Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(1.1) P ( z ) a3 z 3 a2 z 2 a1z a0
Where the coefficients are real numbers and a3 is non-zero, while z may be a complex number.
We know that a third degree polynomial always has one real root, due to the fact that a third
degree polynomial is a continuous function, which has both positive and negative values, and
therefore also must have the value 0.
A third degree polynomial can have 1, 2 or 3 real roots, but according to the fundamental theorem
of algebra, it has always 3 (complex) roots.
To begin with, we do a simple rewriting, as we remove the second order term, by setting z = w + a.
P ( w) a3 ( w a )3 a2 ( w a ) 2 a1 ( w a ) a0
(1.3) P ( w) a3 ( w3 pw q ) a3Q( w)
Where p and q may be calculated from (1.2). So if Q(w) has the roots w1, w2, w3, then Q(w) may
be written as:
Q( w) ( w w1 )( w w2 )( w w3 )
And thereby
P( z ) a3 ( z w1 a)( z w2 a)( z w3 a)
To determine the roots in an arbitrary third degree polynomial, we may settle for determining the
roots in a polynomial of the form:
(1.4) P( z ) z 3 pz q
We can assume that both p and q are non-zero, since otherwise the solution becomes trivial.
Making the substitution: z = u + v, we get:
The third degree equation 2
Now for each z we may choose u and v, such that: u v z uv 3p , since these equations
just imply that u and v are roots in the quadratic equation: x 2 zx p
3
0.
In the ordered and reduces quadratic equation, x 2 bx c 0 the sum of the roots is equal to
minus the coefficient to x, and their product is equal to the last term in the equation.
(1.6) P( z ) u 3 v3 q
According to the theorem about the sum and the product of the roots in a quadratic equation, this
means that u 3 and v 3 are roots in the quadratic equation:
p3 q q 2 p3
(1.8) x 2 qx 0 x
27 2 4 27
q 2 p3
If < 0, however, the two roots should be replaced by:
4 27
q q 2 p3
(1.9) x i
2 4 27
We therefore proceed taking the third root of the solution (1.8), as if we were dealing with real
numbers.
u 3 q q 2 p3
(1.10)
v 2 4 27
q q2 p3 3 q q2 p3
(1.11) z3
2 4 27 2 4 27
To determine the other (possible complex) solutions, we shall recall the binome equation:
(1.12) zn a
| z | n | a | and nx v, v 2 , v 4 , v (n 1)2
v 2
| z | n | a | and x p , p 0,1,2..., (n 1)
n n
v 2 v 2
(1.14) | z | n | a | (cos( p ) i sin( p )) , p 0,1,2..., (n 1)
n n n n
2 2 4 4
(1.15) z 3 a, z 3 a (cos( ) i sin( ), z (cos( ) i sin( )
3 3 3 3
Or
z 3 a , z 3 a ( 12 i 2
3
), z 3 a ( 12 i 2
3
)
It is seen that: ( 12 i 2
3
) ( 12 i 2
) , so we put α = ( 12 i
3 2
2
3
) and α2 = ( 12 i 2
3
)
The three roots in the equation then becomes, (since 1 ): 3
(1.16) z 3 a , z 3 a , z 2 3 a
q q 2 p3
If we return to the equation: x , which is equivalent with the two binome
2 4 27
equations:
q q 2 p3 q q 2 p3
(1.17) u3 and v3
2 4 27 2 4 27
Then if both right hand sides are real, we find according to (1.16).
The third degree equation 4
q q 2 p3 q q 2 p3 q q 2 p3
u0 3 u1 3 u2 2 3
2 4 27 2 4 27 2 4 27
(1.18)
q q2 p3 q q2 p3 q q 2 p3
v0 3 v1 3 v2 2 3
2 4 27 2 4 27 2 4 27
One might think that it should result in six solutions to the equation z = u + v, but we recall that
the solutions u and v must obey the equation: uv 3p . That this applies to u0v0 is seen from:
q q 2 p 3 3 q q 2 p 3
u0v0 3
2 4 27 2 4 27
(1.19)
q 2 3 2 3 3
3 q p q q p 3 p p
2 4 27 2 4 27 27 3
A simple calculation shows that the three solutions, which comply with the claim: uv 3p are:
z 3 pz q 0
Are then given by:
q q2 p3 3 q q 2 p3
z
3
2 4 27 2 4 27
q q2 p3 q q2 p3
(1.21) z 3
2 3
2 4 27 2 4 27
q q2 p3 q q2 p3
z
2
3
3
2 4 27 2 4 27
Since every third degree equation: a3 z 3 a2 z 2 a1 z a0 0 can be transformed into the equation
a
z 3 pz q 0 by the substitution z z a with a 2 , we have proven that every third
3a3
degree equation has the solutions shown above.
The third degree equation 5
Notice, however, we have used the square root, as if the argument was a positive number, but that
is not necessarily the case, which we shall look into now.
q 2 p3 q q 2 p3
2) > 0. The numbers are then real, and we may apply the real cubic
4 27 2 4 27
roots for u0 and v0. We then have the one real root z1 u0 v0 and the two complex
conjugate roots.
z2 u0 2v0 u0 v0 u v
(1.23) 2 i 3 0 0
z3 u0 v0 2 2
q 2 p3
3) < 0. Here we must have p < 0. For u and v, we apply:
4 27
u3 q q 2 p3
i .
v3 2 4 27
It appears that the two roots are complex conjugates, and therefore have the same modulus.
2
q q 2 p 3
2
p3
(1.24) .
2 4 27 27
p3 p
3 u v.
27 3
If we put:
q
q q 2 p3 p3
i (cos i sin ), where cos 2
2 4 27 27 p3
27
Then the applicable solutions to the equations becomes.
u3 q q 2 p3
(1.25) i
v3 2 4 27
Equal to:
The third degree equation 6
u0 p
(cos 3 i sin 3 )
v0 3
u0 p
(1.26) 2
(cos 32 i sin 32 )
v0 3
2u0 p 4 4
(cos 3 i sin 3 )
v0 3
p p 2 p 4
(1.27) z1 2 cos , z2 2 cos , z3 2 cos
3 3 3 3 3 3
p 3( 23 ) 2 4( 23 ) 5 43 83 5 193
q ( 23 )3 2( 23 )2 5( 23 ) 6 8
27
89 103 6 8 2427 90 6 106
27
6 56
27
q
2 54 .
56
cos
p3 ( 193 )3
27 27
Therefore there seem to be only one way to get the solutions, namely by numerical calculations.
Reference: Børge Jessen. Lectures on complex numbers. Mat 2. 1965 -1966. (Handwritten notes).