Acknowledgement

Many lives & destinies are destroyed due to the lack of proper
guidance, directions & opportunities. It is in this respect I feel that
I am in much better condition today due to continuous process of
motivation & focus provided by my parents & teachers in general.
The process of completion of this training was a tedious job &
requires care & support at all stages. I would like to highlight the
role played by individuals towards this. I am eternally grateful to
BHEL, BHOPAL for providing us the opportunity & infrastructure
to complete the training as a partial fulfillment of B.E. degree. I
am very thankful to Mr. A.K. NIMJE, SR.DGM. of STE Deptt. For his
kind support & faith in us. I would like to express my sincere
thanks, with deep sense of gratitude to my training officer
Mr.D.C.NIRMAL; Dy.Manager of STE Deptt. for their keen
interests my project. I also thankful to Mr.P.K.GOYAL & Mr.AJAY
KUMAR & to all visible & invisible hands which helped us to
complete this training with a feeling of success.
 INDEX

1. Introduction
2. History
3. Types
4. Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions
5. Casing & Shaft Arrangement
6. principle of Operation & design
7. Turbine Efficiency
8. Impulse Turbines
9. Reaction Turbines
10. Operation & Maintenance
11. Speed Regulation
12. Direct Drive
13. Speed Reduction
14. Working
15. Steam Turbine Principle
16. Impulse Blading
17. Reaction Blading
18. Rankine Cycle
 INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern
manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. It has almost
completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented
by Thomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio.
Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be
used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity
generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a
form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the
expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the
ideal reversible process.

History

The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little
more than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century by Hero
of Alexandria in Roman Egypt. A thousand years later, the first impact
steam turbine with practical applications was invented in 1551 by Taqi-al-
Din in Ottoman Egypt, who described it as a prime mover for rotating a spit.
Similar smoke jacks were later described by John Wilkins in 1648
and Samuel Pepys in 1660. Another steam turbine device was created by
Italian Giovanni Branca in 1629.
The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Englishman Sir
Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that
generated 7.5 kW of electricity. Parson's steam turbine, making cheap and
plentiful electricity possible and revolutionizing marine transport and naval
warfare, the world would never be the same again.. His patent was licensed
and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George
Westinghouse. A number of other variations of turbines have been
developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented
by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam to full speed before running it
against a turbine blade. This was good, because the turbine is simpler, less
expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any
pressure of steam. It is also, however, considerably less efficient. The
Parson's turbine also turned out to be relatively easy to scale-
up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all
major world power stations. The size of his generators had increased from
his first 7.5 kW set up to units of 50,000 kW capacity. He knew that the
total output from turbo-generators constructed by his firm C. A. Parsons
and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had exceeded
thirty million horse-power.. Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity
of a unit was scaled-up by about 10,000 times.

Types

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75
kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and
other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines
used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern
steam turbines.
Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions
These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and
induction.
Non-condensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process
steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve
to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found
at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants,
and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process
steam are available.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants.
These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of
a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants.
In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the
turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added.
The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the
turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting
type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used
for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feed water heaters to improve
overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or
left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage
to produce additional power.
Casing or Shaft Arrangements
These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross
compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a
single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are
used where two or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a
single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or
more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at
different speeds. A cross compound turbine is typically used for many large
applications.
Principle of Operation and Design

An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or

constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the
turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam
turbine is truly “isentropic”, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies
ranging from 20%-90% based on the application of the turbine. The interior
of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or “buckets” as they are more
commonly referred to. One set of stationary blades is connected to the
casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets
intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and
configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at
each stage.
Turbine Efficiency

Schematic diagram
outlining the difference between an impulse
and a reaction turbine
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in
a number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is
extracted from them and are known as impulse or reaction turbines. Most
modern steam turbines are a combination of the reaction and impulse
design. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower
pressure stages are reaction type.
Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high
speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor
blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft rotation as the steam jet
changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades,
with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from steam chest
pressure to condenser pressure (or atmosphere pressure). Due to this
relatively higher ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzle the steam leaves
the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades is
a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the
nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly
called the "carry over velocity" or "leaving loss".
Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force
produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the
rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It
leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The
steam then changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed
of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor,
with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the
rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a
decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed
in the driving of the rotor.
Operation and Maintenance
When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves
(after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly
bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with
the steam turbine. Also a turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to
the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent
uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear,
allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the
turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the
astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to
15 RPM to slowly warm the turbine.
Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance requirements are
relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in
extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and punching straight through
the casing. It is, however, essential that the turbine be turned with dry
steam. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades (moisture
carryover) rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can occur, possibly
leading to imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the
blades will likely result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the
turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers
to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam
piping leading to the turbine.
Speed regulation
The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be
run up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as the
generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control.
Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed
trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the
turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating
until it breaks apart, often spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make,
requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials.
Direct drive

Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving electric

generators to produce most (about 80%) of the world's electricity. Most of
these centralized stations are of two types: fossil and nuclear power plants.
The turbines used for electric power generation are most often directly
coupled to their generators. As the generators must rotate at constant
synchronous speeds according to the frequency of the electric power
system, the most common speeds are 3000 r/min for 50 Hz systems, and
3600 r/min for 60 Hz systems. In installations with high steam output, as
may be found in nuclear power stations, the generator sets may be
arranged to operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole generators.

Speed Reduction

The Turbinia - the first steam turbine-

powered ship
Another use of steam turbines is in ships; their small size, low maintenance,
light weight, and low vibration are compelling advantages. (Steam turbine
locomotives were also tested, but with limited success.) A steam turbine is
only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM range while
application of the power in propulsion applications may be only in the
hundreds of RPM and so requiring that expensive and precise reduction
gears must be used, although several ships, such as Turbinia, had direct
drive from the steam turbine to the propeller shafts. This purchase cost is
offset by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small size
of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent
power, except for diesel engines which are capable of higher efficiencies.
Steam turbine efficiencies have yet to break 50% yet diesel engines
routinely exceed 50%, especially in marine applications.

Working –

Introduction

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy in

pressurized steam into useful mechanical work.  The original steam engine
which largely powered the industrial revolution in the UK was based on
reciprocating pistons.   This has now been almost totally replaced by the
steam turbine because the steam turbine has a higher thermodynamic
efficiency and a lower power-to-weight ratio and the steam turbine is ideal
for the very large power configurations used in power stations.   The steam
turbine derives much of its better thermodynamic efficiency because of the
use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam.   This results in a
closer approach to the ideal reversible process.

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW
units used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft
driven equipment, to 1,500,000kW turbines used to generate
electricity.  Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications for
vessel propulsion systems.  In recent times gas turbines , as developed for
aerospace applications, are being used more and more in the field of power
generation once dominated by steam turbines.
Steam Turbine Principle

The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the

turbine.   The expansion takes place through a series of fixed blades
(nozzles) and moving blades each row of fixed blades and moving blades is
called a stage.   The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and
the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine
casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure.

On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number
of turbine casing/rotor units are combined to achieve the duty.  These are
generally arranged on a common centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel
systems can be used called cross compound systems.

Two Turbine Cylinders Tandem Mounted

There are two principles used for design of turbine blades: The Impulse
Blading and The Reaction Blading.

Impulse Blading

The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at the blades and
the impact of the steam on the blades drives them round.  The day to day
example of this principle is the pelton wheel.

In this type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop takes place in
the fixed blade (nozzle) and the steam jet acts on the moving blade by
impinging on the blades. 
 Blades of an impulse turbine

Velocity diagram impulse turbine stage

z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa &

V wb- represents the tangential component of the absolute steam in and
steam out velocities

The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
 Power /stage= (V w a  -  V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

Reaction Blading

The reaction blading principle depends on the blade diverting the steam
flow and gaining kinetic energy by the reaction.   The Catherine wheel
(firework) is an example of this principle.  For this turbine principle the
steam pressure drop is divide between the fixed and moving blades.

Velocity diagram reaction turbine stage

z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa &

V wb- represents the tangential component of the absolute steam in and
steam out velocities

The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.

Power /stage= (V w a  -  V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam

The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and material

constraints of the blades.

Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a steam cycle for a steam plant operating under the
best theoretical conditions for most efficient operation.  This is an ideal
imaginary cycle against which all other real steam working cycles can be
compared.

The theoretic cycle can be considered with reference to the figure

below.  There will no losses of energy by radiation, leakage of steam, or
frictional losses in the mechanical components.  The condenser cooling will
condense the steam to water with only sensible heat (saturated water).  
The feed pump will add no energy to the water.   The chimney gases would
be at the same pressure as the atmosphere.

Within the turbine the work done would be equal to the energy entering
the turbine as steam (h1) minus the energy leaving the turbine as steam
after perfect expansion (h2) this being isentropic (reversible adiabatic) i.e.
(h1- h2).   The energy supplied by the steam by heat transfer from the
combustion and flue gases in the furnace to the water and steam in the
boiler will be the difference in the enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler
and the water entering the boiler = (h1 - h3).

Basic Rankine Cycle

The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam turbine system are as
indicated in the diagram below. It is clear that the working fluid is in a
closed circuit apart from the free surface of the hot well. Every time the
working fluid flows at a uniform rate around the circuit it experiences a
series of processes making up a thermodynamic cycle.

The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the working fluid
crosses inner boundaries (control surfaces). The inner boundaries defines a
flow process.

The various identifiers represent the various energy flows per unit mass
flowing along the steady-flow streams and crossing the boundaries.  This
allows energy equations to be developed for the individual units and the
whole plant.

When the turbine system is operating under steady state conditions the law
of conservation of energy dictates that the energy per unit mass of working
agent ** entering any system boundary must be equal to the rate of energy
leaving the system boundary.

**It is acceptable to consider rates per unit mass or unit time whichever is
most convenient 
 Steady Flow Energy Equations

Boiler

The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:

F + A + h d = h 1 + G + hl b   hence    F + A = G + h 1 - h d + hl b

Turbine

The energy streams entering and leaving the turbine are as

follows:

h 1 = T + h 2 + hl t    hence   0 = T - h 1 + h 2 + hl t

Condenser Unit

The energy streams entering and leaving the condenser unit are
as follows:

W i + h 2 = W o + h w + hl c   hence     W i = W o + h w - h 2 + hl c

Feed Water System

The energy streams entering and leaving the Feed Water System
are as follows:

h w + d e + d f= h d + hl f   hence  d e + d f = - h w + h d + hl

The four equations on the right can be arranged to give the energy
equation for the whole turbine system enclosed by the outer boundary.
That is the energy of the fuel (F) per unit mass of the working agent (water)
is equal to the sum of

-  the mechanical energy available from the turbine less that used to drive
the pumps (T - (d e+ d f)

-   the energy leaving the exhaust [G - A] using the air temperature as the
datum. 

-  the energy gained by the water circulating through the condenser [W o -
W i]

-   the energy gained by the atmosphere surrounding the plant Σ hl 

The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can be represented

by the ratio of the net mechanical energy available to the energy within the
fuel supplied as indicated in the expressions below-

RAW MATERIALS USED AND THEIR SUPPLIERS

 Bar material: Suppliers:

 AA 19331 kissan steel, Ghaziabad

 AA 19332 Ghaziabad ispat,Ghaziabad

 AA 10108 CFFB ,Howrah

 AA 10112

 AA 10622 MUSCO ,Bombay

 AA 10723 SAIL ,Durgapur

Plate material: Suppliers:

 AA 10119 SAIL ,durgapur

( higher thk ) Thysen, germany

Mobar , germany

m.tayllor,u.k.

Pipe material: suppliers:

 AA 10455 sandoz metal, Mumbai

( SA 106GrB )

Customers of the product

 Public sector customer :
 National thermal power corporation ( NTPC )

 Nuclear power corporation of india limited

( NPCIL)

 State electricity board ( SEB )

 Power development corporation limited

( PDCL )

 Damodar valley corporation

Private sector customers:

 Arunachal Pradesh sugar mills

Technology
collaboration
Earlier (1976 -77):G.E.C

Now: ALSTOM , U.K .

Reference

1. STEAM AND GAS TURBINE DEPTT. BHEL BHOPAL

2. WWW.GOOGLE.COM