cancer 

8.2 Respiration
How is energy used in the body?
• Muscle contraction
• Protein synthesis
• Cell division
• Growth
• Keeping body temperature constant
Define aerobic respiration
• Oxygen used by cells to break down glucose to produce energy

• Word equation: glucose + oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
• Balanced chemical equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H20
Define anaerobic respiration

• Glucose broken down to produce energy (without using oxygen)
• Produces less energy per molecule glucose
• Word equation (in muscles): Glucose —> lactic acid
• Word equation (in yeast): Glucose —> alcohol + carbon dioxide
What is oxygen debt?

• Build up of lactic acid in muscles and blood during exercise
How is yeast used in bread making?

• Yeast mixed in to bread mixture
• In warm environment yeast ferments sugar
• Anaerobic respiration produces CO2 bubbles
• Bubbles make dough rise
Compare the energy released by aerobic respiration with the energy released by anaerobic
respiration
• Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule used compared to
aerobic respiration 

B9. Coordination and response
B9.1 Nervous control in humans
Describe a nerve impulse
• Electrical signal that passes along neurones (nerve cells)
What makes up the human nervous system?
• Central nervous system:
o Brain
o Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system
• Responsible for coordination and regulation of body functions
• Voluntary actions involve the brain, involuntary do not
Describe a reflex arc
• Involuntary action
• Receptor receives stimulus
• Impulse travels down sensory neurone to spine
• Relay neurone conducts impulse across spine
• Motor neurone carries impulse to effector
• Effector carries out action
What is a reflex action?
• A way to automatically and rapidly respond
• Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - relay neurone - motor neurone - effector -

response
• Involves electrical impulses and synapses
• E.g. Withdrawal of finger from hot object
B2.9 Sense organs
What is a sense organ?

• Group of receptor cells that respond to specific stimuli
• Stimuli include: light, sound, touch, temperature, chemicals
Function of eye components

• Cornea – refracts light
• Iris - contains radial and circular muscles which control the size of the pupil
• Lens - refracts light to focus it on to retina
• Retina - contains photoreceptors (rods (dim light) and cones (detect colour)) which are
sensitive to light
• Optic nerve - takes electrical impulses from the eye to the brain
How does the diameter of the pupil change in bright and dim light?
• Bright light – pupil diameter decreases to protect retina
• Dim light - pupil diameter increases to let in more light
How does the pupil constrict in bright light and why is this necessary?
• Circular muscles contract
• Radial muscles relax
• Pupil constricts
• Protects the retina from the bright light

How does the pupil dilate in dim light and why is this necessary?
• Circular muscles relax
• Radial muscles contract
• Pupil dilate
• Allows more light to enter the eye
What is accommodation?
• Changes that take place within the eye
• Enable us to focus on objects at different distances
How does the eye focus on a nearby object?

• Ciliary muscle contracts
• Suspensory ligaments slacken
• Lens fat
• Light refracted strongly
How does the eye focus on a faraway object?

• Ciliary muscle relax
• Suspensory ligaments taut
• Lens thin
• Light refracted less strongly
B9.3 Hormones
What is a hormone?
• A chemical substance produced by a gland
• Travels in blood
• Alters activity of target organ(s)
Where is adrenaline released from?
• The adrenal gland
What is the effect of adrenaline on the body?
• Fight or flight response
• Increased breathing rate and pulse,
• Widened pupils
• Blood diverted from gut to muscles
Examples of times adrenaline produced
• Running a race
• Chased by a predator
• Stressful situations
What is the role of adrenaline in a fight or flight situation?

• Increases availability of glucose for muscles
• Increases pulse rate to deliver more blood to tissues
• Body ready for action - muscles primed to respond
What is the difference between hormonal and nervous responses?

• Nervous involves electrical impulses, hormonal involves chemicals carried in the blood
• Nervous response faster, hormonal slower
• Nervous response short-lived, hormonal long-lived
• Nervous response very localised, hormonal wide-spread

B9.4 Homeostasis
Define homeostasis
• Maintenance of a constant internal environment
• Control of internal conditions within set limits

• Controlled by negative feedback
What is negative feedback?

• The body’s response when internal conditions deviate from the ideal set point
• Body returns conditions to this set point
How is glucose level in the blood controlled?

• Low glucose in blood detected —> glucagon released —> glycogen in liver released in to
blood as glucose —> blood glucose increases
• Blood glucose detected too high —> pancreas secretes insulin —> tissues take up glucose
—> blood glucose drops
How is body temperature kept constant?
• Blood temperature receptors in brain detect change in blood temperature - coordinates

response
• Sweating loses heat by evaporation
• Hairs trap insulating air beneath them to reduce heat loss
• Shivering produces heat from respiration and friction
• Heat loss regulated by control of capillaries in skin
• Vasodilation allows more blood to reach skin surface - blood cools
• Heat conserved when skin capillaries vasoconstrict
B9.5 Tropic responses
Define gravitropism
• Response of plant to grow towards/away from gravity
Define phototropism
• Response of a plant towards/away from light
Explain why phototropism and gravitropism are under chemical control

• Chemical control of plant growth
• Auxin made in in shoot tip only
• Auxin spreads through plant from shoot tip
• Auxin causes cells to lengthen
• Auxin gets unequally distributed due to light and gravity

B10. Reproduction
B10.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction
What is asexual reproduction?
• Producing genetically identical offspring
• One parent
• Examples: bacteria, propagated plants
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual reproduction?
Advantage Disadvantage
Sexual • Variation • Two parents needed
• New features allow adaptation to • Fertilisation is random
new environments • Can have harmful variants
• Crops- develop new varieties which
grow better
Asexual • One parent only • No variation
• Faster- quick colonisation • Won’t adapt so problems will
• Crops- produce large numbers of affect all individuals
identical plants • Crops- cloned plants can all be
susceptible to same disease
What is sexual reproduction?
• Fusion of nuclei from two gametes (sex cells) to form zygote
• Produces genetically different offspring
• Gamete nucleus is haploid
• Zygote nucleus is diploid
B10.2 Sexual reproduction in plants
What is fertilisation?
• Fusion of gamete nuclei
Give the functions of the following parts of a plant:
Function
Sepal Protect flower bud. Green
Attraction of insects. Bright colours

Petal
May produce nectar
Male reproductive part

Anther
Pollen grains contain male nucleus (gamete)
Stigma Platform for pollen grains to land
Female reproductive part

Ovaries
Contains female nucleus in an ovum
What is pollination?
• Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma

Describe the difference between wind-pollinated and insect-pollinated flowers
Wind pollinated Insect pollinated Explanation

Flat or lobed Feathery stigmas to
Stigma Long, feathery, sticks out
Where insects will brush catch pollen
Insects attracted to
Petals Small, dull, no nectar Large, bright, nectar
bright colours
Hang loosely Stiff Pollen more easily
Anther
Thin filaments Firmly attached dislodged by wind
Large quantities, light, Small numbers Sticky grains stick to
Pollen
smooth Large, sticky insects
What is fertilisation?
• When pollen nucleus fuses with ovule nucleus
What do seeds need for germination?
• Suitable temperature (warmth)
• Oxygen
• Water
B10.2 Sexual reproduction in humans
Give the function of the following parts of the male reproductive system
Function
Testes Production of male gametes (sperm)
Scrotum Sac that holds the testes outside the body
Sperm ducts Transfer sperm to the urethra
Prostate gland Secrete fluids for sperm to swim in forming semen
Urethra Carries urine and semen out of the body
Penis Transfers semen to vagina during sexual intercourse
Give the function of the following parts of the male reproductive system
Function
Ovaries Release of female gametes (eggs)
Oviducts Transfers egg to uterus and the site of fertilisation
Uterus Where the fetus develops
Cervix Ring of muscle at the opening of the uterus
Vagina Receives penis during sexual intercourse

What is fertilisation (in a human)?
• Fusion of nuclei from a male gamete (sperm)
• With a female gamete (ovum/egg cell)
Compare male and female gametes:

• Sperm are very mobile, numerous, small
• Ova (egg cells) are immobile, singular, large
What are the adaptive features of sperm?

• Flagellum for movement
• Enzymes to gain entry to ovum
• Mitochondria to supply energy for beating of flagellum
• Acrosome enzymes to penetrate egg cell membrane
What are the adaptive features of egg cells (ova)?

• Energy stores
• Jelly coat changes at fertilisation to allow entry of male nucleus
What is the menstrual cycle?
• Changes in woman’s reproductive system
• 28 days long
• Prepares body for fertilisation and pregnancy
What happens during one menstrual cycle?
Day Event
Day 1-5 Menstruation, lining of uterus breaks down, period, loss of unfertilised egg
Day 10 Menstruation over, uterus lining builds up
Day 14 Ovulation, egg released from ovary into fallopian tube
Days 16-21 Egg travels down fallopian tube, fertilisation most likely, uterus lining
thickens
Days 23-27 Egg travels into uterus
Day 1 Cycle begins again
What happens after fertilisation?
• Zygote forms embryo
• Embryo is ball of cells that implants into uterus wall
State the function of the following parts of body involved in the growth of a fetus
Function Description
Blood supply Carries materials for exchange
Umbilical cord
Connects fetus to placenta between mother and fetus
Supply nutrients/ exchange waste Exchanges soluble materials e.g.
Physical attachment nutrients, wastes and oxygen.
Protects from blood pressure Provides a barrier to toxins and
Placenta
changes and mother’s immune pathogens
system Some toxins can e.g. nicotine can
Secretes hormones pass across placenta
Amniotic sac Encloses amniotic fluid
Fluid surrounding fetus
Amniotic fluid
Protects from mechanical shock

What is a sexually transmitted infection?
• Infection transmitted by bodily fluids through sex
• E.g HIV
How is spread of STIs controlled?
• Individuals can use condoms, know partners sexual history and have medical checks
• Communities can offer testing
• Tracing sexual contacts to identify source
• Worldwide education programmes
• Providing antibiotics, vaccines and antiviral drugs
How is HIV transmitted?
• Unprotected sex with an infected person
• Contact with infected blood
• Mother to child
• Sharing syringes
How does HIV affect the body?
• Can lead to AIDS
• Affects immune system - reduces lymphocyte numbers
• Reduced ability to produce antibodies

B11. Inheritance
B11.1 Chromosomes and genes
What is inheritance?
• Transmission of genetic information down generations
What is a chromosome?
• Thread like structure of DNA
• Carries genetic information in the form of genes
What is a gene?
• Length of DNA that codes for a protein
What is an allele?
• Different form of the same gene which gives rise to different characteristics
How is sex inherited in humans?
• One sex chromosome inherited from each parent
• Inherit an X from the mother, and either X or Y from father
• Females are XX
• Males are XY
• 50:50 chance of being male or female
What is a haploid nucleus?

• Nucleus containing single set of unpaired chromosomes e.g. gametes
What is a diploid nucleus?

• Nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes e.g. in body cells
• One pair of each type of chromosome
• 23 pairs in a human
B11.2 Cell division
What is mitosis?
• Nuclear division producing genetically identical cells
• Needed in growth, repair and replacement of cells
• Cell division for asexual replication
How does mitosis happen?

• Chromosomes duplicate first
• Copies of chromosomes separate
• Chromosome number is maintained
What is meiosis?
• Nuclear division producing genetically different cells
• Involved in producing gametes
• Reduction division - chromosome number is halved (from diploid to haploid)
• Produces variation
o New combinations of maternal and paternal genes made

B11.3 Monohybrid inheritance
What is genotype?
• Genetic make up of an organism i.e. which alleles are present
What is phenotype?
• Observable features of the organism
Define homozygous
• Having two identical alleles of a gene
• Two homozygous parents will produce pure-bred offspring
Define heterozygous
• Having two different alleles of a gene
• A heterozygous individual cannot produce pure-bred offspring
Define dominant
• An allele that is expressed where it is present
Define recessive
• Allele only expressed when there is no dominant allele present
Common phenotypic ratios
• AbAB mother and AbAB father
• Possible offspring (punnet square)
Father
Ab AB
Ab AbAb (recessive) AbAB (dominant)

Mother
AB ABAb (dominant) ABAB (dominant)
• Outcome: 3:1 dominant to recessive
• AbAb mother and AbAB father
• Possible offspring (punnet square)
Father
Ab AB

Mother
• Outcome: 1:1 dominant to recessive

B11.4 Variation and selection
What is variation?
• Differences between individuals of same species
What is phenotypic variation?
• Different observed characteristics
• May have different genes
• Caused by genetic and environmental factors
What is genetic variation?
• Different genes between individuals
• May have the same phenotype
What is continuous variation?
• Range of phenotypes between two extremes e.g. height in humans
What is discontinuous variation?
• Limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates - e.g. tongue rolling
• Caused by genes alone e.g. A, B, AB, O blood groups
What is a mutation?
• Change in a gene or chromosome
How is rate of mutation increased?

• By ionising radiation
• Certain chemicals
Define an adaptive feature

• Inherited feature helping an organism to survive and reproduce
Define fitness
• Probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in their environment
What is natural selection?
• Variation naturally occurs within populations
• Many offspring produced
• Competition between members of same population for resources
• Struggle for survival
• Individuals that succeed reproduce
• Passing their alleles to next generation
Define evolution
• Change in adaptive features of a population over time
• Result of natural selection
• An example is bacterial resistance to antibiotics

o Variation within a population of bacterial cells may lead to some bacteria having a
mutation for resistance to a certain antibiotic
o If that antibiotic is then used, the bacteria containing the mutation will outcompete
those that don’t
o The bacteria with the mutation will therefore divide more, increasing their numbers
and multiplying the resistant alleles in the population
What is the process of adaptation?

• Process resulting from natural selection
• Populations become more suited to their environments
• Over many generations

What is selective breeding?
• Humans select individuals with desirable features
• These are crossed to produce next generation
• Offspring showing desirable traits are selected again
Artificial selection vs Natural selection

• Humans replace the environment in artificial selection
• Humans select individuals with most useful characteristics
• Humans allow only these to breed
• Examples are dairy cattle and domestic dog breeds
• Used to improve crops
• Carried out over many generations

B12. Organisms and their environment
What is the main energy source for biological systems?
• The sun
Define a food chain
• Shows transfer of energy from one organism to the next
• Begins with a producer
What is a food web?
• Network of interconnecting food chains
What is a producer?
• Organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight, through
photosynthesis  
What is a consumer?
• Organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms  
What is an herbivore?
• Animal that gets its energy from eating plants
What is a carnivore?
• Animal that gets energy by eating animals
What is a decomposer?
• Organism that gets energy from dead or waste organic materia
How is energy transferred in a food chain?
• Energy transferred by ingestion
• Producers make their own nutrients using sun’s energy
• Consumers feed on other organisms
• Primary, secondary and tertiary consumers classed by position in food chain
• Energy is transferred between trophic levels
• Sun’s energy fixed by producers
• Digestible plant matter consumed to give energy – 5-10% efficient
• Animal matter consumed as food gives 10-20% efficiency
Define trophic level

• Position of an organism in a food chain, web, pyramid of numbers or biomass
What are the trophic levels?

• Producers
• Primary consumers
• Secondary consumers
• Tertiary consumers
• Quaternary consumers
Why is energy transfer between trophic levels inefficient?

• Energy is lost at every step
• Respiration transfers energy to environment
• Energy lost as heat
Why are food chains usually less than 5 trophic levels?

• Too little energy left for upper levels to survive

B13. Human influences on ecosystems
Describe the carbon cycle
• CO2 converted to organic compounds during photosynthesis using light energy
• Respiration makes CO2 from organic compounds to produce energy
• Feeding transfers organic compounds in plants to animals
• Decomposers release CO2
• Combustion releases CO2 by burning of fossil fuels
• Fossilisation occurs where conditions prevent decomposers
• Fossilisation creates fossil fuels, this lowers the CO2 concentration in the environment
What is the effect of burning fossil fuels and cutting down forests?
• CO2 in fossil fuels and trees is released in to the atmosphere
• Levels of CO2 increase
• Leads to increased greenhouse gases and global warming
• Levels on O2 decrease
What are the negative effects of deforestation?
• Habitat destruction
• Extinction
• Soil loss
• Flooding
• Increased CO2 in atmosphere
• Climatic changes
Explain the effects of deforestation

• Trees contain up to 90% of the nutrients in a forest ecosystem - taken away if trees
removed
• Many species depend on trees, lose habitat and die
• Loss of soil structure from roots contributes to erosion
• No trees to absorb rainfall, causing flooding and landslips
• Fewer trees produce less CO2 and absorb less O2
• Reduced transpiration and drier atmosphere affects water cycle
• Bare soil absorbs heat and increases winds
Give the sources and effects of the following pollutants of water
Sources Effects
Chemical waste Oil spills Reduce oxygen on seabed
Harm seabirds
Discarded rubbish Human littering Block water passage
Eaten by animals
Untreated sewage Human sewage systems Depleted oxygen- death of
Slurry run off fish and invertebrates
Fertilisers Farming practices Depleted oxygen – death of
fish and invertebrates
Describe eutrophication
• Raw sewage and leaching of inorganic fertilisers - More nitrate and phosphate
• Increased growth of producers
• More decomposition when producers die so decomposition increases
• More anaerobic respiration from decomposers —> Less dissolved oxygen
• Organisms that need oxygen die

Chemistry
C1. The particulate nature of matter
Give the distinguishing properties and structures of solids, liquids and gases
Properties Structure
• Regular structure (lattice)
• Holds a fixed shape
Solid • Fixed particle positions
• Doesn’t flow
• Particles vibrate in position
• No lattice
• Flows easily
Liquid • Weaker forces between particles
• Fixed volume but shape changes

• Move freely, slide past each other
• No fixed volume or shape
• No forces between particles
Gas • Lighter than same volume of solid or

• Move quickly, can hit each other
liquid
What is melting?
• A solid is heated and turns to liquid
• Particles have more kinetic energy
• Substance expands as particles vibrate more
• Particles can break from fixed positions to move more freely
What is boiling?
• A liquid when heated turning to gas
• Particles have more kinetic energy
• Particles break away from position to escape from liquid
What is evaporation?
• Particles in liquid at different temperatures
• Some liquid turns to gas
• Some particles have enough kinetic energy to turn to gas
What is freezing?
• The opposite of melting
• Liquid turns solid
• Particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly
• Particles get closer together and forces of attraction take over
What is condensation?
• The opposite of evaporation
• Gas turns to liquid
• Particles lose energy and come closer together
• Forces of attraction take over and particles stay together
What is sublimation?
• Solid turns straight to gas
What is an atom?
• Smallest particle of an element
• Consists of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons
What is a molecule?
• Formed when two or more atoms join together by chemical bonds

What is an ion?
• A positively or negatively charged particle
• Formed when an atom loses or gains electrons
What is Brownian motion?
• Random movement of particles in suspension
• Causes random molecular bombardment
• Seen in air when dust dances
• Diffusion is evidence e.g. food smells spreading through air
What is diffusion?
• Movement of particles
• From an area of high concentration to low
• Rate of diffusion depends on molecular mass
• The lower the mass of its particles, the faster a gas diffuses

C2. Experimental techniques
C2.1 Measurement
Give the uses of the following pieces of common laboratory apparatus
Apparatus Purpose
Burette
Pipette
Measurement of volume
Measuring cylinder
Scales Mass
Stopwatch Time
Thermometer Temperature
C2.2 Criteria of purity
What is paper chromatography used for?
• To separate a mixture and identify its components
How to carry out chromatography:
• Use a pencil line as reference line (pencil doesn’t move)
• Add dots of ink
• Dip filter paper in water
• Furthest dot has the greatest solubility
How do you calculate the Rf value?

• Rf = distance travelled by component
distance travelled by solvent
Why is purity important?
• Prevent contamination
• Needed for food
• Safety of drugs
What can the melting and boiling point of a substance tell you?
• Mixtures of multiple solutions melt and boil over a range of temperatures
• Substances can be identified by comparing melting and boiling

• Pure substances will have a single melting point and boiling point
• Mixtures will melt and boil over a range of temperatures

C2.3 Methods of purification
Describe common methods of separation and purification
Method Purpose Description
• Separate solid from • Solid is caught by filter
Filtration
liquid • Liquid passes through
• Heat until saturated
• Separate solid
Crystallisation • Cool so crystals form
dissolved in liquid
• Filter solvent out
• For solids that don’t

• Keep heating solution
Evaporation crystallise, dissolved in

• Heat carefully until dry
liquids
• Heat solution in flask
• Extract solvent from • Solvent evaporates
Simple distillation
solution • Taken to condenser
• Purified solvent condenses
• Heat mixture in flask
Fractional • Separate mixture of

• Liquids have different boiling points
distillation
liquids
• Lower boiling point liquid turns to gas
e.g. petroleum, • Using fractionating

• Taken to condenser
ethanol column
• Liquid condenses
• Mixture placed in centre of paper
Paper • Separate mixture of

• Water dropped on top
chromatography substances
• Different substances diffuse at different rates

C3. Atoms, elements and compounds
C3.1 Physical and chemical changes
What is the difference between a chemical and a physical change?
• Physical changes don’t make new chemical substances
• Chemical changes take in or give out energy
• Chemical changes are harder to reverse
• Examples of physical changes: mixing, dissolving
• Example of chemical changes: burning gas
What happens when you heat hydrated copper (II) sulphate?

• Blue powder (copper (II) sulphate) turns white (anhydrous copper (II) sulphate)
What happens when you add water to anhydrous copper (II) sulphate?
• White powder (anhydrous copper (II) sulphate) gets hot and turns blue (copper (II) sulphate)
• By changing the reaction conditions the chemical reaction has been reversed
C3.2 Elements, compounds and mixtures
What is an element?
• Contains only one type of atom
What is a mixture?
• Contains more than one element or compound not bonded together
What is a compound?
• Made of atoms of different elements bonded together
Compare the properties of metals and non-metals
Metals Non-metals
On the left of the periodic table On the right of the periodic table
Good conductors of electricity and heat Do not conduct
High melting and boiling points Lower melting and boiling
Hard, strong, don’t shatter Shatter, brittle
High density, malleable and ductile Low density when solid
Form positive ions when they react Form negative ions
Oxides are bases (alkali) Oxides are acidic
Define ‘solvent’
• Liquid in which a solute dissolves
Define ‘solute’
• A solid which dissolves in a solvent
Define ‘solution’
• Mixture of a solute and a solvent
Define ‘concentration’
• A measure of the number of particles of the solute in the solvent
• A concentrated solution will have a large number of particles of the solute in the solvent
• A dilute solution will have a small number of particles of the solute in the solvent

C3.3 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
Describe the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus
• 1st shell can accept 2 electrons
• 2nd shell can accept 8
• Shells are filled from 1st shell outwards
• Number of outer shell electrons dictates properties of atom
• Noble gases have full outer shell and very stable
Give the relative charges and masses of a proton, neutron and an electron
Proton Neutron Electron
Relative charge 1 0 -1
Relative mass 1 1 1/1836
What is the proton number (atomic number) of an atom?
• Number of protons in nucleus of atom
Define nucleon number (mass number)?
• Total number of protons and neutrons in nucleus
How is the periodic table arranged?
• Arranged in order of proton number
• Period number (across) shows how many electron shells
• Group number (down) shows number of electrons in outer shell
What is an isotope?
• Atoms of same element with same proton number
• Different nucleon (mass) number
• Either radioactive or non-radioactive
• Isotopes of same element have same properties
o Have same number of electrons in outer shell
C3.4 Ions and ionic bonds
How is an ion made?
• By gain or loss of electrons
What is an ionic bond?

• When a metal and a non metal form an ionic compound
• Bond formed between ions of opposite charge
Example: Ionic bonding

How is an ionic bond made between elements in groups 1 and 7?
• Group 1 elements lose an electron to gain stable outer shell
o Become positively charged
• Group 7 elements gain electrons
o Become negatively charged
• Opposing charges attracted together to form bond
What is a lattice structure?

• Ionic compounds arranged regularly
• Alternating positive and negative charges
• Forms giant 3D structure
C3.5 Molecules and covalent bonds
How is a covalent bond made?
• Pairs of electrons are shared
• Giving noble gas configuration (full outer shell)
• Occurs in H2 Cl2 H2O NH3 HCl
Example: Covalent bonding
Describe electron arrangement in N2

• Nitrogen has 5 outer electrons
• Needs to share 3 more
• 3 pairs of electrons are shared in an N2 molecule
Compare ionic and covalent bonds
• Ionic compounds have higher melting and boiling points
• Ionic bonds are very strong, take a lot of heat to break bonds
• Ionic compound usually soluble in water
• Water molecules able to separate in to ions, making it soluble

• Ionic compounds conduct electricity when melted or dissolved
• Ions free to move so can conduct electricity
• Covalent compounds are more volatile
C3.6 Macromolecules
Describe a giant covalent compound
• A macromolecule
• All atoms held together with covalent bonds
Name two different forms of carbon
• Diamond

• Graphite
Describe the structure of graphite
• Giant covalent structure
• Each carbon atom joint to 3 other carbon atoms
• By covalent bonds
• Carbon atoms from hexagonal, layered structure
• Weak intermolecular forces between layers
• Free (delocalised) electrons
Describe the structure of diamond
• Giant covalent structure
• Each carbon atom joint to 4 other carbon atoms
• By covalent bonds
• Carbon atoms from regular tetrahedral structure
• No free electrons
Describe the structure of silicon (IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)

• Each silicon atom bonds covalently to 4 oxygen atoms
• Each oxygen atom bonds to 2 silicon atoms
• Giant structure
What are the similarities between diamond and graphite?

• Very high melting point
• Hard structure
• Both are giant covalent macromolecules
• Each atom held in place by covalent bonds
Relate the structure of graphite to its uses

• Lubricant and conductor
• Formed of sheets - slide over each other easily (lubricant)
• Free electron per atom so carries charge (conducts)
Relate use of diamond to structure

• Used for cutting tools
• Hardest substance on earth
• Every atom bonded to surrounding atoms by four strong covalent bonds
• No free electrons and no ions

C4. Stoichiometry
C4.1 Stoichiometry
Write the formula for water
• H2O
Write the balanced equation for Hydrogen and Oxygen forming water
• 2H2 + O2 —> 2H2O
What is the formula for a compound made of Cl- and Ca2+

• CaCl2
Calcium is a solid, Cl2 is a gas and they react to make calcium chloride, a solid. Write the equation
• Ca(s) + Cl2(g) —> CaCl2(s)
What are the state symbols?

• Gas = (g)
• Liquid = (l)
• Solid = (s)
• Aqueous/in water = (aq)
How do you balance an equation?

• The same number of atoms of each element both sides
• To multiply the number of atoms, place a number in front of the element
Define relative atomic mass (Ar)

• Average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element
• On a scale where 12 C has mass 12
Define relative molecular mass (Mr)

• Sum of relative atomic masses
C4.2 The mole
Define the mole

• Amount of a substance that contains same number of units as the number of carbon atoms
in 12g of carbon-12
What is the Avogadro constant?

• The number of elements/molecules in a mole
• 6.02 x 1023
How do you calculate the number of moles in a given mass?

• Number of moles = mass / mass of 1 mole (Mr)
What volume does 0.5 moles of a gas occupy at RTP?

• 1 mole takes up 24 dm3
• So 0.5 x 24 = 12 dm3
What is an empirical formula?

• A formula that gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound

Example questions using moles, mass and Mr
1. Find the Mr of MgCO3

=24+12+(3x16)
= 84
2. Find the mass of 0.2 moles of CaCO3

mass = Mr x moles
mass = 0.2 x (40+12+(3x16)
=20g
3. Find the number of moles in 54g of H2O

number of moles = Mass/Mr
moles = 54/18
moles = 3
4. Find the empirical formula of a compound which contained 5.85g K, 2.10g N and 4.8g O
K N O
Mass 5.85 2.1 4.8
Mr 39 14 16
Moles 0.15 0.15 0.3
divide by smallest 0.15/0.15 = 1 0.15/0.15 = 1 0.3/0.15 = 2

number
ratio 1 1 2
Answer = KNO2

C5. Electricity and chemistry
Define electrolysis
• Breakdown of a molten or aqueous ionic compound by electricity
Common electrolysis experiments:
Compound Product at anode Product at cathode Observations

(+) (-)
Molten lead (II) bromide Bromine Lead Lead collects on
cathode and drips off
Bromine gas at anode

bubbles off
Concentrated aqueous Chlorine Hydrogen Hydrogen and chlorine
sodium chloride gas bubbles off
Dilute sulphuric acid Oxygen Hydrogen Hydrogen and oxygen
gas bubble off
Describe the principles of electrolysis

• Metals or hydrogen are formed at negative electrode (cathode)
• Non metals are formed at positive electrode (anode)
• Metal ions receive electrons (reduced) at cathode
• The non metal loses electrons (oxidised) at the anode

• Overall is a redox reaction – reduction at cathode, oxidation at anode
Remember OIL RIG!

• Oxidation Is Loss
• Reduction is Gain
• (of electrons)
What would the electrolysis products from CaF2 (calcium fluoride)

• Fluorine gas at anode
• Calcium at cathode
Describe the process of electroplating using a metal
• Use the metal as anode
• Item to be plated used as cathode
• Electrolyte is solution of soluble compound of the metal
• Metal ions reduced at cathode
• Cathode is plated with metal
List uses for electroplating
• Coating steel cans with tin
• Coating steel car bumpers with chromium
• Coating jewellery with silver
Relate electrolysis to copper refining

• Anode of impure copper
• Electrolyte is copper (II) sulphate
• Cathode is pure copper
• Copper ions in solution reduced at cathode
• Copper from impure anode dissolves to replenish solution
• Impurities from anode drop to bottom

What happens to copper (II) sulphate with inert electrodes?
• Copper ions reduced at cathode
• Cathode becomes coated with copper
• Solution loses blue colour as copper ions reduced
What is a half equation?

• The reaction that occurs at each electrode
What are the half equations for electrolysis of molten lead bromide?
• Cathode: Pb2+ + 2e- —> Pb
• Anode: 2Br- —> Br2 + 2e-
List the uses of common metals and insulators

Material Use Reason
Copper Electric wiring- at home, in cars Very good conductor
Steel cored aluminium Electric cables – around the country Very good conductor, very
strong
Plastics Insulation around electric Insulator
components – plugs, casings
Ceramics Discs to support large electric cables Insulator, tough
Outline manufacture of aluminium oxide

• Aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite
• Cryolite has a lower melting point
• Ore/cryolite at 950 C
• Inert carbon electrodes
• Cathode: 4Al3+ + 12e- —> 4Al (reduction)
• Anode: 6O2- —> 3O2 + 12e-
Outline manufacture of chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide from NaCl

• Concentrated aqueous sodium chloride used (brine)
• Chlorine gas made at anode: 2Cl- —> Cl2 +2e-
• Hydrogen gas made at cathode: 2H+ + 2e- —> H2
• Na+ and OH- left in solution – sodium hydroxide solution
• Sodium hydroxide solid extracted by evaporation 

C6. Chemical energetics
What does exothermic mean?
• A reaction that causes release of heat energy
• Bond forming is exothermic
What does endothermic mean?
• Reaction uses heat
• Bond breaking is endothermic
e.g. CH4 + 2O2 —> CO2 + 2H2O forward reaction exothermic
• More energy released by making bonds made than energy used to break bonds S
Draw and label an energy level diagram for an exothermic reaction
Activation energy
Reactants
Products
Draw and label an energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction
Activation energy
Products
Reactants

C7. Chemical reactions
Describe a practical method for investigating the rate of a reaction which produces a gas
• Gas can be collected in a gas syringe attached to a flask
• As gas is produced, the syringe will be pushed back
• Amount of gas produced can be recorded using the volume markers on the syringe
• Use stopwatch to measure the time it takes to produce the gas
• Rate of reaction = volume of gas produced ÷ time
Describe the effect of concentration, particle size, catalysts and temperature on the rate of
reactions
Effect on rate of Explanation using

Factor Explanation
reaction collision theory
Increasing Higher concentration Increased collision rate

Concentration concentration of = more particles to More particles in a given
reactant increases rate react area more likely to collide
Smaller particle sizes More surface area

Particle size
create faster reactions available to react
Catalysts let reaction

Adding catalyst
Catalysts happen in way that
increases rate
uses less energy
Increased collision rate

Molecules have more
kinetic energy so move
Increased temperature Particles move faster, faster
Temperature
increases rate have more energy More molecules have
enough energy (exceed
the activation energy) to
react
Investigate effect of different variables on rate of reaction

• Take a chemical reaction e.g. HCl reacting with zinc
• Keep 3 variables the same e.g. particle size, temperature, catalyst
• Alter the 4th variable e.g. concentration of HCl
• Measure speed of reaction by measuring volume of gas produced
Why are fine powders an explosion risk in industry?
• E.g. In flour mills
• Flour particles are very small – very large surface area
• Flour particles flammable
• Rate of reaction if catch fire is dangerously fast
Why are gases an explosion risk in coal mines?
• Methane and flammable gases in air
• Form explosive mix in air
• Spark can ignite a dangerously fast reaction

C7.2 Redox
Define oxidation
• Loss of electrons
• Oxidation state used to name ions e.g. copper (II) sulphate
Define Reduction
• Gain of electrons
• Lowers oxidation state
Define redox reaction

• Electron transfer between molecules
• Combination of reduction and oxidation
• If oxidation states change during a reaction, it is a redox reaction
Define oxidising agent

• Substances which oxidises another during redox reaction
Define reducing agent

• Substance that reduces another during redox reaction

C8. Acids, bases and salts
C8.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases
What are characteristic properties of acids?
• Turns litmus paper red
• React with metals to make a salt and hydrogen
• React with bases to make a salt and water
• React with carbonates to make a salt, water and carbon dioxide
• Turns methyl orange red
• Donates protons in aqueous solution
What are characteristic properties of bases?
• Turns litmus paper blue
• Turns methyl orange yellow
• React with acids to make a salt and water
• React with ammonium salts to drive out ammonia
• An alkali is a soluble base
• Accept protons in aqueous solution
How is acidity and alkalinity measured?
• pH scale
• Neutral is pH7
• Acids have pH less than 7
• Bases have pH greater 7
• Universal indicator paper shows pH through colour
Why is soil pH important?
• Crops grow best when soil pH close to 7
• Acidic soil makes crops grow badly / not at all
• Soil can be treated with alkali to increase the pH
C8.2 Types of oxides
What is an acidic oxide?
• In general non metals react with oxygen to make acidic oxides
• E.g. carbon burns in oxygen to make carbon dioxide
• Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to make carbonic acid
What is a basic oxide?
• Most metals react with oxygen to make basic oxides
• Basic oxides can neutralise acid
• E.g. copper (II) oxide
What is an amphoteric oxide?

• Can be both acidic and basic
• Will react with both acids and bases
• E.g. aluminium oxide
What is a neutral oxide?

• Is neither acidic nor basic
• Will not react with either acid or base
• E.g. carbon monoxide

C8.2 Preparation of salts
How is a salt made?
• Mixing acid with either metals, soluble or insoluble bases or carbonates
Metal + acid —> salt + hydrogen
• E.g. magnesium + hydrochloric acid —> magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Metal hydroxide + acid —> salt + water
• E.g. Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid --> sodium chloride + water
Metal oxide + acid —> salt + water
• E.g. magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid —> magnesium chloride + water
Metal carbonate + acid —> salt + water + carbon dioxide
• E.g. potassium carbonate + nitric acid —> potassium nitrate + water + CO2
Making salts table
Example process Examples

Metal Dissolve metal in dilute acid
Magnesium
Remove excess by filtering

Aluminium
Evaporate and cool to crystallise Zinc
Iron
Insoluble base Add to dilute acid and heat

Copper (II) oxide
Keep adding base until no more dissolves

Copper (II) carbonate
Evaporate and cool to crystallise
Soluble base Mix two solutions together

Sodium hydroxide
Determine where neutral is by titration

Potassium hydroxide
Use indicator to show where neutral is

ammonia
Evaporate and cool to crystallise
How do you make insoluble salts?

• By precipitation
• Some ions are spectators – do not take part
• Two solutions mixed together
• Insoluble salt forms as precipitate
• Use filtration to separate from solution

C8.4 Identification of ions and gases
What tests are used to identify aqueous cations?
Ion Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Add aqueous ammonia
Aluminium White precipitate forms

White precipitate forms
Precipitate dissolves if more added Adding more has no effect

Ammonium Ammonia gas given off No reaction
Calcium White precipitate forms
No precipitate, or very slight white one
Adding more has no effect
Copper (II) Pale blue precipitate
Pale blue precipitate
Adding more has no effect Dissolves if add more- deep blue

solution
Iron (II) Pale green precipitate Pale green precipitate
Iron (III) Red-brown precipitate Red-brown precipitate
Zinc White precipitate
White precipitate
Dissolves if add more Dissolves if add more
What is the flame test?
• Used to determine non-aqueous cations
• Burn solid salt in blue flame
• Lithium ion burns red
• Sodium ion burns yellow
• Potassium ion burns lilac
• Copper (II) ion burns blue-green
How do you detect anions?
Ions Test Result

Halides (e.g. chloride, Equal volume dilute nitric acid
White = chloride
bromide) Add aqueous silver nitrate Cream = bromide
Sulfate (SO42-) Equal volume dilute HCl

If sulphate present – white
Add barium nitrate precipitate forms
Nitrate (NO3-) Add small amount dilute sodium Ammonia gas given off if nitrate
hydroxide
present
Add aluminium foil
Heat gently
Carbonate ions (CO32-) Add dilute HCl then limewater Mixture bubbles and gives off CO2
CO2 turns limewater milky
How do you identify ammonia gas?
• Colourless alkaline gas
• Strong smell
• Hold damp red litmus paper in gas
• Paper turns blue
How do you identify carbon dioxide?
• Bubble through limewater
• Limewater turns milky

How do you identify chlorine gas?
• Green poisonous gas
• Hold damp indicator paper in gas (use fume cupboard!)
• Paper turns white
How do you identify hydrogen gas?
• Colourless gas, reacts violently with oxygen when lit
• Collect gas in tube, hold lighted split to it
• Burns with squeaky pop
How do you identify oxygen?
• Colourless gas
• Collect gas in tube
• Hold glowing splint to it
• Splint re ignites

C9. The periodic table
C9.1 The periodic table
What is the periodic table?
• Method of classifying elements
• Can be used to predict properties of elements
C9.2 Periodic trends
Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic elements across a period
• Metals lie to the left
• Non metals lie on the right
• Transition elements are in the middle
What is valency?
• Valency = number of outer shell electrons
How does group number relate to the element’s character?

• All elements in the same group have same valency
• Elements with same group share similar characteristics
• Number of outer shell electrons dictates whether metallic or non metallic
C9.3 Group properties
Describe elements in group I
• Contains lithium, sodium and potassium
• Alkali metals
• Soft metals - increasing softness down the group
• Density increases down the group
• Melting point decreases down the group
• Rate of reaction with water increases down the group
Describe the elements in group VII
• Halogens – e.g. chlorine, bromine, iodine
• Diatomic non-metals
• Trend in colour – gets deeper down group
• Melting point increases down the group (fluorine = gas, iodine = solid at room temp)
• Reactivity decreases down the group - more reactive halogens will displace a less reactive
halogen from a solution of halide
C9.4 Transition elements
What are the transition elements?
• Metals with high densities, high melting points
• Form coloured compounds
• Often act as catalysts
C9.5 Noble gases
What are the noble gases (Group VIII / 0)?
• Unreactive gases
• Monoatomic
• Have full outer shell of electrons (no need to gain or lose electrons)
What are noble gases used for?
• Argon in lamps
• Helium in balloons  

C10. Metals
C10.1 Properties of metals
What are the general physical properties of metals?
• Malleable
• Conduct electricity and heat
• High melting points
• High density
Describe metallic bonding

• Lattice of positive ions
• In a ‘sea of electrons’
Why are metals malleable and able to conduct electric current?

• Layers of ions can slide over one another
• Electrons free to move so can carry current
What is an alloy (e.g. brass)?
• Mixture of a metal with other elements
Why are alloys used instead of pure metals?
• Alloy = mixture of metal with small amounts of other substances
• Improve properties of original
How can properties of iron be changed?

• Controlled use of additives
• Form different steel alloys with different properties
• Depending on requirements
How are the properties of iron changed by the controlled use of additives?
• Stainless steel = carbon, chromium and nickel mixed with iron
o Hard and rustproof
• Mild steel = low levels of carbon mixed with iron
o Tough, ductile, malleable, good tensile strength

C10.2 Reactivity series
The reactivity series (reactivity decreases downwards)
Metal Reaction with water / steam Reaction with HCl
Potassium Very violent with water Explosively fast
Sodium Violent with water Explosively fast
Calcium Less violent with cold water Very vigorous

Magnesium Very slow with cold water, Vigorous
vigorous with steam
Aluminium Very slow with cold water, quite Quite vigorous
vigorous with steam
(Carbon)
Zinc Quite slow with steam Quite slow
Iron Slow with steam Slow
(Hydrogen) Slow, only if acid concentrated

Copper No reaction No reaction
How does reaction with carbon show reactivity?
• Carbon is more reactive than some metals
• Carbon reduces their oxides to the metal
How does reaction with another metal oxide show reactivity?

• If more reactive, the metal reacts with oxygen to form oxide
• A metal will reduce the oxide of a less reactive metal
How does reaction with ions of other metals in solution show reactivity?
• A metal displaces a less reactive metal
• From solutions of its compounds
C10.3 Extraction of metals and their ores
How are different metals extracted from their ores?
• Most reactive metals extracted by electrolysis
• Least reactive metals occur naturally as pure element
• Metals in the mid range can be heated with carbon or carbon monoxide
• Carbon reacts with oxides of metal less reactive than itself, leaving metal
What are the essential reactions to extract iron from hematite?

• C + O2 —> CO2 produces heat
• C + CO2 —> 2CO makes carbon monoxide
• Fe2O3 + 3CO —> 2Fe + 3CO2 iron oxide reduced to iron
• CaCO3 —> CaO + CO2 limestone produces calcium oxide to remove sand from ore
• CaO + SiO2 —> CaSiO3 calcium silicate floats on iron – molten slag

How is aluminium extracted?
• From bauxite ore
• By electrolysis
What are advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals?
Metal Advantages Disadvantages

Iron/steel Can be recycled as new steel
Aluminium New aluminium expensive to extract Many different alloys, difficult to recycle
Why do we need to recycle metals?
• Metal ores are finite resources
• Will eventually run out
C10.4 Uses of metals
What is aluminium used for?
• Aircraft manufacture due to strength and low density
• Food containers due to corrosion resistance, non toxic
Why is aluminium apparently unreactive?

• Reacts rapidly with oxygen
• Thin coat of aluminium oxide
• Forms a barrier against further corrosion
What is mild steel used for?
• Car bodies
• Machinery
What is stainless steel used for?
• Chemical plant
• Cutlery
What is zinc used for?

• Galvanising – coating iron to protect from corrosion
• Making brass – as alloy with copper. Is hard, strong and shiny
• Brass used for door locks, keys, musical instruments

C11. Air and water
C11.1 Water
What are the chemical tests for water?
• Turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue
• Turns blue cobalt (II) chloride paper pink
• Both changes can be reversed by heating
How is water supply treated?
• Find a clean source, screen used to trap large particles
• Coagulant added to make particles stick together
• Flotation tanks make particles float so can be skimmed off
• Filtered to remove smaller particles and smells
• Chlorine added to kill bacteria
• Stored
What is water used for?
• Home use – drinking, cooking, washing
• Farms – animals and watering crops
• Power stations – heated to make steam to drive turbines
• Industry – solvent, washing, cooling hot reaction tanks
C11.2 Air
What is the composition of air?
• Approx. 78% nitrogen
• 21% Oxygen
• Remainder is mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide
What are common air pollutants?
Pollutant Source Effect

Carbon monoxide
Incomplete combustion of carbon Poisoning – death from
oxygen starvation
Sulphur dioxide
Sulfur-containing fossil fuel Respiratory problems
combustion Acid rain

Oxides of nitrogen
Car engines Respiratory problems
Acid rain
Why is acid rain a concern?
• Destruction to buildings
• Erodes stone
• Damages forests
How can sulfur dioxide emissions be reduced?

• Use low sulfur petrol
• Remove it from waste gases at power plants using calcium oxide (flue gas desulfurisation)
What happens to nitrogen monoxide and carbon monoxide from car engines?
• Produced when petrol burned
• Reduced in catalytic converter by passing exhaust emissions over hot catalyst
• Examples:
o 2CO + O2 —> 2CO2
o 2NO + 2CO —> N2 + 2CO2
o 2NO —> N2 + O2

What conditions cause iron to rust?
• Oxygen
• Water
• Salt speeds up the process
How can rusting be prevented?
• Keep oxygen out with paint
• Grease
• Coat with another metal e.g. galvanising
• Sacrificial protection
Describe and explain sacrificial protection

• More reactive metal attached to metal to be protected
• More reactive metal oxidises preferentially
Describe and explain galvanising

• Coat a metal with zinc
• Resists corrosion so prevents rusting
• Offers sacrificial protection if coating cracks
C11.3 Carbon dioxide and methane
How is carbon dioxide formed?
• Product of complete combustion of carbon containing substances
• Product of respiration
• Product of reaction between acid and carbonate
• Thermal decomposition of a carbonate
What are greenhouse gases?
• Carbon dioxide and methane
• Can contribute to climate change
• Increase amount of reflected sunlight within the atmosphere, warming the planet
Name two sources of methane
• Decomposition of vegetation
• Waste gases from animal digestion
C11.4 Nitrogen and fertilisers
Why is nitrogen needed in fertilisers?
• Plants require it to produce chlorophyll and proteins
Why is phosphorous needed in fertilisers?
• Root growth
• Ripening of crops
Why is potassium needed in fertilisers?
• Produce proteins
• Disease resistance
How is ammonia displaced from its salts?
• Heat any ammonia compound
• With a strong base
• Base displaces ammonia from compound

What are the essential conditions for ammonia manufacture (in the Haber process)?
• Nitrogen from air
• Hydrogen from cracking hydrocarbons or reacting methane with steam
• Reversible reaction so yield can be altered
• Pressure at 200 atm for good yield but safe conditions
• Iron catalyst – speeds up rate, doesn’t increase yield
• 450 celsius high enough for good rate, low enough for good yield

C12. Sulfur
List the uses of sulfur
• Manufacture of sulfuric acid
• Vulcanising (toughening) rubber
• In dyes, cosmetics, dugs, pesticides, matches, shampoo, lotions
• Added to cement to make sulfur concrete – acid resistant
• Bleach for wood pulp to make paper
• Food preservative (by killing bacteria)
How is sulfuric acid manufactured?

• By the contact process
• Using sulfur (OR sulfur dioxide), air and water
• Sulfur burned in oxygen S + O2 —> SO2
• Mixed with more air
• Passed over catalyst vanadium (V) oxide at 450 degrees
o Makes sulfur trioxide 2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (reversible)
• Dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid to form thick fuming liquid (oleum)
o H2SO4 + SO3 —> H2S2O7
• Mixed with water to form concentrated sulfuric acid
o H2S2O7 + H2O —> 2H2SO4
C13. Carbonates
How is lime (calcium oxide) manufactured?
• Limestone (calcium carbonate) heated
• CaCO3 —> CaO + CO2
• Called thermal decomposition
• Reversible reaction
List the uses of lime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
• Neutralise acidity in lakes and soils
• Remove sulphur from waste gases at power plants (flue gas desulfurisation)
• Ca(OH)2 + SO2 —> CaSO3 + H2O
List the uses of calcium carbonate
• Making iron by reacting with sand in iron ore to make slag
• Mixed with clay, heated and ground to make cement

C14. Organic chemistry
C14.1 Names of compounds
Name beginning Number of carbons

meth- 1
eth- 2
prop- 3
but- 4
Name ending Type of molecule

-ane Alkane
-ene Alkene
-ol Alcohol
Draw the structure of basic alkanes

Alkanes. Number
Name Displayed Formula
of Carbon Atoms
1 methane
2 ethane
3 propane
4 butane
Draw the structure of basic alkenes

Alkenes. Number
Name Displayed Formula
of Carbon Atoms
1 n/a
2 ethene
3 propene
4 butene

Draw the structure of basic alcohols
Alcohols. Number of Displayed

Name
Carbon Atoms Formula
1 methanol
2 ethanol
C14.2 Fuels
Name the fossil fuels
• Coal
• Natural gas
• Petroleum
• All produce carbon dioxide on combustion
What is the main part of natural gas?
• Methane
What is petroleum?
• Mixture of hydrocarbons
• Can be separated by fractional distillation
Name the fractions of petroleum
• Refinery gas for cooking and heating
• Gasoline/petrol for cars
• Naptha for making chemicals
• Parrafin for jet fuel
• Diesel oil/gas for diesel engines
• Bitumen for road making
What happens to the properties of the fractions as molecules get larger?

• Boiling points increase
• Viscosity increases
• Become less flammable
C14.3 Homologous series
What is a homologous series?

• Family of similar compounds
• Similar chemical properties
• Same functional group
• Have same general formula

C14.4 Alkanes
What is an alkane?
• Hydrocarbon containing carbon-carbon single covalent bonds
• Names end in –ane (e.g. ethane)
• General formula CnH2n+2
What are the properties of alkanes?
• Boiling point increases with chain length
• Saturated = all single bonds
• Generally unreactive, except for burning
• Used as fuels, burn easily in oxygen releasing heat
• Produce carbon monoxide when burned without enough oxygen
What is produced when a hydrocarbon undergoes complete combustion?
• Carbon dioxide and water
o E.g. 2C2H6 + 7O2 —> 4CO2 + 6H2O
C14.5 Alkenes
What is an alkene?
• Hydrocarbon containing carbon-carbon double covalent bonds
• Names end in –ene ( e.g. ethene)
• Double bond is functional group
What are the properties of alkenes?
• Can be manufactured by cracking
• Are unsaturated due to double bonds
• More reactive than alkanes
What is cracking?
• Formation of smaller alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen from the breakdown of large alkane
molecules
• E.g. ethane —> ethene + hydrogen

• Requires high temperatures (450C - 750C) and pressures (70 atm)
What is a test for unsaturation?
• Add bromine water (orange)
• If a C=C bond is present, turns colourless
Describe the reactivity of alkenes

• More reactive than alkanes due to double bond
• Undergo addition reactions
• Double bond breaks and atoms can be added
• Addition reaction turns unsaturated alkene in to saturated compound
How do alkenes react with bromine?

• Addition reaction
How do alkenes react with hydrogen?

How do alkenes react with steam (water)


C14.6 Alcohols
What is an alcohol?
• Contain an –OH group
• -OH is the functional group
• Names end in –ol (e.g. ethanol)
• Is not a hydrocarbon
How is ethanol manufactured?
• By fermentation using yeast (anaerobic respiration)
• By hydration of ethene through addition reaction (reacting ethene and steam)
Compare manufacture methods of ethanol

• Fermentation uses renewable resources
• But needs a lot of material and is slow
• Fermentation requires fractional distillation to separate
• Hydration is fast and can run continuously
• Hydration produces pure ethanol
• But uses ethene from oil – non renewable
Give the word and symbol equation for the complete combustion of ethanol
• Ethanol + oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water
• C2H5OH + 3O2 —> 2CO2 + 3H2O
What is ethanol used for?
• Solvent e.g. for glues, perfumes, inks
• Fuel e.g. for car engines
C14.7 Polymers
What is a polymer?
• Large molecule built up from small units (monomers)
• Different polymers have different units and/or linkages
C14.8 Synthetic polymers
Describe addition polymerisation
• Addition reactions of alkenes
• Add on to each other
• Make carbon compounds with very long chains
How is poly(ethene) made?
• Example of addition polymerisation
• Ethene molecules are monomers
• Undergo addition reaction to make a polymer
How to deduce a monomer from an addition polymer

• Identify the repeating unit with two carbon atoms side by side
• Draw the unit out separately
• Place a double bond between the carbon atoms
• This is the monomer

Describe the difference between condensation and addition polymerisation
Condensation Addition
Two types, not with C=C

Starting monomers One type with C=C bonds
bonds
Between functional groups at

Bond made C-C between monomers
each end of molecule
Products of reaction Polymer and one another Polymer only
How is Nylon made?

• Condensation polymerisation
• One monomer has an NH2 group at each end
• One monomer has a COOH group at each end
• The N atom and the C atom form an amide bond at one end each
• H2O is eliminated
• The reaction then occurs at the other end of each molecule
• Forming a polymer – a polyamide

Physics
Units and symbols

Table courtesy of CIE IGCSE (9-1) Co-ordinated Sciences Syllabus 0973

P1. Motion
P1.1 Length and time
How is volume measured?
• Using a measuring cylinder
• Fill with liquid and read volume off scale
How is length measured?
• Use a rule for lengths from millimetres to a metre
• A micrometer screw gauge measures very small distances
How can an interval of time be measured?
• Clock, stop-clock or stopwatch
o Analogue with a hand moving around a circular scale
o Digital with numbers displayed on a screen
Calculate the average value of a short distance (e.g. the distance a javelin is thrown)
• Measure the distance multiple times (n times)
• Add all results together
• Divide the total by n
Calculate the average of a period of time (e.g. time it takes to run 100m)
• Measure the time multiple times (n times)
• Add the times together
• Divide the total by n
Calculate the period of a pendulum
• Measure the time taken for n swings
• Divide the time taken by n
P1.2 Motion
Define speed
• Distance moved in a given timeframe
• Average speed = distance travelled
time taken
What is velocity?
• The speed of something in a given direction of travel
• A vector (has direction and magnitude)
Define acceleration
• Change in velocity
What is the formula for calculating acceleration?

• Average acceleration = change in velocity
time taken
How can distance travelled be measured from a speed/time graph?
• Calculate the area under the line
How do you find acceleration on a speed-time graph?

• Calculate gradient
What is deceleration?
• A decrease in speed

What shape will a speed-time graph be when an object is:
• At rest?
o Horizontal along the x axis
• Moving with constant speed?
o Horizontal at any point above the x axis
• Moving with changing speed?
o Positive gradient (acceleration) or negative gradient (deceleration)
What is free fall?
• Objects falling towards earth due to gravity
• Acceleration of free fall is measured in g
• The acceleration is constant
P1.3 Mass and weight
What is mass?
• A fixed measurement for any object
• Measured in grams (g) and kilograms (Kg)
What is weight?
• A gravitational force
• Measured in Newtons (N)
• Depends on strength of gravitational field
• The effect of a gravitational field on a mass
What is the equation for calculating weight?
• Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
• W = m x g
How can weights (and hence masses) be compared?
• Using a balance
P1.4 Density
How is density measured?
• Density is mass per volume: kg/m3 or g/cm3
• Calculated as density = mass / volume
• p = m/V
How can density of a liquid be measured?
• Measure the volume with a measuring cylinder or similar
• Measure the mass
• Use the formula p = m / V
• Remember to include units in answer
Example: 100l (0.1m3) of a liquid has mass 25kg, what is the density?
• Density = mass / volume
• Density = 25/0.1 = 250 kg/m3
How can the density of a solid with a regular shape be measured?
• Calculate the volume (length x width x depth)
• Measure the mass
• Use the formula p =m / V
Example: a solid has mass 4 kg and its volume is 1m2, what is its density?
• Density = mass / volume
• Density = 4 / 1
• = 4 kg/m3

How can the density of an irregularly shaped solid be calculated?
• Place the object in a container of water
• Use the amount of water displaced to calculate the volume of the object
• Measure the mass of the solid
• Use the formula p = m / V
P1.5 Forces
P1.5.1 Effects of forces
Describe the effect of forces on a body
• A force applied to a body may cause a change in its size and shape
What is Hooke’s law?

• The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied
• Provided its limit of proportionality is not exceeded
Define elastic behaviour

• The ability of a material to revert to its original shape after the forces causing deformation
have been removed
What happens if elastic limit is exceeded?

• Material will no longer revert to original shape after the forces have been removed
How you would plot and interpret an extension-load graph?

• A spring is stretched by a hanging load with the other end fixed
• A 100g mass will equate to a force of 1N
• Each additional 1N applied will produce the same extension again
Describe and explain the shape of an extension-load graph

• The line is straight and passes through the origin
• Load is proportional to extension
• Extension divided by load is always the same value
• This value is called the spring constant (k)
• Load (F) = spring constant (k) x extension (x)
• The point this is no longer true is known as the ‘limit of proportionality’
• Beyond this point the elastic limit has been exceeded, and the spring will not return to its
original shape
How might an external force change the motion of a body?
• It may change its velocity (either it’s direction or speed)
How to calculate resultant force acting along a line
• Add up all forces acting in useful direction
• Subtract all forces acting in the opposite direction
If the resultant force is zero, what change would you expect to see on the object?
• If the resultant force is zero —> no overall force acting on the object
o If stationary it will remain stationary
o If moving it will maintain its velocity (direction and speed)
What is the relationship between force, mass and acceleration?

• Force = mass x acceleration
• F=mxa

E.g. If a ball is thrown with a force of 6N and has a mass of 3kg, what is its acceleration?
• Force (F) = Mass (m) x Acceleration (a)
• So a = F/m
• a = 6/3 = 2m/s2 (NOTE THE UNITS!)
Describe the force of friction
• Force between 2 surfaces that they exert against each other
• If one of those surfaces is the air then the friction is called ‘air resistance’
What effects will friction have?
• Impede movement of the 2 surfaces past each other
• Generates heat if the surfaces are moving
P1.5.2 Turning effect
What is a moment?
• The turning effect of a force
• Moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot (fulcrum)
How would you increase a turning force (moment)? Give everyday examples
• Increase distance
• Increase force
o E.g. Using a longer spanner will increase the turning force on a nut
o E.g. Using a long lever to lift a heavy object the other side of the pivot (fulcrum)
Example: A crane lifts a beam weighing 1000N at a distance of 40m in front of it. What force is
required on the counter balance 10m behind the crane to keep it in balance?
• Moment of the weight being lifted = 1000 x 40
• = 40,000Nm
• The same moment is needed the other side
• Moment = force x distance from pivot
• Force = moment / distance from pivot
• F = 40,000Nm/10m = 4000N
If the forces acting on an object are equal in all directions with no turning force what does this
mean?
• There will be no resultant forces
• The system will be in equilibrium
• A plank in balance over its pivot point would show a system in equilibrium
• Clockwise moment = counter-clockwise moment
P1.5.3 Centre of mass
Define ‘centre of mass’
• The point where the mass appears to be concentrated
How would you find the centre of mass of a plane lamina?
• Hang the lamina freely from a pin
• Centre of mass will hang directly under the pin
• Draw a line vertically from the pin, the centre of mass is along this line
• Repeat the above steps from a different edge
• Where the 2 lines intersect is the centre of mass
What is the relationship between the centre of mass and an object’s stability?
• If centre of mass is over the base an object will be stable
• If centre of mass passes outside of the base an object will be unstable
• Objects with a low centre of mass and wide base are more stable

1.5.4 Pressure
What is the relationship between force, area and pressure?
• A force applied at right angles to a surface will be spread evenly across it
• The same force on a small area will have higher pressure
• The same force applied to a larger area will have lower pressure
Give examples of this relationship
• Studs in a football boot sinking into the ground while a trainer does not
• Wall foundations giving a wide base to stop the wall sinking into the ground
• A drawing pin with a wide top but very thin tip applies enough pressure to be pushed into
a wooden board
What is the equation for pressure?

• pressure = Force
Area
• p = F/A
How would you calculate the pressure an object applies to the ground?
• A 1N force applied to an area of 1m = 1N/m2
• = 1 pascal (Pa)

P2. Work, energy and power
P2.1 Work
What is meant (in scientific terms) by ‘work done’?
• Work is a measure of a force moving an object in a given direction
How would you calculate work done?

• Work done (W) = force (F) x distance moved (d)
• Work done is also equivalent to the change in energy
• W = Fd = ΔE
P2.2 Energy
What is the relationship between work done and energy transferred?
• Whenever work is done, energy is transferred
• Work done = energy transferred
o E.g. Potential energy might do work sliding a brick across the ground
o Due to friction this kinetic energy dissipates as sound and heat
o The loss of energy means the brick stops moving
o Potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy, which is transformed to sound
and thermal energy
Outline the types of energy that an object may posses
• Kinetic
• Gravitational potential
• Elastic (strain)
• Chemical
• Electrical
• Nuclear
• Internal (thermal)
o Potential energy = energy an object has due to a change in position, shape or state
How might an event or process change the energy an object has?
• Energy can never be destroyed, just transformed or transferred
• A process or event may transform energy
o E.g. burning fuel will transform chemical potential energy into thermal energy
• A process or event may transfer energy
o E.g. a snooker ball striking another will transfer its kinetic energy
What is a Joule?
• The work done when a force of 1 Newton moves an object 1m in the direction of the force
What is the equation for kinetic energy?

• KE = ½mv2
• Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity2
Example: A snooker ball weighing 0.2kg is moving at 2m/s when it strikes 2 other identical balls at
rest. The initial ball stops still while the others move away. How much kinetic energy has been
transferred in total to the 2 moving balls?
• KE = ½mv2
• KE = ½ x 0.2 x 22
• KE = 0.4J
Give an example of energy transfer by electrical working
• A battery has chemical potential energy
• An electrical current can transfer this energy into a resistor
• The electrical energy transferred to the resistor will transfer thermal energy

Give an example of energy transfer by mechanical working
• Forces transferring energy
• E.g. applying force to a lever will transfer an equal moment on the other end
Give an example of energy transfer by heating
• The sun has nuclear and chemical potential energy
• This energy is transferred into the surrounding solar system through heating
Give an example of energy transfer by waves
• E.g. Sound
• Speaking transfers kinetic energy from the vocal cords to the air
• Sound waves transfer this energy to the surrounding area
What is meant by efficiency?
• Proportion of useful energy or power produced compared to the energy or power put in
• Expressed as a percentage
P2.3 Power
What is the relationship between power and work done?
• Power is a measure of how quickly work is done
o E.g. 2 different sized engines:
▪ A small engine applies 5N to an object and moves it 5m in 30s
▪ A large engine applies 5N to an object to move it 5m in just 10 seconds
▪ Both engines do the same work
▪ The larger engine has more power
o E.g. light bulbs
▪ A more powerful light transforms energy into light more quickly so will be
brighter than a less powerful light
How would you calculate power?

• Power (P) = change in energy
time taken
Example: A crane lifts 1000N block from the ground 20m in the air, taking 20 seconds to do it.
What power does the crane have?
o ΔE = W = Fd
o ΔE = 1000 x 20 = 20,000J
o P = 20,000J = 1000 watts
20s
P2.4 Energy resources
Describe how chemical potential energy in fuel can generate useful electricity
• Fuel (e.g. oil, coal, gas) is burned, transferring chemical potential energy to thermal energy
• Thermal energy used to turn water to steam which is kept under high pressure
• This pressurised steam turns turbines linked to generators
• The generators produce electricity
What are the advantages and disadvantages of generating power from fossil fuels?
Advantages Disadvantages
• Large amounts of energy in small amounts • Large amounts of pollution; CO2
of fuel
contributes to global warming, SO2 leads
• Reliable and predictable energy delivered
to acid rain
• Cheap to set up relative to other methods • Not renewable, it will run out one day

How can water be used to produce electricity?
• Waves: the energy of waves could be used to drive a generator
o Few, if any, devices have proven able to harness waves’ vertical motion
• Hydroelectric: storing water behind a dam and releasing it to flow past a turbine and drive
a generator
• Tidal: incoming tide captured behind a dam and released past turbines to drive a
generator
What are the advantages and disadvantages of water based energy sources?
Wave energy - Advantages Disadvantages

• Renewable
• Technically very difficult
• Easily accessible
• Energy unreliable
• Very low environmental impact • Depends on the wave state any given
moment
Tidal energy - Advantages Disadvantages

• Renewable
• Very expensive to build
• Reliable and predictable

• Large scale local impact on the coast
• No pollution produced (including flooding)
• Few areas are suitable
Hydroelectric power - Advantages Disadvantages

• Reliable and renewable energy
• Expensive to build dams
• No pollution
• Large impact of flooding and damage
• Free power source • Potential catastrophe if dam fails
How is it possible to harness energy direct from the sun to produce electricity?
• Solar power
• Dark coloured solar panels heat water to drive electricity generation
• Solar cells made from material that produces electric current when absorbing light energy
What are the advantages and disadvantages of generating power this way?
• Renewable
• Unreliable sunshine
• No pollution
• Huge areas needed to generate enough
• Solar panels are relatively cheap power (10m2 to power a kettle!)
How could you provide electricity from wind power?
• Wind turns a large turbine that drives a generator
What are the advantages and disadvantages of wind power?
• Renewable
• Large areas of turbines need to be built in
• No pollution
remote pieces of the environment
• Cheap (after initial cost of turbines) • Unreliable amounts of wind
How can large amounts of geothermal energy generate electricity?
• Water piped underground to be heated by geothermal energy
• Rises as pressurized steam to drive a generator

What advantages and disadvantages does geothermal energy have?
• Low environmental impact
• Only some areas are suitable
• No pollution
• Drilling deep enough is technically difficult
• Reliably available in the right areas • Expensive
Describe the process of producing power from nuclear fuels.
• Most nuclear fuels contain uranium
• The process of splitting uranium nuclei is called NUCLEAR FISSION
• The heat produced by fission reaction is used to heat water to steam
• The steam powers generators
How is nuclear power different from the way the sun produces energy?
• The sun:
o Nuclei of atoms are combined together
o This is called NUCLEAR FUSION
• Nuclear power:
o Nuclei of atoms split in a controlled reaction
o This is called NUCLEAR FISSION
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of power from nuclear fission?
• Reliable power generation
• Expensive power stations with high safety
• Large amounts of energy for small amounts standards are needed
of nuclear fuel
• Nuclear waste is highly toxic and stay
• No air pollution generated radioactive for 1000s of years
Which energy sources DO NOT rely on the sun?

• Energy from the sun does or has produced most of energy on the planet
• The only exceptions are:
o Geothermal
o Nuclear
o Tidal (produced from the gravitation pull of the moon)
How would you calculate efficiency?
• Efficiency = useful energy output x 100

total energy input
• Or Efficiency = useful power output x 100
total power input

P3. Thermal physics
P3.1 Simple kinetic molecular model of matter
What are the properties of a solid?
• Fixed shape
• Fixed volume
Describe the molecular structure of a solid
• Molecules held in a rigid structure
• Molecules held close together
• Molecules vibrate around a fixed point - cannot move past each other
• This arrangement of molecules is why solids can not change shape or volume
What are the properties of a liquid?
• Flexible shape
• Fixed volume
Describe the molecular structure of a liquid
• Molecules are close to each other and attract each other
• Molecules vibrate so much that the attraction does not fix them in position
• Molecules can move past each other although they are held close together
• This is why liquids can flow and change shape but not change volume
What are the properties of a gas?
• Flexible shape
• Changeable volume
• Will rapidly spread to fill the space it is in
Describe the molecular structure of a gas
• Molecules are almost totally free of attraction to each other
• Move freely at high speed colliding with each other and the edge of the container they’re in
• A lack of attraction and movement is why a gas changes shape and volume
How does a change in temperature effect the movement of molecules in a gas?
• Increased temperature = molecules move faster with more energy
• Decreased temperature = molecules movie slower with less energy
If a gas is heated in a container with a fixed volume, why will the pressure rise?
• Temperature rises —> particles move with more kinetic energy
• More collisions with container walls
• Increased collisions against the container walls = increased pressure
What is kinetic theory?
• Used to explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases
• All matter is made up of minute particles
• Particles are constantly moving
• Particles attract each other, with weaker attraction when further apart
What is Brownian Motion?
• Particles in suspension move about randomly
How is this evidence of the kinetic theory?
• Newton’s first law means that particles should keep a constant velocity, not move
randomly
• A force must therefore be acting on particles to make them change direction
• This would be predicted by kinetic theory as:
o The molecules a particle is suspended in constantly bombard it
o Small, fast moving molecules can move the large suspended particles

Describe the process of boiling
• Regions within a liquid turning to gas
• Gas rises through the liquid releasing vapour from the surface
• At boiling point - temperature stays the same despite continued energy input
• Continued energy input separates the molecules to form gas
Describe the process of melting
• Solid turns to liquid
• Thermal energy is absorbed —> temperature rises
• Energy eventually sufficient to overcome molecular attraction
• At this point more energy does not increase temperature, but separates the molecules
faster
What does ‘melting point’ mean?
• The temperature at which a solid will turn to liquid
• Different for each element or compound
What is a boiling point?
• Temperature at which a liquid will turn to gas
What is condensation?
• Gas turns to liquid
• Gas particles lose thermal energy and move closer together
What is solidification?
• Liquid turns to solid
• Liquid loses thermal energy and molecules move closer together
What is the difference between boiling and evaporation?

• Boiling:
o Rapid
o Vapour bubbles in liquid have high kinetic energy
o Bubbles rise to top of liquid and burst
• Evaporation:
o Slower
o Fewer molecules have enough energy to turn to gas
o Takes place at surface of liquid
Describe the process of evaporation
• A liquid slowly changing into gas (below its boiling point)
• Some of the liquid’s molecules have more energy than others
• Some molecules have enough energy to escape the surface of the liquid and become gas
How will temperature, surface area and moving air across the surface affect evaporation?
• Temperature:
o Higher temperature means more molecules have high energy
o More molecules escape —> more evaporation
• Surface area:
o Higher proportion of molecules near the surface
o More molecules can escape —> more evaporation
• Moving air:
o Escaped molecules are moved away from liquid
o Prevents molecules returning to the liquid —> faster evaporation
Why does evaporation cool the liquid?
• Kinetic theory states that high temperatures = particles with high energy
• Evaporation removes highest energy particles
• Particles left behind have low energy = low temperature

P3.2 Pressure changes
How will changing temperature affect the pressure of a fixed volume of gas?
• Higher temperature —> higher kinetic energy —> increased pressure
• Lower temperature —> less kinetic energy —> lower pressure
• Pressure is directly proportional to the temperature (in kelvin)
How will changing volume affect the pressure of a gas at a constant temperature?
• Governed by Boyle’s Law
• Pressure is inversely proportional to volume (if temperature is constant)
• If volume halves, pressure doubles
• If volume doubles, pressure halves
P3.3 Matter and thermal properties
Why do solids and liquids expand when they’re heated?
• At higher temperatures particles have more energy —> move more
• In solids and liquids this means particles vibrate more
• Increased vibration results in expansion to accommodate it
Give examples of how expansion affects us
• Thermometers: the liquid inside expands and contracts
• Concrete is reinforced with steel as both materials expand the same amount
• Power cables are left slack to allow for contraction on cold days
• Bridges have small gaps to allow for expansion of road surface on hot days
Explain why solids expand less than liquids or gases when heated
• Solids have tight arrangement with strong attraction between molecules
• This limits expansion
• Liquids and gases have weaker attractions
• Same energy increase therefore leads to greater expansion
P3.4 Measurement of temperature
How are thermometer scales calibrated?
• Creating a temperature scale requires 2 fixed points
• The fixed points need to be reliable so all thermometers match
• Scale can then be made by dividing the space between the fixed points
How could you identify fixed points for a thermometer being used at home?
• Freezing and boiling point of water are relatively easy to measure
• Place a thermometer in pure, melting ice and mark where it reads
• Place the same thermometer in a sealed container of steam and mark the scale
• This gives 0 and 100 °C, the scale between can now be divided up
What is meant by the sensitivity, range and linearity of a thermometer?

• Sensitivity: how small a change in temperature it can detect
• Range: the width between min and max temperature
• Linearity: how constant the changes measured are as temperature varies
How does a thermocouple thermometer work? Why would you use on of these?
• Temperature difference between probe and junction creates small voltage
• Voltage is proportional to temperature difference
• Voltage causes a current to flow which can be measured
• Good for large temperature ranges and high temperatures
• Good for rapid reading so useful when temperature varies rapidly

How does a liquid-in-glass thermometer work?
• Normally filled with mercury or alcohol
• Uses the expansion and contraction of liquids with changes in temperature
• As volume changes they fill or empty the glass tube marked with a scale
How will the structure of a liquid-in-gas thermometer relate to its sensitivity, range and linearity?
• Width of the tube will affect sensitivity —> narrower tubes result in larger changes against
the scale
• Type of liquid will affect range —> different liquids have different freezing and boiling points
• Amount of expansion varies slightly (differing linearity) for different temperatures
o This will be different for different liquids
o Thermometers containing different liquids can vary slightly between fixed points
P3.5 Thermal processes
P3.5.1 Conduction
Describe an experiment to investigate properties of good thermal conductors
• E.g. metals
• Place rods of different types of metal in boiling water
• Coat exposed ends with thin layer of wax
• Measure amount of wax melted after a given time
Describe an experiment to investigate properties of poor thermal conductors
• E.g. water, wood
• Place ice and water in test tube
• Trap ice at bottom of test tube with gauze
• Heat water at top with a Bunsen burner
• Water at top of tube can boil without ice melting – shows water is a poor conductor
What is conduction?
• Material is heated, particles vibrate faster in the lattice
• Causes neighbouring particles to vibrate faster – energy is transferred
• Free electrons also speed up when heated
• Electrons collide with atoms causing them to vibrate faster
• Thermal energy distributed throughout material
P3.5.2 Convection
What is convection?
• Method of heat transfer in fluids
• As fluid is heated it becomes less dense —> rises

• Denser water/gas replaces it and is heated, causing a current
• Only occurs when fluid heated at the bottom, not at the top
How can convection be illustrated in an experiment?
• Water in a large beaker with purple potassium permanganate in one corner
• Heat water in that corner
• Observe coloured water circulate by convection
P3.5.3 Radiation
What is infrared radiation?
• Part of electromagnetic spectrum
• Also called thermal radiation
• Heats up objects when absorbed
• Can travel across a vacuum

Effects on radiation of colour and texture
Matt black White Shiny silver

Emitting Best Poor Worst
Absorbing Best Poor Worst
Reflecting Worst Good Best
How can these properties be demonstrated in an experiment?

• Comparing emitters:
o Place boiling water in a metal cube with different colours/textures each side
o Measure thermal radiation emitted from each side using a meter
o Compare which surface emits most
• Comparing absorbers:
o Place a radiant heater at equal distances from metal plates of different colour/
texture
o Measure temperature of plates to compare which absorbs most
P3.5.4 Consequences of energy transfer
Give examples of everyday applications of conduction, convection and radiation
Conduction Convection Radiation

Cooker hob Heating water in a saucepan Central heating
Frying pan Fan heater Sunlight

P4. Properties of waves, including light and sound
P4.1 General wave properties
What is a wave?
• A wave can transfer energy without transferring matter
What is wave motion?
• Transverse or longitudinal
• Transverse waves move at right angles to direction of travel
• Longitudinal waves move in same direction as travel
• Can be demonstrated by vibrations in a spring or with water waves
Transverse waves:
• Oscillations move at right angles to direction of travel
• Examples are electromagnetic waves
Longitudinal waves:
• Composed of compressions and rarefactions
• Examples are sound waves
What is a wavefront?
• The peaks of transverse waves
• The compressions of a longitudinal wave
• Used to illustrate wave motion
Wave descriptors:
• Speed – how fast the waves move in m/s
• Frequency – number of waves passing a point per second
• Wavelength – distance between peaks
• Amplitude – maximum distance a point moves from 0 as wave passes
What is the wave equation?

• Speed = frequency x wavelength
• v = fλ
Example: A wave travels at 8 m/s with 2m wavelength, what is the frequency?

• f = v/λ
• f = 8/2 = 4 Hz
What is reflection?
• Waves hit a vertical/plane surface
• Reflected from the surface at the same angle as they strike it
What is refraction?
• Waves are slowed by an obstacle of a different medium (e.g. water, glass)
• The reduction in speed changes the direction of travel
What is diffraction?
• Waves travel through a narrow gap
• Waves bend around the side
• Waves spread out as they pass through the gap
• Only significant if gap size is about same as wavelength
• Wider gaps cause less diffraction
• Longer wavelengths are more diffracted by an edge than shorter wavelengths

P4.2 Light
P4.2.1 Reflection of light
How is an optical image formed in a mirror?
• Light from an object strikes a plane mirror and is reflected from mirror surface
• After reflection, light strikes the eye of the observer
• Image appears in the mirror laterally inverted (back to front)
• Image is same size as object
• Image is as far behind mirror as object is in front
• A line through equivalent points of image and object passes through mirror at right angles
What is a normal line?
• A line drawn perpendicular to the mirror
What is the law of reflection?
• Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Working out image position in a plane mirror
• Draw a line from the object through the mirror at 90 degrees, extending well behind the
mirror
• Measure the distance from the object to the mirror
• At an equal distance behind the mirror on the line is the image position
P4.2.2 Refraction of light
What is refraction?
• A change in direction of waves when they travel across a boundary from one medium to
another
Describe how a light ray changes direction when it enters and leaves a glass block
• Bends towards the normal as it enters the block
• Bends away from the normal as it leaves the block
Give an experimental demonstration of light refraction
• Looking at an object underwater
Describe how light passes through parallel-sided transparent material
• Light strikes the material at angle of incidence i
• Light refracted towards the normal as it enters, at angle of refraction r
• Refracted away from the normal as it leaves
• Ray emerges parallel to original after exit
What is the equation for the refractive index?

• n = sin i / sin r
What is the refractive index?

• How much a medium alters the speed of light
• Refractive index (n) = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium
• E.g. if n = 1.5 for glass, and the speed of light in a vacuum is 300000 km/s
• Rearrange for speed of light in medium = speed of light in vacuum / n
• Speed of light in glass = 300000 / 1.5 = 200000 km/s

What is the relationship between angle of incidence and angle of refraction?
• They are always proportional
• sin i / sin r = n
• Example: if light strikes glass at an angle of 40, the refractive index is 1.5, what is the angle
of refraction?
• Rearrange equation so sin r = sin 40/ 1.5
• sin r= 0.4285
• r = 25 degrees
Define critical angle

• Angle of incidence beyond which rays of light are totally internally reflected
Define total internal reflection

• When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
• All light is reflected, none is refracted
How do optical fibres work?

• Total internal reflection
• Core of fibre made out of glass with high refractive index
• Cladding is made out of glass with lower refractive index
• Light entering core is at an angle greater than the critical angle so light is TIR
Give examples of the use of optical fibres

• Endoscope - used in keyhole surgery
• Communication as less energy is lost when compared to using copper wiring
P4.2.3 Thin converging lenses
How does a thin converging lens work?
• Converging lens is a convex lens
• Rays parallel to principal axis are bent as they pass through
• Point where rays meet is principal focus
• Forms real images on screen
• Focal length is distance between lens and principal focus
Images produced by converging lenses are:
• Real (can be displayed on a screen)
• Inverted (upside down)
• Can be enlarged if object is near the focal length, smaller if further away
What is the difference between a real and a virtual image?

• Real image can be displayed on a screen
• Rays forming a virtual image never converge, can’t be displayed on screen
How can a single lens be used as a magnifying glass?

• Place object closer to convex lens than the principal focus
• Rays never converge (image is virtual)
• Image is upright and magnified

P4.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
What are the main features of electromagnetic waves?
• Transfer energy without transferring matter
• Transverse waves - oscillations at right angles to direction of travel
• Travel with the same speed through a vacuum as in air
• Speed is 3.0 x 108 m/s
Type Frequency Wavelength Properties & uses (and dangers)

Radio 105 – 108 Hz 100 – 10-3 • Radio, TV and communications
Microwaves 109 – 1011 Hz 100 – 10-3 • Mobile phones
• Satellite TV
• Telephones
Infrared 1012– 1014 Hz 10-3 – 10-6 • Radiant heaters and grills
• Remote controls
• Intruder alarms
Light 1015 10-6 • Visible light
Ultraviolet 1016– 1017Hz 10-7 – 10-9 • Causes tanning, skin cancer, eye
damage
• Kills bacteria
X-rays 1018 – 1019 Hz 10-10 – 10-11 • X ray photography
• Causes cancer
• Kills cancer cells

Gamma rays 1020– 1022 Hz 10-12– 10-14 • Emitted by radioactive materials
• Sterilising medical equipment
• Causes cancer
• Kills cancer cells
What are the safety issues with microwaves?
• Heat up water molecules
• Can heat up body tissues internally
What are safety issues with X rays and gamma rays?
• Damage living cells in the body
• Can cause cancer
What are safety issues with UV radiation from the Sun or tanning lamps?
• Can cause skin cancer
• Eye damage
P4.4 Sound
How is sound produced?
• Sources vibrate and produce longitudinal waves
• Waves made up of compressions and rarefactions

• Creates sound
• Needs a medium to be transmitted (can’t travel in a vacuum)
What sort of waves are sound waves?

• Longitudinal
Describe compression
• Regions of air where air particles are compressed together

Describe rarefactions
• Lower pressure between compressions
What is the range of audible frequencies for human ears?
• 20Hz to 20000 Hz
What is ultrasound?
• Sounds above human hearing
• Can be used medically to measure blood flow through heart or kidney
How can speed of sound be determined in an experiment?
• Create sound (e.g. hammer on block)
• Place two microphones at different distances from source
• Measure time lag between detection at microphones
• Speed of sound = distance travelled / time taken
Why can’t sound travel across a vacuum?
• Requires a medium (e.g. air, water) to be transmitted
How do loudness and pitch change?
• Louder sound = increased amplitude
• Higher pitch = higher frequency (Hz)
What produces an echo?
• Reflection of a sound wave from a surface
Speed of sound:
• Through air —> 330 m/s
• Through water at 0 C —> 1400 m/s
• Through concrete —> 5000 m/s

P5. Electricity and magnetism
P5.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
Describe the forces between magnets
• Magnets attract between NORTH and SOUTH poles
• Magnets repel when together (i.e. N-N or S-S)
• Magnets attract a magnetic material to either pole
What are the differences between a magnet and a magnetic material?
Magnet Magnetic material

• Has a magnetic field
• Doesn’t have a magnetic field
• Has 2 opposite poles

• Attracted by a magnet
• Will attract magnetic materials • Can have a magnetic field induced
• Hard materials keep magnetic field
• Soft materials lose magnetic field
• E.g. iron, nickel or cobalt
What is meant by ‘induced magnetism’?

• When a non-magnetic material develops magnetism
• Atoms in magnetic material have small magnetic force
• When these are pulled into line the material becomes a magnet
How may an objects’ magnetism be induced (created)?

• Place a magnetic object (e.g. one made from steel or iron) into a magnetic field
• Object becomes a magnet (magnetism has been induced)
• The magnetism is temporary as the object loses its magnetism when it’s removed from the
magnetic field
How can a material become magnetised?
• Happens with weak effect when held next to a magnet
• Stroking with one pole of a magnet has a stronger effect
• Happens strongly when inside a wire coil with directional current
• Hammering a magnetic material while in a magnetic field
Define magnetic field line
• The space around a magnet where magnetism can be detected
• Magnetic field line can be seen through use of either plotting compasses or iron filings
How could you find the pattern of field lines and direction?
• Use small compass to plot the line
• Start near one end of magnet and mark the direction the needle points
• Move the compass to a new position a little distance away
• When the compass lines up with the previous dot mark the new position
• Joining all the dots from pole to pole
• The direction of the compass needle gives direction
Draw the pattern and direction of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
Field lines point from North to South

What is the difference between steel and iron’s magnetism?
• Steel - hard magnetic material - retains magnetism
• Iron - soft magnetic material - loses magnetism
What are the differences in design of a permanent magnet and electromagnet?
• Electromagnets
o Soft magnetic core surrounded by coils of wire
o Can be turned on (magnetic) and off (non-magnetic)
o Used for switches, circuit breakers etc.
• Permanent magnets
o Hard magnetic materials
o Always magnetic
o Used for compasses, in speakers etc.
P5.2 Electrical quantities
P5.2.1 Electric charge
What are the two possible electrical charges?
• Positive
• Negative
How do electrical charges interact?
• Opposite charges attract
• Like charges repel
How does a body become charged?
• Addition or removal of electrons
Describe experiments to show production of electric charge
• Rubbing polythene with a woollen cloth
• Rubbing perspex with a woollen cloth
What makes good conductors carry electricity?
• Free electrons that can move through a material easily
• E.g. metals with loosely held outer electrons
What makes an insulator not conduct?
• Tightly held electrons
• Not free to move
Give examples of electrical conductors and insulators
Conductors Insulators
Metals e.g. silver, copper Plastics e.g. PVC, polythene
Carbon Glass
Water (poor conductor) Rubber
Human body (poor) Dry air
What is an electric field?

• Region in which electric charge experiences a force

P5.2.2 Current, potential difference and electromotive force (e.m.f.)
What is electromotive force (e.m.f)?
• A force measured in volts
• For electrical sources of energy
• A measure of the work done per unit of charge by the cell in driving charge round the
complete circuit
What is potential difference?
• Force measured in volts
• Measured by a voltmeter
• Describes energy given to electrons pushed out
• Defines how much energy given to each coulomb of charge
What is resistance?
• How easily current flows in a circuit/component/material
• Measured in Ohms Ω
What is the unit for charge?

• Coulombs
What is current?
• Rate of flow of charge
• In metals —> flow of electrons
• Charge = current x time
• Q=Ixt
Example: if a current of 3 amperes flows for 5 seconds, what is the charge delivered?
• I = 3, t = 5
• Q=3x5
• Q = 15 Coulombs
What is an ammeter?
• Measures current in amperes
• Connected in series
• Can be analogue or digital
How is a voltmeter used?
• Connected in parallel
• Reads voltage across the component
• Can be analogue or digital
• 1 V is equivalent to 1 J/C
P5.2.3 Resistance
Give the equation linking resistance, potential difference and current
• Resistance = potential difference (p.d.) / current
• R = V / I
• Increased resistance reduces current
Example: if a voltage of 4V is needed to make a 2A current, what is the resistance?
• R=V/I
• R = 4/2
• R = 2 Ω
What is Ohm’s law?

• The current through a resistor at constant temperature is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the resistor

Sketch and explain the current-voltage characteristic of an ohmic resistor
• Resistance is always constant
• Linear graph where current is directly proportional to voltage
current
potential
difference
Sketch and explain the current-voltage characteristic of a filament lamp

• As current increases, temperature rises and resistance goes up
• Current is not proportional to the voltage
current
potential
difference
How does resistance of a wire relate to its length and diameter?

• Doubling length —> doubles resistance
• Resistance is directly proportional to length
• Halving cross sectional area —> doubles resistance
• Resistance is inversely proportional to cross sectional diameter
• R = ρ x (1/A) – where ρ is the resistivity, a constant for the material
• If ρ is the same for two materials, then:
o Resistance A x area A / length A = resistance B x area B / length B

P6. Electric circuits
P6.1 Circuit diagrams
What do the following symbols in a circuit diagram represent?
Symbols courtesy of CIE IGCSE (9-1) Co-ordinated Sciences Syllabus 0973
P6.2 Series and parallel circuits
What are the current, voltage and resistance rules in a series circuit?
• Current is the same everywhere
• Total resistance is the sum of all the individual components’ resistance
• Total voltage is the sum of all the individual components’ voltage
If the sum of the PD across the components of a series circuit is 12v what is the PD of the source?
• PD of components = PD of the source
• PD of the source is 12v
What are the current, voltage and resistance rules in a parallel circuit?
• Voltage is the same everywhere
• Total current is the sum of the individual components’ current
• Combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself
• Effective resistance = Product of resistors / Sum of resistors
Why is current conserved at a junction?
• In parallel circuit, current is shared between each component
• Total amount of current flowing into the junction is equal to the total current flowing out
• Current is described as being conserve
What is the advantage of connecting lamps in parallel?
• Each bulb gets the same P.D despite differing current
• Both lamps glow brightly

Describe how a light-dependent resistor works. How can it be used?
• Resistance decreases as light intensity increases
• Used in circuits as an input transducer
• Used as part of a light sensitive switch
• Placed in a potential divider to deliver voltage to a lamp
• Lamp will come on when it is dark
Describe how a thermistor works. How can it be used?

• Resistance decreases as temperature increases
• Used as an input transducer in circuits needed to be sensitive to temperature
• E.g. in a fire alarm
• Placed in a potential divider to deliver high P.D in high temperatures
• Attached to a relay, high P.D used to turn on an electromagnet
• Electromagnet turns on a switch and the alarm rings
P6.3 Electrical energy
How do electric circuits transfer energy?

• Energy from the cell or power source transfers to circuit components, then to surroundings
• Power = voltage x current (P=V x I)
o As energy transferred = P x t
o Energy transferred = voltage x current x time (E=V x I x t)
P6.4 Dangers of Electricity
What are the hazards of damaged insulation, overheating of cables and damp conditions?
• Electric shock from exposed wiring or water in sockets or plugs
• Electrical fires from overheated cables or frayed wiring
What is the function of a fuse?
• Protect the circuit and user of appliance
• Overheats and melts if current too high
• Breaks circuit before wires/components get too hot and catch fire
How do you choose the correct fuse or circuit breaker setting for a device?
• Rating must be above normal current for the device
• As close to normal current as possible so circuit cannot overheat
Example: Would a 10A fuse be suitable for a 1600W hairdryer with a PD of 200V?
• Current = power / voltage
• 1600/ 200 = 8 A
• 10A fuse would be suitable

P7. Electromagnetic effects
P7.1 Magnetic effect of an electric current
What is the pattern of a magnetic field around a straight wire?
• It is perpendicular to the wire at all points

• Circular
• Right hand grip rule gives direction of field
What is a solenoid?
• Coil of wire
What is the pattern of a magnetic field around a solenoid?
• Same pattern as a bar magnet

• Magnetic poles at the ends of the coil
• Right-hand grip rule gives direction of N pole
What is the effect on the magnetic field of increasing the magnitude of current?
• Increased current = increased strength of magnetic field
What is the effect on the magnetic field of changing the direction of current?
• Change in direction of current will reverse the magnetic field
P7.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor
Describe an experiment to show the force on a conductor in a magnetic field:
• Place a wire between N and S poles on a magnet
• Run a direct current through the wire
• Observe movement
• Reversing current causes opposite movement direction
• Opposite magnetic field direction gives opposite movement
• The resultant force is denoted by the left hand rule
How do you tell which direction the current will flow when moving a wire through a magnetic field?
• Right hand rule applies
• Make ‘L-shape’ with thumb and index finger of right hand
• Point middle finger perpendicular to thumb and index finger
• Index finger —> direction current is flowing
• Middle finger —> direction of the magnetic field
• Thumb —> direction the wire is pushed
Which direction is the force produced when a current is within a magnetic field?
• Left hand rule applies
• Make ‘L-shape’ with thumb and index finger of left hand
• Point middle finger perpendicular to thumb and index finger
• Index finger —> magnetic field
• Middle finger —> direction of current
• Thumb —> direction of force
P7.3 d.c. motor
How is the turning effect of a motor increased?

• Increasing number of turns on the coil
• Increasing current
• Increasing strength of the magnetic field

How does a d/c motor work?
• A current flows through the wire creating a magnetic field around the wire
• This temporary magnetic field interacts with the permanent magnetic field of the bar
magnets
• A force is created
• The force turns the coil of wire
• As each side passes vertical, the current is reversed to maintain turning in same direction
• This is achieved by a split ring commutator in a d/c motor
P7.4 Electromagnetic induction
What is electromagnetic induction?

• Magnetic field is used to create a current
• A conductor (e.g. a wire) is moved across a magnetic field (or a changing magnetic field
moves around a conductor)
• Electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the conductor
• If a complete circuit, current flows
Describe an experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic induction

• Connect a coil in a circuit with a galvanometer to measure current
• Move a magnet through the coil
• Record the current induced
What factors affect magnitude of induced EMF?
• Speed of wire movement
• Strength of magnet
• Length of wire in the magnetic field
P7.5 a.c. generator
What is the difference between a/c and d/c

• a/c is alternating current, flows alternately backwards and forwards
o E.g. mains electricity
• d/c is direct current, flows one way only
o E.g. a battery
How does a rotating coil generator work?

• Coil of copper wire, rotated in magnetic field
• Produces alternating current as it rotates
• Slip rings are contacts and rotate with the coil
• Carbon brushes take current from slip rings in to circuit
Relate the position of generator coil to peaks and zeros of voltage output
• Peaks in p.d. correlate to coil at 90 degrees to magnetic field
• Zero points relate to coil parallel to magnetic field
P7.6 Transformers
Describe construction of a basic transformer with a soft-iron core

• Electromagnet connected to a/c source
• Placed next to a second electromagnet
• a/c in first electromagnet creates a changing magnetic field
• Changing magnetic field induces current in next electromagnet
What does step-up mean?

• Using a transformer to increase the voltage

What does step-down mean?
• Using a transformer to decrease the voltage
How do input voltage and output voltage relate?

• Output voltage / Input voltage = No. of turns on output coil / no. of turns on input coil
• V2/V1 = N2/N1
Example: if the input is 10V and 1000 coils, and the output is 2000 coils, what will be the output
voltage?
• Output voltage = (turns on output coil / turns on input coil) x input voltage
• Output voltage = (2000/1000) x 10 = 20 V
How is a transformer used in high voltage electricity transmission?

• Step-up transformer produces high voltage and low current for long distances
• Step-down used to reduce voltage but increase current for usage
How do step-up and step-down transformers differ from each other?

• Step-up transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than primary
o Increase size of alternating potential difference
• Step-down transformers have fewer turns on the secondary coil than the primary
o Decrease size of alternating potential difference
How is efficiency calculated?

• Input voltage x input current = output voltage x output current
• V1I1 = V2I2
Example: If 10V at 2 A flows into a step-up transformer, which produces an output voltage of 20V,
what is the output current?
• V1I1 = V2I2
• I2 = (10 x 2) / 20
• = 1A
Why are power losses in cables lower when the voltage is high?
• By increasing voltage, the current is lowered
• The lower the current, the lower the resistance losses in the cables
• When resistance losses are low, energy losses as heat are also low

P8. Atomic physics
P8.1 The Nuclear Atom
What is the structure of an atom?
• Positively charged nucleus
o Contains protons and neutrons
• Negatively charged electrons orbit nucleus
Mass Charge
Electron 1/2000 -1
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
What is the composition of the nucleus?
• Made up of protons and neutrons
• Protons are positively charged (relative charge +1)
• Neutrons are neutral (relative charge 0)
What is the nucleon number (A)?
• Combined number of protons and neutrons in nucleus
• Also known as mass number
What is the proton number (Z)?
• Number of protons in the nucleus
• Always the same for an element
Example:
23
Na
11
• Na = sodium
• Mass/nucleon number = 23
• Atomic number = 11
• Proton number = 11
• Neutron number = 12
What is a nuclide?
• A specific variation of an element X where the nucleon number varies
A
• Denoted by the notation X where A = nucleon number, Z = proton number
Z
What is an isotope?
• An atom of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
• Nucleon number varies but proton number is the same

P8.2 Radioactivity
P8.2.1 Characteristics of the three kinds of emission
What is the nature of radioactive emission?
• Happens spontaneously and at random
• Cannot predict decay or direction
• Not affected by temperature, pressure or chemical change
• Also known as ionising emissions
What are α-particles?
• A helium nucleus
• 2 protons and 2 neutrons
• Mass number decreases by 4, atomic number (proton number) decreases by 2
What are beta (β) particles?
• Fast moving electrons
• Emitted when neutron splits into a proton and electron
• Mass number unchanged, atomic number (proton number) increases by 1
What are gamma (γ) rays?
• Electromagnetic waves
• Emitted after an α or β particle has been emitted
• No change to mass or atomic number
Describe the deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays in electric fields and in magnetic
fields
• α-particles - positively charged, so move towards negatively charged terminal
• β-particles - negatively charge, so move towards positively charged terminal
• γ-rays - no deflection
Compare the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
Alpha Beta Gamma

Nature • Two protons and • Electrons
• Electromagnetic
two neutrons • Small
wave
(Helium nucleus)
• Fast
• Moves at speed of
• Large
• Negative charge (-1) light
• Slow moving
• No charge
• Positively charged
(+2)
Ionising effect • Strong
• Weak
• Very weak
• Due to higher • Due to lower charge • Has no charge or

charge and larger and small mass mass
mass
Penetrating • Poor
• Moderate
• Very penetrating
ability • Stopped by skin, • Stopped by a few • Never completely

paper, a few cm of mm of metal (e.g. stopped
air aluminium foil) • Lead and thick

concrete reduce
intensity
Examples of • Smoke detectors • Thickness • Radiotherapy

use monitoring • Testing for cracks
• Medical tracers

Describe how alpha radiation is used in smoke alarms
• Alpha source ionises the air creating small current
• Picked up by a detector
• In a fire, alpha is stopped by smoke.
• Alarm sounds
Describe how beta radiation is used to measure the thickness of aluminium sheets
• The thicker the material, the more radiation is absorbed
• Less radiation therefore reaches the detector.
• This sends signals to the equipment that adjusts the thickness of the material
Describe the properties of beta radiation medical tracers

• Short half life
• Stable product
• Decays not so fast that can’t be used as a tracer but not so long that it has damaging
effects
P8.2.2 Detection of radioactivity
What is background radiation?
• Radiation which is always present
• Produced by rocks, soil, cosmic rays, radon gas
How are alpha (α) particles detected?
• In a cloud chamber
• Contains cold alcohol vapour in air
• Alpha particles moving through cloud make visible trails of condensed alcohol
• Also detected by a Geiger-Muller tube
How are β particles and γ rays detected?
• With a Geiger-Muller tube
• Use a paper screen to block out alpha particles
• Aluminium foil will block beta particles
• Tube detects current as radiation ionises gas held inside tube
P8.2.3 Radioactive decay
How is radioactive decay written in nuclide notation?

• Top and bottom numbers must balance
• E.g. (α decay)
What is radioactive decay?
• When unstable nuclei change in to stable ones
• Releasing energy as they do so, in form of radiation
• In alpha or beta decay the nucleus changes to that of a different element
• E.g. (β decay)

P8.2.4 Half-life
What is half-life?
• Time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to decay
• A random process
• Different isotopes have different half-lives
o E.g. Plutonium-239 has a half-life of 24,100 years
o Plutonium-241 has a half-life of 14.4 years
Why is tossing a coin a good model for radioactive decay?
• Random
• Unable to predict whether you will land on a head or tail - with radioactive decay you don’t
know when the nuclei will breakdown (decay)
What are the limitations of tossing a coin as a model for radioactive decay?
• You can only toss the coin at most 1000 times really
• In radioactive material there are millions of nuclei that have the potential to decay
P8.2.5 Safety precautions
What is the effect of ionising radiation on living things?
• Damages living cells
o Damages DNA structure
o Causes mutation that can lead to cancer
• Creates ions which can cause further damage
How are radioactive materials handled, used and stored safely?
• Protective clothing worn (e.g. radiation suits)
• Stored behind protective material depending on type of radiation
• Used at a distance
• Checks for contamination before personnel leave site
• Purpose made reactors and equipment to contain radiation
• Wearing radiation monitors to record exposure

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The Perfect Answer Revision Guide CIE IGCSE Co Ordinated Sciences

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The Perfect Answer

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B2. Cells ................................................................................................................................................ 4

B3. Biological molecules .......................................................................................................................7

B4. Enzymes .........................................................................................................................................8

B5. Plant nutrition .................................................................................................................................9

B6. Human nutrition ............................................................................................................................ 10

B7. Transport ...................................................................................................................................... 14

B8. Gas exchange and respiration ...................................................................................................... 17

B9. Coordination and response .......................................................................................................... 19

B10. Reproduction ..............................................................................................................................22

B11. Inheritance ..................................................................................................................................26

B12. Organisms and their environment ..............................................................................................30

B13. Human influences on ecosystems ............................................................................................. 31

C2. Experimental techniques .............................................................................................................. 34

C3. Atoms, elements and compounds ...............................................................................................36

C4. Stoichiometry ...............................................................................................................................40

C5. Electricity and chemistry .............................................................................................................. 42

C6. Chemical energetics .....................................................................................................................44

C7. Chemical reactions ....................................................................................................................... 45

C8. Acids, bases and salts .................................................................................................................47

C9. The periodic table .........................................................................................................................51

C10. Metals ......................................................................................................................................... 52

C11. Air and water ..............................................................................................................................55

C12. Sulfur .......................................................................................................................................... 58

C13. Carbonates ................................................................................................................................. 58

C14. Organic chemistry ......................................................................................................................59

P1. Motion ...........................................................................................................................................65

P2. Work, energy and power ............................................................................................................... 70

P3. Thermal physics ........................................................................................................................... 74

P4. Properties of waves, including light and sound ............................................................................79

P5. Electricity and magnetism ............................................................................................................84

P6. Electric circuits ............................................................................................................................. 88

P7. Electromagnetic eﬀects ................................................................................................................90

P8. Atomic physics ............................................................................................................................. 93

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B1. Characteristics of living organisms

Characteristics all living organisms show:

• Causes change in position or place

• Nutrient molecules broken down

• Energy released for metabolism

• Detecting and responding to changes in the environment

• Sensing stimuli in the internal or external environment

• Permanent increase in size

• Increase in dry mass

• Cell numbers and/or cell size increase

• Processes that make more of the same kind of organism

• Removal from organisms of toxic materials and substances in excess of requirements

• Removal of waste products of metabolism

• Taking in materials for energy, growth and development

For use by junwoo Yang junwooyang93@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.

B2.1 Cell Structure

Plant and animal cells both have:

o Contains genetic material (DNA) - controls activities and characteristics of cell

o Chromosomes visible during cell division

o Contains water and dissolved substances

o Contains mitochondria for aerobic respiration

o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) to make proteins

o Controls entry and exit of dissolved substances

o Forms barrier between cell and surroundings

Plants also have:

o Packed with chlorophyll

o Contain enzymes to produce glucose through photosynthesis