RANI LAKSHMI BAI CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

ASSIGNMENT
ON:
SPATIAL DATA AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
IN GIS, REMOTE SENSING CONCEPTS AND
APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE, IMAGE
PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

SHALINI SHUKLA(Ag/063/17) Dr. PRATIK SANODIYA
PAWAN KUMAR YADAV(Ag/081/17) AGRONOMY
B.Sc.(Hons.) AGRICULTURE
 SPATIAL DATA
WHAT IS SAPTIAL DATA?
 In general, we can say that it is the information about a physical object that can be represented by numerical
values in geographic coordinate system. It is also known as geospatial data, spatial data information or
geographic information.
 Or we can say that it is the data or information that identifies the geographic location of features and boundaries
on Earth, such as natural or constructed features, oceans, and more it is usually stored as coordinates and
topology, and is the data that can be accessed, manipulated or analyzed through geographic information
system.
 Refers to all type of data objects or elements that are present in a geographical space or horizon. It enables the
global finding and locating of individuals or devices anywhere in the world. It consists of points, lines,
polygons and other geographic and geometric data primitives, which can be mapped by a communication
system to locate end user devices.
 Any data related to or containing information about a specific location on earth’s surface.
SPATIAL DATA CLASSIFICATION:
Spatial data are fundamental for any mapping activities and they can be classified into two types:

SPATIAL SPATIAL
DATA DATA

Raw Analogue

Derived Digital

 For geomorphological mapping, raw data include information about distribution of height such
as contour lines and spot heights on a topographic map and a raster digital elevation
model(DDEM).
 In a sense, the acquisition of such data can be called geomorphological mapping.
 In addition, thematic map showing spatial distribution of landform units are typical
geomorphological map products for which both raw and derived data are used.
 Derived data include DEM derivatives such as slope angle, curvature and aspect.
 Results of the visual interpretation of topographic maps and aerial/satellite images are also
derived data useful for applied geomorphological mapping.
 Another common binary classification of spatial data is analogue versus digital. Classic spatial data are in
analogue format such as printed maps and handwritten illustrations in field notes.
 Analogue data help have contributed to the development of geomorphology, the qualitative and subjective
nature of these data make them difficult to analyse with computers.
 Since the 1980s, digital maps have largely superseded traditional analogue data sources, and topographic maps
have been replaced by DEMs, with their analysis facilitated by related technologies such as fast personal
computers and geomorphological information systems (GIS).
Spatial data can exist in a variety of formats and contains more than just location specific information. To properly
understand and learn more about spatial data, there are a few key terms that will help us become more fluent in
the language of spatial data. These are:
1) VECTOR DATA:
 These are best described as graphical representations of the real world.
 There are three main types of vector data: points, lines, and polygons.
 Connecting points creating lines, and connecting lines create polygons.
 These are used to present generalizations of objects or features on the Earth’s surface.
 Vectors are best and the file format known as shapefiles (.shp) are sometimes used interchangeably
since vector data is most often stored in .shp files.
2) RASTER DATA:
 It is presented in a grid of pixels.
 Each pixel within a raster has a value, whether it be a color or unit of measurement, to communicate
information about the element in question.
 Rasters typically refer to imagery.
 However, in the spatial world, this may specifically refer to orthoimagery which are photos taken from
satellites or other aerial devices.
 Raster data quality varies depending on resolution and your task at hand.

WHAT ARE SPATIAL DATABASE IN GIS?

 Spatial databases provide a strong foundation to accessing, storing and managing your spatial data empire.
 A database is a collection of related information that permits the entry, storage, input, output and organization
of data.
 A database management system (DBMS) serves as an interface between users and their database.
 A spatial database includes location. It has geometry as points, lines and polygons.
 GIS combines spatial data from many sources with many different people. Database connect users to the GIS
database.
 Spatial database generally refers to any set of data describing the semantic and spatial properties of real world
phenomenon.
 GIS SOFTWARE:
Many GIS software applications are available-both commercial and open source. Two popular applications are
ArcGIS and QGIS.
1) ArcGIS:
 Developed by ESRI.
 The ArcGIS desktop environment encompasses a suite of applications which include ArcMap,
ArcCatalog, ArcScene and ArcGlobe.
 ArcGIS comes in three different license levels (basic, standard and advanced) and can be purchased with
additional add-on packages.
 ArcGIS is only available for Windows operating systems but MAC only systems would have to purchase
it and the purchase of a windows PC would add to the expense.
2) QGIS:
 it is a free software. It encompasses most of the functionality included in ArcGIS.
 Good for a GIS application for your Mac or Linux as it has multi-platform support.
 Built into the current versions of GIS are functions from another open source software: GRASS.

ArcGIS QGIS

WHAT IS SPATIAL ANALYSIS?

 There is difference between GIS and spatial analysis.
 The term GIS analysis refers to data manipulation and data querying.
 In the context of spatial analysis, the analysis of patterns and underlying processes.
 It’s an exploratory process whereby we attempt to quantify the observed pattern then explore the processes
that may have generated the pattern.
SPATIAL DATA CHARACTERISTICS:

 The use of GIS technology in engineering, in general, and in hydrology, in particular, has become feasible due
primarily to the possibility of handling and integrating enormous amounts of geographic data efficiently.
 A GIS can be thought of as a powerful tool capable of creating and manipulating maps, with the necessary
links to retrieve, manipulate, and update data from a database.
 Both maps and attribute data constitute abstractions or simplifications of the real world.
SPATIAL DATA MANAGEMENT IN GIS:
 Manual digitization of paper maps, existing digital datasets, satellite remote-sensing imageries, global
positioning system (GPS), field surveys, internet, etc. are the promising data input sources for spatial data
development in GIS.
Geographic information, attribute information, and display information embedded in digital maps.
Relational database management system (RDBMS) is the most effective and efficient data storage and
management model in spatial database management model in spatial database generation and management in
GIS.
Geographic analysis in GIS facilitates the study of various processes by developing and applying in GIS
facilitates the study of various processes by developing and applying suitable models.
The objective of geographic analysis is to transform data into useful information to satisfy the requirements
or objectives of decision-makers.
GIS provides tools and methods for the integration of different data into a format to be compared and analyzed.
Analysis models comprise simple user-defined views to complex stochastic models, like suitability analysis,
network analysis, optimization, allocation, etc.
Geometric modelling has immense potential in generating buffers, calculating areas and perimeters, and
calculating distances between features.
Spatial analysis in GIS helps to identify trends on the data, create new relationships from the data, and view
complex relationships to make better decisions.
Vector and raster overlay operations are two different types of overlays in GIS depending upon data structures.
GIS provides different ways in which the information can be presented once it is analyzed and processed by
GIS.
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:
According to Burroughs,1986
A method of structuring data in the form of sets of records or tuples so that relations between different entities and
attributes can be used for data access and transformation.
According to Croswell,1991
A database structure commonly used in GIS in which data is stored based on 2 dimensional tables where multiple
relationships between data elements can be defined and established in an ad-hoc manner.
“Relational Database Management System- a database system made up of files with data elements in two-
dimensional array (rows and columns). This database management system has the capability to recombine data
elements to form different relations resulting in a great flexibility of data usage.”
-after Martin, 1976

 A database that is perceived by the user as a collection of two-dimensional tables.

 Are manipulated a set at a time, rather than a record at a time.
 SQL is used to manipulate relational databases.

 A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a collection of programs and capabilities that enables
IT teams and others to create, update, administer and otherwise interact with a relational database.
OR
 Most commercial RDBMSes use Structured Query Language (SQL) to access the database, although SQL
was invented after the initial development of the relational model and is not necessary for its use.
OR
 In general, databases store sets of data that can be queried for use in other applications.
OR
 A database management system (DBMS) supports the development, administrations, and use of database
platforms.
OR
 RBDMS is a type of DBMS with a row based table structure that connects related data elements and includes
functions that maintain the security, accuracy, integrity and consistency of the data.
OR
  In simple way, we can conclude it by saying that a RDBMS is a database management system that is based on
the relational model as introduced by E.F. Codd. most popular commercial and open source databases
currently in use are based on relational model.
OR
 A short definition of RDBMS may be a DBMS in which data is stored in the form of tables and the relationship
among the data is also stored in the form of tables.
COMPONENTS OF RDBMS:
The relational model contains the following components:

 Collection of objects or relations

 Set of operations to act on the relations
 Data integrity for accuracy and consistency.
FUNCTIONS OF RDBMS:

 The most basic functions of RDBMS are related to create, read, update and delete operations, collectively
known as CRUD.
 They form the foundation of a well-organized system that promotes consistent treatment of data.
 The RDBMS typically provides data dictionaries and metadata collections useful in data handling.
 These programmatically support well-defined data structures and relationships.
 The most common means of data access for the RDBMS is via SQL.
 Its main language components comprise data manipulation components comprise data manipulation
language(DML) and data definition language (DDL) statements.
 Extensions are available for development efforts that pair SQL use with common programming languages,
such as COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language), Java and .NET.
 RDBMSes use complex algorithms that support multiple concurrent user access to the database, while
maintaining data integrity.
 RDBMS has the capability to recombine the data items from different files, for multiple access.
REMOTE SENSING

INTRODUCTION:
 Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about an object or feature without physically
coming in contact with that object or feature.
 Humans apply remote sensing in their day-to-day business, through vision, hearing and sense of smell. The
data collected can be of many forms: variations in acoustic wave distributions (e.g., sonar), variations in force
distributions (e.g., gravity meter), variations in electromagnetic energy distributions (e.g., eye) etc. These
remotely collected data through various sensors may be analyzed to obtain information about the objects or
features under investigation.
 Thus, remote sensing is the process of inferring surface parameters from measurements of the electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) from the Earth’s surface. This EMR can either be reflected or emitted from the Earth’s
surface. In other words, remote sensing is detecting and measuring electromagnetic (EM) energy emanating
or reflected from distant objects made of various materials, so that we can identify and categorize these objects
by class or type.
 Fig. Schematic representation of remote sensing technique

PRINCIPLE OF REMOTE SENSING:

 Different objects reflect or emit different amounts of energy in different bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The amount of energy reflected or emitted depends on the properties of both the material and the
incident energy (angle of incidence, intensity and wavelength). Detection and discrimination of objects or
surface features is done through the uniqueness of the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation from the
object.
 A device to detect this reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from an object is called a “sensor” (e.g.,
cameras and scanners). A vehicle used to carry the sensor is called a “platform” (e.g., aircrafts and satellites).
STAGES IN REMOTE SENSING:
A) Emission of electromagnetic radiation - The Sun or an EMR source located on the platform

B) Transmission of energy from the source to the object - Absorption and scattering of the EMR while transmission

C) Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and emission

D) Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor

E) Recording of energy by the sensor - Photographic or non-photographic sensors
F) Transmission of the recorded information to the ground station
G) Processing of the data into digital or hard copy image
H) Analysis of data
 Fig. Important stages in remote sensing
APPLICATIONS IN GIS:
1.Identification, area estimation and monitoring.
2.Crop nutrient deficiency detection.
3.Crop condition assessment.
4.Crop yield modelling and production forecasting.
5.Pest and Diseases management.
6.Agricultural drought assessment.

IMAGE PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION: Many image processing and analysis techniques have been
developed to aid the interpretation of remote sensing images and to extract as much information as possible from the
images. The choice of specific techniques or algorithms to use depends on the goals of each individual project.
PRE-PROCESSING:
Prior to data analysis, initial processing on the raw data is usually carried out to correct for any distortion due
to the characteristics of the imaging system and imaging conditions.
Depending on the user’s requirement, some standard correction procedures may be carried out by the ground
station operators before the data is delivered to the end- user.
These procedures include radiometric correction to correct for uneven sensor response over the whole image
and geometric correction to correct for geometric distortion due to Earth’s rotation and other imaging
conditions.
The image may also be transformed to conform to a specific map projection system.
Furthermore, if accurate geographical location of an area on the image needs to be known, ground control
points (GCP’s) are used to register the image to a precise map (GEO-REFERENCING)
The digital image processing is largely concerned with four basic operations:
1) Image Restoration
2) Image Enhancement
3) Image Classification
4) Image Transformation
IMAGE RESTORATION: It is concerned with the correction and calibration of images in order to achieve as faithful
representation of earth surface as possible.
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT: It is predominantly concerned with the modification of images to optimize their
appearance to the visual system.
IMAGE CLASSIFICATION: Computer assisted interpretation of images that is vital to GIS.
IMAGE TRANSFORMATION: Derivation of new imagery as a result of some mathematical treatment of raw image
bands.
 The operation of image restoration is to correct the distorted image data to create a more faithful representation
of the original scene. This normally involves the processing of raw image data to correct for geometric
distortions, to calibrate the data radiometrically, and to eliminate the noise present in the data.

 Image rectification and restoration are also termed as pre-processing operations.

 Enhancement is concerned with the modification of images to make them more suited to the capabilities of
human vision. Regardless of the extent of digital intervention, visual analysis invariably plays a very strong
role in all aspects of remote sensing. Enhancement of imagery can be done by the histogram equalization
method or linear saturation method before analysis.

 Digital image classification is the process of assigning a pixel (or groups of pixels) of remote sensing image
to a land cover or land use class. The objective of image classification is to classify each pixel into one class
(crisp or hard classification). The classification techniques are categorized based on the training process-
supervised or unsupervised classification.

 Supervised classification has three distinct stages namely training, allocation and testing. Testing is the
identification of a sample of pixels of known class membership gathered from reference data such as ground
truth, existing maps and aerial photographs. In the second stage training pixels are used to derive various
statistics for each land cover and so are correspondingly assigned as signature. In the third stage, the pixels
are allocated to the same class with which they show greatest similarity based on the signature files.

 Unsupervised classification techniques share a common intent to uncover the major land cover classes that
exist in the image, without prior knowledge of what they might be. Such procedures often come under cluster
analysis, since they search for clusters of pixels with similar reflectance values. Unlike the supervised
classification, only the major land classes are separated as clusters, while the smaller classes may be ignored.
The decision for the number of clusters can be based on the histogram analysis of the reflectance values. The
most prominent number of clusters as seen in the histogram can be considered as the number of clusters.

 Each class of land cover is referred to as a theme and the product of classification is known as “thematic
map”.
The following image shows an example of a thematic map. This map was derived from multispectral SPOT image of
the test area. The plausible assignment of land cover types to the thematic classes is shown in the following table. The
accuracy of the thematic map derived from remote sensing images should be verified by field observation.

CLASS No. (Color in Map) LANDCOVER TYPE

1(black) Clear Water

2(green) Dense Forest With Closed Canopy

3(yellow) Shrubs, Less Dense Forest

4(orange) Grass

5(cyan) Bare soil, Built-up areas

6(blue) Turbid water, Bare soil, Built-up areas

7(red) Bare soil, Built-up areas

8(white) Bare soil, Built-up areas

MAGE INTERPRETATION:
Interpretation is the process of detection, identification, description and assessment of significant of an object and
pattern imaged. The method of interpretation may be either visual or digital or combination of both. Both the
interpretation techniques have merits and demerits and even after the digital analysis the output are also visually
analyzed.
SATELLITE IMAGE INTERPRETATION: The satellite imagery is available in different bands and in
combinations of bands as FCC as paper prints and also as soft copy in the form of CD. Satellite imagery cover large
area, provide synoptic view, repetitive coverage and real time information of large area, regarding various features on
ground. the synoptic view is helpful in identifying large features and understanding relationship between different
features. The paper prints of satellite imagery are available in different scales, different bands in black and white and
FCC (false care composite). These satellite paper prints and CDs are available at Data Centre, National Remote
Sensing Centre, Hyderabad.
VISUAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION: It is the visual study of satellite images for identification of objects on
earth surface. The images are not photos which can be judged directly, but have to be interpreted by applying some
logical clue. The image interpretation requires skilled and experienced human analyst who can locate and identify
features of interest.
VISUAL INTERPRETATION OF PAPER PRINTS: Satellite images are available in different wavelength bands,
and as FCCs in different scales. The imagery is oriented with respected survey of India topographic map of same scale.
With the help of these topographic maps, permanent features like road, railways, settlements, stream/river are located
on the imageries. As per the objective of mapping viz., land use, soil resource, vegetation etc. visual interpretation of
images is carried out using standard image interpretation elements viz., tone, texture, color, size, pattern, association
etc., as described below:
 i) TONE: Tone refers to relative shades of grey or color of images. The tone of an image depends on the
amount of light reflected by the object that forms an image. Objects that reflect most of the incident light
appears in bright and those reflecting small amount of light appear in dark tone. Fields with sandy soil
appear in dark tone. Land with salt affected soils appears in lighter tone in comparison to its normal
counterpart. Thick vegetation cover and cropped land appears in dark pink tone on FCC.
ii) TEXTURE: It is created by tonal repetition in a group of objects too small to be discerned individually.
Texture may be described as rough, smooth, coarse or fine.
iii) PATTERN: It refers to spatial repetition of features associated with the ground object which may help in
recognizing the object. Water erosion patterns like gullies and ravines intensity provides clues to the
degree of soil loss. Wind erosion pattern features, like thickness and intensity of sand deposition and
barchan dunes indicate severity of the problem.
iv) SHAPE: Hills, water bodies, sand dunes, and trees can be identified by their shape. Similarly, the
settlement area, irrigated fields, orchards and mining area can also be easily identified by their shape.
v) SIZE: Size of an object on the image helps in identification.
vi) ASSOCIATION: Soil, vegetation and drainage pattern are interrelated. Good vegetation cover is
generally associated with deep soils. Saline soils have poor vegetation cover. Lack of surface drainage
indicates permeable substrates.
DIGITAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION: the soft copies of the data are interpreted by using digital image
processing software. This involves following steps:
A) IMAGE PROCESSING: This is performed using a software. It includes geometric corrections, radiometric
and atmospheric corrections.

 Radiometric correction includes changing pixel intensity values to achieve calibration corrections or
intensity enhancement.
 Geometric corrections involve repositioning the pixel from where they are, to where they should be
to achieve a desired geometry.
 Total radiance received by sensor is affected by atmospheric factors. These are corrected using a
software and comes under atmospheric corrections.
B) IMAGE ENHANCEMENT: This includes contrast enhancement band rationing and normalized difference
vegetation index (NDVI).
 Contrast enhancement: The pixels with bright values will have a high value while dark scene
will have a low value. This can be adjusted with contrast stretching software.
 Band ratioing: the multispectral scanner has four spectral band and hence each ground point image
pixel will have four DN values, one for each band. Each band will have a useful information about
the pixel under study. We can combine the information into a single set of information by dividing
DN value of one band by the DN value of another band of each pixel. Thus, we can produce band
ratios like, Band 1/Band 2 or Band 2/Band 4. It enhances details of image.
 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): NDVI is obtained by simple ratio based on the
contrast in spectral reflectance of photo-synthetically active vegetation, that have low reflectance in
red (R) portion of the spectrum and high reflection in near infrared (NIR) region. The variation in
green vegetation density is analyzed as below:
NDVI= (NIR-R)/(NIR+R)

C) PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS: PCA is a method in which original data is transformed into a new
set of data which may better capture essential information. PCA transformation compresses whole of the
information contained in the original multi-band data set into fewer new components, making correlation zero. This
is a more systematic way of combining band data.
D) FILTERING: spatial filtering selectively emphasizes or suppresses information at different spatial scale over an
image. spatial filtering is pixel by pixel transformation of an image. the transformation depends not only on the grey
level of the pixel but also on the grey level of neighbouring pixels.
E) DENSITY SLICING: It is a digital data interpretation method used to enhance the information gathered from
an individual brightness band.it is done by dividing the range of brightness in a single band into intervals, then
assigning each interval a color.
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