Appendix 1

Cardano’s Method

A1.1. Introduction

This appendix gives the mathematical method to solve the roots of a

polynomial of degree three, called a cubic equation. Some results in this
section can be found, for instance, in [ART 04].

As a useful extension, we also give the methodology to determine the

roots of a polynomial of degree four, called a quartic equation. The roots of a
cubic equation, like those of a quartic equation, can be found algebraically. It
can be shown that this property is no more valid, in general, for a quintic
equation (equation of fifth-order) or equations of higher degrees. This is
known as the Abel–Ruffini theorem, which was first published in 1824.

Referring to the French dictionary Le Robert, the complete method for

the general resolution of a cubic is probably due to Tartaglia (Niccolo
Fontana, 1500–1557, also called Tartaglia) from his works concluded in
1537, based on the first approach of Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576). In
1539, Tartaglia revealed his method to Cardano on the condition that
Cardano would never reveal it. Some years later, Cardano learned about
Ferro’s prior work and published Ferro’s method in his book Ars magnasive
de regulis algebraicis, liner unus in 1545. These works, which are produced
by the Italian mathematics school, are also based on:

– Rafael Bombelli (1526–1572) was the one who finally managed to

address the resolution of polynomial equations with imaginary numbers.
280 Reinforced Concrete Beams, Columns and Frames

– Lodovico Ferrari (1522–1565), as Cardano’s student, gave the solution

of a quartic equation, which was published in one chapter of Ars magnasive
de regulis algebraicis, liner unus written by Cardano in 1545.
– Scipione del Ferro (1465–1526) first discovered the method to solve the
canonical form of a cubic equation (x3 + px + q = 0), the first step toward
the more general method of a cubic equation.

In the following, we use the mathematical function sgn(x) for the sign
function of a real x, and we also use:

3
x = |x|1/3.sgn(x) with |x|=sgn(x).x [A1.1]

A1.2. Roots of a cubic function – method of resolution

A1.2.1. Canonical form

We consider the cubic equation with real coefficients:

g (t ) = at 3 + bt 2 + ct + d = 0 with a ≠ 0 [A1.2]

Each term can be divided by the first coefficient, leading to:

b c d
t3 + a t2 + a t + a = 0 [A1.3]

This cubic equation can be factorized as:

b ac - b2 b 27a2d + 2b3 - 9abc

(t + 3a )3 + (t + ) + =0 [A1.4]
3a2 3a 27a3

which is known as the canonical form:

f(x) = x3 + px + q = 0 by setting
b 3ac - b2 27a2d + 2b3 - 9abc
x = t + 3a ; p = and q = [A1.5]
3a2 27a3

This canonical equation is solved from the introduction of two numbers y

and z such that x= y + z are roots of the cubic equation f(x) = 0, by imposing
some constraint equalities:
 Appendix 1 281

⎧⎪f(y + z) = 0 (y3 + z3) + (p + 3yz)(y + z) + q = 0

⎧y3 + z3 = -q 3 3
y + z = -q
⎧ 3 3
⎨ p ⇔⎨ ⇔ ⎨y + z = -q
yz = - 3 p p
⎩ ⎪⎩yz = - 3 ⎩yz = - 3
[A1.6]

The following change of variable can be chosen as:

⎧⎪Y = y3 ⎧⎪Y + Z = - q
⎨ and then ⎨ p [A1.7]
⎩⎪Z = z3 (YZ)1/3 = - 3
⎩⎪

Knowing the sum and the product of Y and Z, these numbers are
p3
necessarily the roots U1 and U2 of the quadratic equation: U2 + qU - 27 = 0.
If U1 and U2 are known, then y and z are calculated from (e2kip U1)1/3 and
(e2kip U2)1/3, which should be associated by a pair such that the product yz is a
real number. We can distinguish several possible cases using the
4p3
discriminant concept, depending on the sign of D = q2 + 27 or
equivalently, depending on the sign of 4p3 + 27q2.

A1.2.2. Resolution – one real and two complex roots

Case 4p3 + 27q2 > 0 (one real and two complex conjugate roots for
f(x) = 0).

This case includes the case p = 0.

In this case, both U1 and U2 are real numbers:

4p3
-q+ q2 + 27
q q2 p3
U1 = 2 =-2 + 4 + 27 and

q q2 p3
U2 = - 2 - 4 + 27 [A1.8]
282 Reinforced Concrete Beams, Columns and Frames

To have the product yz as a real number, the possible couples (y, z) (or
equivalently (z,y)) are then:

3 3 3 3 3 3
( U1; U2 ), ( j U1; j2 U2 ), ( j2 U1; j U2 ) [A1.9]

where j denotes the complex number that is the cubic root of unity. The
solutions in x are then:

3 3
q q2 p3 q q2 p3
x1 = -2+ 4 + 27 + -2- 4 + 27

3 3
q q2 p3 2 q q2 p3
x2 = j -2+ 4 + 27 +j -2- 4 + 27

with j=e2iπ/3 [A1.10]

3 3
q q2 p3 q q2 p3
x3 = j2 -2+ 4 + 27 +j -2- 4 + 27

In reinforced concrete design, we are only concerned with real solutions,

and then only x1 will be of interest, which finally leads to the root of the
initial cubic equation [A1.2], as:

3
1 27a2d+2b3-9abc ⎛27a2d+2b3-9abc⎞2
t = 3a - + ⎜ ⎟ + (3ac-b2)3 +
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
3
1 27a2d+2b3-9abc ⎛27a2d+2b3-9abc⎞2 b
- - ⎜ ⎟ + (3ac-b2)3 -
3a 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 3a

[A1.11]

In the specific case p = 0, this real root is simply reduced to

1 3 b
t = 3a - 27a2d-2b3+9abc - 3a
 Appendix 1 283

A1.2.3. Resolution – two real roots

Case 4p3 + 27q2 = 0 (one real and one double real roots for f(x) = 0).

q 3q 3
In this case, U1 and U2 are real numbers with U1 = U2 = - 2 = ⎛2p⎞ =
⎝ ⎠
U. The product yz being real, the possible couples (y, z) (or equivalently
(z,y)) are given by:

3 3 3 3 3 3
( U ; U ), (j U ;j2 U ), (j2 U ;j U ) [A1.12]

where j denotes the complex number that is the cubic root of unity. Using the
fundamental property 1 + j + j2 = 0, the solutions in x are given by:

3 q 3q
simple root: x1 = 2 -2 = p ;
3q
double root: x2 = x3 = - 2p [A1.13]

The real roots of the initial cubic equation g = 0 in “t” (equation [A1.2])
are then:

3q b 9a2d + b3 - 4abc
t1 = p - 3a = and
a(3ac - b2)
3q b - 9ad + bc
t2 = t3 = - 2p - 3a = [A1.14]
2(3ac - b2)

A1.2.4. Resolution – three real roots

Case 4p3 + 27q2 < 0 (three real roots for f(x) = 0).

In this case, U1 and U2 are conjugate imaginary numbers. It can be

p
checked that if y is a cubic root of the complex number U1, then z = - 3y is
the imaginary conjugate number of y; and x = y+z is a real number.
Practically, we use the fact that a necessary and sufficient condition for two
polynomial equations to have the same roots is that the coefficients of these
polynomial equations are proportional. We use the equality 4 cos3a - 3 cos
284 Reinforced Concrete Beams, Columns and Frames

a - cos 3a = 0 which is always true. The unknown y = cos a is a root of 4 y3 -

3 y - cos 3a = 0. We are looking for the conditions to have both equations
x3 + px + q = 0 and 4 y3 - 3 y - cos 3a = 0 with proportional coefficients. In
this case, if x is a root of the first cubic, kx would be the root of the second
cubic, with k as a proportional coefficient, leading to the equivalence
principle:

1 p q
3 = - 3 k = - cos 3a for k ≠ 0 [A1.15]
4k

These two equations are equivalent to the conditions:

3
⎧k2 = - 4p ⎧k = - 4p3
⎨ 3 cos 3a or equivalently ⎨ 3 cos 3a when p < 0 [A1.16]
⎩k = - 4q ⎩k = - 4q
3q 3
The elimination of k gives: cos 3a = 2p -p which should be

⎛3q 3⎞2 27q2

comprised between –1 and +1, leading to ⎜2p - p⎟ ≤ 1 ⇔ ≤1
⎝ ⎠ - 4p3
with - 4p3 > 0. We recognize the condition that the discriminant is negative,
that is 4p3 + 27q2 ≤ 0. In this case, and from equation [A1.16], we have the
inverse relationship:

3 1⎡ ⎛ 3q 3⎞ ⎤
k= - 4p and a = 3 ⎢Arc cos ⎜ 2p - p ⎟ + 2kπ ⎥ [A1.17]
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦

As the roots of the cubic equation 4 y3 - 3 y - cos 3a = 0 are y = cos a, the

roots of the cubic equation x3 + px + q = 0 are 1/k proportional to the
previous ones (with x1 < x2 < x3 ):

⎡ ⎛ 3q 3⎞ ⎤
⎢ Arc cos ⎜ 2p - p⎟ + 2π ⎥
p ⎝ ⎠
x1 = 2 - 3 cos ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 3q 3⎞ ⎤
⎢ Arc cos ⎜ 2p - p⎟ + 4π ⎥
p ⎝ ⎠
x2 = 2 - 3 cos ⎢ ⎥ [A1.18]
⎣ 3 ⎦
 Appendix 1 285

⎡ ⎛ 3q 3 ⎞⎤
p ⎢Arc cos ⎜⎝ 2p - p ⎟⎥
⎠⎥
x3 = 2 -3 cos ⎢
⎣ 3 ⎦

The roots of the initial cubic equation [A1.2] g(t) = 0 are then (with t1
< t2 < t3 ):
- 1.5
⎪⎧Arc cos ⎡⎢ sgn(-a) (27a2d+2b3-9abc)(b2-3ac) ⎤⎥ + 2π ⎪⎫
2 ⎨ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎬ b
t1 = 3|a| b2 - 3ac cos ⎪ ⎪⎭ - 3a
⎩ 3
- 1.5
⎪⎧Arc cos ⎡⎢ sgn(-a) (27a2d+2b3-9abc)(b2-3ac) ⎤⎥ + 4π ⎪⎫
2 ⎨ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎬ b
t2 = 3|a| b2 - 3ac cos ⎪ ⎪⎭ - 3a
⎩ 3
- 1.5
⎪⎧Arc cos ⎡⎢ sgn(-a) (27a2d+2b3-9abc)(b2-3ac) ⎤⎥⎪⎫
2 ⎨ ⎣ 2 ⎦⎬ b
t3 = 3|a| b2 - 3ac cos ⎪ ⎪⎭ - 3a [A1.19]
⎩ 3

A1.3. Roots of a cubic function – synthesis

A1.3.1. Summary of Cardano’s method

Considering the cubic equation now expressed in terms of the unknown α

that is related to the dimensionless neutral axis position in reinforced
concrete design:
aα 3 + bα 2 + cα + d = 0 [A1.20]
The parameters p and q can be introduced as:
3ac − b 2 27 a 2 d + 2b3 − 9abc
p= and q = [A1.21]
3a 2 27 a 3
If 4 p3 + 27q 2 > 0, the unique real solution of the cubic equation is
obtained from:

q q 2 p3 3 q q 2 p3 b
α1 = 3 − + + + − − + − [A1.22]
2 4 27 2 4 27 3a
If 4 p 3 + 27 q 2 < 0 , the three real solutions are given by:
286 Reinforced Concrete Beams, Columns and Frames

⎧ ⎡ ⎛ 3q 3 ⎞ ⎤
⎪ ⎢ Arc cos ⎜ ⎟ + 2π ⎥
⎪ −p ⎢ ⎝ 2p −p ⎠ ⎥− b
⎪ α1 = 2 3 cos ⎢ 3 ⎥ 3a
⎪ ⎢ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎪
⎪ ⎡ ⎛ 3q 3 ⎞ ⎤
⎪ ⎢ Arc cos ⎜ ⎟ + 4π ⎥
⎪ −p
cos ⎢⎢ ⎝ 2p −p ⎠ ⎥− b
⎨ α2 = 2 ⎥ 3a [A1.23]
⎪ 3 3
⎢ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎪
⎪ ⎡ ⎛ 3q 3 ⎞⎤
⎪ ⎢ Arc cos ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎪ −p
cos ⎢⎢ ⎝ 2p −p ⎠⎥ b
⎪ α3 = 2 ⎥ − 3a
⎪ 3 3
⎢ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎩⎪

A1.3.2. Resolution of a cubic equation – example

We give here a small example to illustrate our purpose. Let us consider

the following cubic equation:
α 3 − 2α 2 − α + 2 = 0 [A1.24]
The coefficients ( a, b, c, d ) are identified from equation [A1.20] as:

a = + 1, b = − 2, c = − 1 and d = + 2 [A1.25]
We calculate now p and q for determining the nature of the solutions:

b2 7 2 3 bc 20
p=c− = − and q = d + b − = [A1.26]
3 3 27 3 27

We calculate the discriminant as:

4 p3 + 27q 2 = −36 ≤ 0 [A1.27]

Hence, we have three real solutions for this cubic equation. It can be
relevant to compute the following number for the root calculation:
 Appendix 1 287

⎛ 3q 3⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
Arc cos ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = Arc cos ⎜ − ⎟ ≈ 2.141173137... [A1.28]
⎝ 2p p⎠ ⎝ 7 7⎠

We then compute the three roots of the cubic from equation [A1.23] as:

⎧ 7 ⎡ 2.141173137... + 2π ⎤ 2
⎪ α1 = 2 cos ⎢ ⎥ + 3 = −1
⎪ 3 ⎣ 3 ⎦
⎪⎪ 7 ⎡ 2.141173137... + 4π ⎤ 2
⎨ α2 = 2 cos ⎢ ⎥ + 3 =1 [A1.29]
⎪ 3 ⎣ 3 ⎦
⎪ 7 ⎡ 2.141173137... ⎤ 2
⎪ α3 = 2 cos ⎢ ⎥+ 3 =2
⎪⎩ 3 ⎣ 3 ⎦

Of course, it is easy to check that α 3 − 2α 2 − α + 2 = .

( + 1)(α − 1)(α − 2 )
α

A1.4. Roots of a quartic function – principle of resolution

We now consider the quartic equation with real coefficients:

f ( x) = x 4 + ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 with a ≠ 0 [A1.30]

It can be postulated that the quartic corresponds to the beginning of the

square of a second-order polynomial equation like:

a 2 ⎛ a2 ⎞
f(x) = ⎛x2+2 x + y⎞ + ⎜ -2y - 4 + b⎟ x2 + (-ay+c)x+(d-y2) [A1.31]
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

where y is a real number. For the following, we will assume that:

a2
- α2 = -2y - 4 + b and - β2 = d-y2 [A1.32]

y is chosen such that the second trinome of f(x), constituted of the three last
terms of f(x), could be considered in a square format. It is then necessary
that:
288 Reinforced Concrete Beams, Columns and Frames

⎛ a2 ⎞
(-ay+c)2 - 4 ⎜ -2y - 4 + b⎟ (d-y2) = 0 [A1.33]
⎝ ⎠

We recognize a cubic equation expressed with the unknown y:

⎛2y - b⎞ 3 + ⎛⎜ ac - b2 - 4d⎞⎟ ⎛2y - b⎞ + abc - 2b3

⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 3⎠ 3 27

8bd
+ 3 - a2d - c2 = 0 [A1.34]

which can be solved with the previous Cardano’s cubic method. Let y1, y2
and y3 be the three roots of this cubic equation. The parameters α and β will
be chosen as:

a2
α= 2y1 + 4 -b and β = y12 -d if ay1 - c ≥ 0 and

β=- y12 -d if ay1 - c < 0 [A1.35]

Once the cubic root y is calculated y = y1, the quartic function f(x) has the
following form:

a 2 2
f(x) = ⎛x2+2 x + y1⎞ - (αx+β)
⎝ ⎠
a a
= ⎡x2+⎛2 - α⎞x+y1- β⎤ ⎡x2+⎛2 + α⎞x+y1+ β⎤ = 0 [A1.36]
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦

Then, the determination of the roots of the quartic function is reduced to

the determination of the roots of two quadratic functions.