Fracture Mechanics-Physics Archives

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FRACTURE MECHANICS
contents
1. Energy Concepts and Analysis of Failure

§ Energy Methods
§ Fatigue
§ Stress Concentration
§ Stress Intensity
§ Hooke’s law
2. Experiments in Fracture
§ Brittle Fracture
§ Fatigue
§ Ductile Fracture
§ Fracture Toughness
§ Fractography
3. Numerical Approach - Finite Element Analysis

§ Theory
§ Simple Computer Program
§ Numerical Examples of Fracture
§
4. Summary
5. Problems
1. Energy Concepts for Fracture

Introduction
In selecting materials for a given application one must have an idea of the final geometry and the
dimension of the part. Under certain environmental conditions and given loadings the part must be able to
function properly. One way to make this decision is by comparing the failure criterion to a critical load
factor. Fracture is a very complex process that involves the nucleation and growth of micro and macro
voids or cracks, mechanisms of dislocations, flip bands, and propagation of microcracks, and the geometry
of the material. There has been no one set theory "set in stone" to handle all of these factors in fracture.
However there are many proposed theories used to understand the complex nature of fracture in the
material. One such class of theories involved energy concepts. In order to understand the complex nature
of fracture in materials, one must understand the nature and character of initial cracking. This is only
possible if we know the distribution of internal stressed in the body, but also the stress needed to initiate
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FRACTURE MECHANICS http://www.physicsarchives.com/fracturemechanics.htm
fracture and the length of the crack as shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 A plate with a crack growing with an applied stress.

(From Parton V.Z., Fracture Mechanics from Theory to Practice, Pg. 69, Figure 48, Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers.)
Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture

One such introductory model was developed by a young English scientist called AA Griffith. He
recognized the macroscopic potential energy of the system consisting of the internal stored elastic energy
and the external potential energy of the applied loads, varied with the size of the crack. Therefore fracture
is associated with the consumption of energy.
U : the total potential energy of the system

U0 : the elastic energy of the uncracked plate.
Ua : the decrease in the elastic energy caused by introducing the crack in the plate.
Ug: the increase in the elastic-surface energy caused by the formation of the crack surfaces.
Once a crack is propagated throughout a material as illustrated in Figure 1. , the extension of the crack
resulted in the creation of new crack surface. New free surfaces are created at the faces of a crack, which
increases the surface energy of the system. Such new surfaces can be seen in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
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Fig. 2 Fractograph of ductile cast iron showing a transgranular fracture surface.

(From Callister, W.D. Jr. , Materials Science and Engineering : An Introduction, Pg. 187, Figure 8.6,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)
Fig. 3 Fractograph of an intergranular fracture surface.

(From Callister W.D. Jr., Materials Science and Engineering : An Introduction , Pg. 187 Figure 8.6, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.)
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One such model used to demonstrate the propagation of a crack in a brittle material is called the elastic
strain energy model.
E: modulus of elasticity
gs = specific surface energy
a = one half the length of an internal crack
In today's material world many materials also experience some plastic deformation during fracture during
fracture. Therefore the crack extension involves more than just an increase in surface energy. gp
represents a plastic deformation energy associated with crack extension. gs + gp can be substituted into the
above equation to model materials that undergo some plastic deformation.
G: the strain energy release rate.

gp: plastic deformation energy associated with crack extension.
gs : the specific surface energy
Please note that crack propagation can only occurs when it exceeds the critical value of G.
Example Problem
If the specific surface energy for polmethyl acrylate is 36.5 ergs/ cm2 and its corresponding modulus of
elasticity is 2.38 GPa. Compute the critical stress required for propagation of an internal crack length is
0.03m.
Solution
(36.5 ergs / cm2 )*(1 Joule / 1.0 * 107 ergs)*(100 cm / m)2 = .0365 J / m2
2.38 GPa = 2.38 *109 Pa
sc= (2(2.38*109 Pa)(0.0365 J / m2 ) / ( * (0.03m)/2) ) ^ (1/2)

sc= 60,719 Pa
Griffith - Orowan - Irwin Failure Criteria

The process of fracture consists of crack initiation and crack propagation. The condition necessary for
crack initiation is if the crack-like cut is able to propagate. If there was a perfectly elastic body with a slit
already present. If the slit is to propagate thereby increasing its surface, the slit will need a certain amount
of energy. This energy is called the energy of fracture. With the formation of a new surface the strain in
the corresponding area will be reduced which results in the release of corresponding elastic energy from
the body.
dt: the energy of fracture necessary for the formation of a new fracture surface area.
G :the energy released into the crack tip per unit area of the crack (rate of elastic strain energy
release).
d: the crack growth increment.
Energy Release Rate

The energy release rate often denoted by G is the amount of energy, per unit length along the crack edge,
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that is supplied by the elastic energy in the body and by the loading system in creating the new fracture
surface area. In terms of the stress intensity factor there is relationship called the Irwin relationship.
Note that there our two models for the stress intensity factor one for plane stress and plane strain.
(Plane Strain)
G: the energy release rate.
n: Poisson's Ratio.
K: the stress intensity factor.
E: the modulus of elasticity.
G=K2/E (Plane Stress)
K: the stress intensity factor.
E: the modulus of elasticity.
The total energy release rate in combined mode cracking can be obtained by adding the energies from the
different modes (Figure 4.),
Fig. 4 Three modes of crack surface displacements Mode I (opening or tensile mode), Mode II (sliding
mode), and Mode III (tearing mode).
(From Parton V.Z. Fracture Mechanics from Theory to Practice Pg. 66 Figure 47, Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers.)
These models by Irwin started the foundation of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). This discipline
of fracture mechanics characterizes the state of material loading over a volume of sufficient size that the
fracture strength of many engineering materials can be given in terms of the critical (maximum) stress
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intensity factor, KIC.
Fig. 5 A cracked body with a force (F) and (a) is the crack length.
(From Portela A., Dual Boundary Element Analysis of Crack Growth, Pg. 26 Figure 2.4, Computational
Mechanics Publications.)
Shown in the figure is a cracked body with a force being exerted on it and the propagation of a crack
(Figure 5.).
P: the potential energy of the external forces.

F: the generalized force per unit thickness.
D: the corresponding load-point displacement.
According to Clapeyron's Theorem, the strain energy is:
U: the strain energy.

F: the generalized force per unit thickness.
D: the corresponding load-point displacement.
Crack Speed and Kinetic Energy

In the previous sections, we assumed that the crack growth was slow. Fracture instability occurs when the
energy release rate G remains larger than the crack resistance. The surplus of energy is converted into
kinetic energy which governs the speed at which the crack will propagate through the material. The total
amount of energy that is converted into kinetic energy after a crack growth a.
Ekin: the kinetic energy.

R: the force of crack resistance.
The assumptions with the following model are:
1. crack propagation takes place under constant stress

2. the elastic energy release rate does not depend upon crack speed
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3. the crack growth resistance R is constant

The crack resistance is a function of the plastic behavior of the material at the crack tip and of its fracture
characteristics. This particular property is dependent upon strain rate. At the tip of a crack moving at high
velocity the strain rates are very high, and it must be expected that the material behaves in a more brittle
manner the higher the crack speed.
Crack Growth using Energy Theorems

So far we have assumed that the crack resistive force is independent of crack length. This is true only for
crack under plain strain. For plane stress, the crack resistance varies with amount of crack growth. When a
particular specimen is loaded, the crack starts propagating, a further increase of the stress is required to
maintain crack growth, although the crack is longer it can withstand a higher stress. During stable crack
growth the energy release rate is equal to the crack resistive force. As can be seen in Figure 6. the growth
rate of the crack increases with an increase in crack size. For example in a ductile material the energy
required for crack growth is the same as the amount of work for formation of a new plastic zone at the tip
of the advancing crack, plus the work required for initiation, growth and coalescence of microvoids.
Fig. 6 A graph of the increase of growth rate with crack size.

(From Broek D., Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Pg. 145 Figure 6.2, Kluwer Academic
Publishers Group.)
Fracture Energy of Specimen of Different Sizes

In a plastic, cylindrical test specimen deforms in a way that the degrees of deformation is nearly constant
along the whole cross section. Research has shown that deformation of geometrically similar specimens of
different diameters made from similar material is the same in any phase of the tensile test and not only the
reductions of area but the contour lines in the vicinity of necking. The absolute value of the stress is
independent of the size is the strain rate is constant.
A proportion law of L. Gillemot states that to the same deformation of two geometrically similar
specimens from similar material, similar specific energy is necessary if the cross head speed is
proportional with the diameters of the specimen.
U1 and U2 : cross head speeds applied during the tensile test.

d1 and d2 : diameters of the specimen.
Impact Energy Testing Methods

In order to learn more about the complex nature of fracture in materials impact testing conditions were
established. The conditions that were judged the most relative to the potential for fracture are:
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1. deformation at low temperatures

2. a high strain rate (rate of deformation)
3. a triaxial stress state
Two tests called the Charpy and Izod tests are used to measure the impact energy (also known as notch
toughness). These tests are important, because one can obtain information to model the behavior of actual
structures so that the laboratory test results can be used to predict service performance under different
environments.
With the Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square cross section
with a V notch. The load is applied as an impact below from a weighted pendulum hammer that is
released from a position h. The pendulum with a knife edge strikes and fractures the specimen at the
notch. The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height h', which is lower than h. The
energy necessary to fracture the test piece is directly calculated from the difference in initial and final
heights of the swinging pendulum (Figure 7.). The impact energy (toughness) from the Charpy test is
related to the area under the total stress-strain curve. The difference in the Charpy and the Izod techniques
is in the way that the specimens are supported in the apparatus machine.
One can expect that materials with large values of strength and ductility to have large impact fracture
energies. One has to also note that the impact data are very sensitive to test conditions such as
temperature, specimen size, and notch configuration as can be seen in Figure 8.
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Fig. 7 Illustration of Charpy and Izod Impact Tests.

(From Callister W.D. Jr., Materials Science and Engineering : An Introduction , Pg. 198 Figure 8.13,
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Fig. 8 A graph of the temperature dependence on the Charpy V-notch impact energy (curve A) and
percent shear fracture (curve B).
(From Callister W.D. Jr., Materials Science and Engineering : An Introduction , Pg. 199 Figure 8.14,
Fatigue
Overview
Cyclic Stresses
S-N Curve
Crack Initiation and Propagation
Propagation Rate
Factors That Affect Fatigue Life
Example Problems
The concept of fatigue is very simple, when a motion is repeated, the object that is doing the work
becomes weak. For example, when you run, your leg and other muscles of your body become weak, not
always to the point where you can't move them anymore, but there is a noticeable decrease in quality
output. This same principle is seen in materials. Fatigue occurs when a material is subject to alternating
stresses, over a long period of time. Examples of where Fatigue may occur are: springs, turbine blades,
airplane wings, bridges and bones.
This page will cover the topics included in Materials Science and Engineering, and Introduction by
Callister, as well as other information that may be helpful to the student in an introductory materials
science class.
Cyclic Stresses
There are three common ways in which stresses may be applied: axial, torsional, and flexural. Examples
of these are seen in Fig. 1.
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Figure 1
Visual examples of axial stress, torsional stress, and flexural stress.
There are also three stress cycles with which loads may be applied to the sample. The simplest being the
reversed stress cycle . This is merely a sine wave where the maximum stress and minimum stress differ by
a negative sign. An example of this type of stress cycle would be in an axle, where every half turn or half
period as in the case of the sine wave, the stress on a point would be reversed. The most common type of
cycle found in engineering applications is where the maximum stress (smax)and minimum stress (smin) are
asymmetric (the curve is a sine wave) not equal and opposite. This type of stress cycle is called repeated
stress cycle. A final type of cycle mode is where stress and frequency vary randomly. An example of this
would be automobile shocks, where the frequency magnitude of imperfections in the road will produce
varying minimum and maximum stresses.
The S-N Curve

A very useful way to visualize time to failure for a specific material is with the S-N curve. The "S-N"
means stress verse cycles to failure, which when plotted uses the stress amplitude, sa plotted on the
vertical axis and the logarithm of the number of cycles to failure. An important characteristic to this plot
as seen in Fig. 2 is the fatigue limit.
Figure 2
A S-N Plot for an aluminum alloy
The significance of the fatigue limit is that if the material is loaded below this stress, then it will not fail,
regardless of the number of times it is loaded. Material such as aluminum, copper and magnesium do not
show a fatigue limit, therefor they will fail at any stress and number of cycles. Other important terms are
fatigue strength and fatigue life. The stress at which failure occurs for a given number of cycles is the
fatigue strength. The number of cycles required for a material to fail at a certain stress in fatigue life.
Crack Initiation and Propagation

Failure of a material due to fatigue may be viewed on a microscopic level in three steps:
1. Crack Initiation: The initial crack occurs in this stage. The crack may be caused by surface
scratches caused by handling, or tooling of the material; threads ( as in a screw or bolt); slip bands
or dislocations intersecting the surface as a result of previous cyclic loading or work hardening.
2. Crack Propagation: The crack continues to grow during this stage as a result of continuously
applied stresses
3. Failure: Failure occurs when the material that has not been affected by the crack cannot withstand
the applied stress. This stage happens very quickly.
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Figure 3
A diagram showing location of the three steps in a fatigue fracture
under axial stress
One can determine that a material failed by fatigue by examining the fracture sight. A fatigue fracture will
have two distinct regions; One being smooth or burnished as a result of the rubbing of the bottom and top
of the crack( steps 1 & 2 ); The second is granular, due to the rapid failure of the material. These visual
clues may be seen in Fig. 4:
Figure 4
A diagram showing the surface of a fatigue fracture. Notice that the rough surface indicates brittle
failure, while the smooth surface represents crack propagation
Other features of a fatigue fracture are Beachmarks and Striations. Beachmarks, or clamshell marks, may
be seen in fatigue failures of materials that are used for a period of time, allowed to rest for an equivalent
time period and the loaded again as in factory usage. Striations are thought to be steps in crack
propagation, were the distance depends on the stress range. Beachmarks may contain thousands of
striations. Visual Examples of Beachmarks and Striations are seen below in Fig. 5 and 6:
Figure 5
An example of beachmarks or "clamshell pattern" associated with stress cycles that vary in magnitude
and time as in factory machinery
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Figure 6
An example of the striations found in fatigue fracture. Each striation is thought to be the advancement of
the crack. There may be thousands of striations in a beachmark
Demonstration of Crack Propagation Due to Fatigue
The figure above illustrates the various ways in which cracks are initiated and the stages that occur
after they start. This is extremely important since these cracks will ultimately lead to failure of the
material if not detected and recognized. The material shown is pulled in tension with a cyclic stress
in the y ,or horizontal, direction. Cracks can be initiated by several different causes, the three that
will be discussed here are nucleating slip planes, notches. and internal flaws.
Propagation Rate
The rate at which a crack grows has considerable importance in determining the life of a material. The
propagation of a crack occurs during the second step of fatigue failure. As a crack begins to propagate, the
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size of the crack also begins to grow. The rate at which the crack continues to grow depends on the stress
level applied. The rate at which a crack grows can be seen mathematically in equation 8.16 in Callister by:
Eq. 1
The variables A and m are properties of the material, da is the change in crack length, and dN is the
change in the number of cycles. K is the change in the stress intensity factor or by equation 8.17(a & b):
Eq. 2
Rearrangement and integration of Eq. 1 gives us the relation of the number of cycles of failure, Nf, to the
size of the initial flaw length, ao, and the critical crack length, ac, and Eq. 2:
Note: Nf is an estimate of the number of cycles to failure

Eq. 3
Factors That Affect Fatigue Life and Solutions

The Mean Stress, is defined as:
Eq. 4
The Mean stress has the affect that as the mean stress is increased, fatigue life decreases. This occurs
because the stress applies is greater.
I mentioned previously that scratches and other imperfections on the surface will cause a decrease in the
life of a material. Therefore making an effort to reduce these imperfections by reducing sharp corners,
eliminating unnecessary drilling and stamping, shot peening, and most of all careful fabrication and
handling of the material.
Another Surface treatment is called case hardening, which increases surface hardness and fatigue life. This
is achieved by exposing the component to a carbon-rich atmosphere at high temperatures. Carbon diffuses
into the material filling interstisties and other vacancies in the material, up to 1 mm in depth.
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Figure 7
A case hardened steel gear. Notice the effect of diffusion of Carbon into the material produces a "case"
around the gear.
Exposing a material to high temperatures is another cause of fatigue in materials. Thermal expansion, and
contraction will weaken bonds in a material as well as bonds between two different materials. For
example, in space shuttle heat shield tiles, the outer covering of silicon tetraboride (SiB4) has a different
coefficient of thermal expansion than the Carbon-Carbon Composite. Upon re-entry into the earth's
atmosphere, this thermal mismatch will cause the protective covering to weaken, and eventually fail with
repeated cycles.
Another environmental affect on a material is chemical attack, or corrosion. Small pits may form on the
surface of the material, similar to the effect etching has when trying to find dislocations.
Figure 8
Example of pits formed by corrosion on the surface of LiF. The "chemical" attacks weak spots on the
surface of the material, especially where dislocations intersect the surface.
This chemical attack on a material can be seen in unprotected surface of an automobile, whether it be by
road salt in the winter time or exhaust fumes. This problem can be solved by adding protective coatings to
the material to resist chemical attack.
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Example problems
1. Consider a flat plate of some metal alloy that is to be exposed to repeated tensile-compressive
cycling in which the mean stress is 25 MPa. If: ao = 0.25 mm, ac = 5.0 mm, m = 4.0, A = 5 * 10-15,
Y = 2.0, and Nf =3.2 * 105 cycles .
Find: Estimate the maximum tensile stress to yield the fatigue life prescribed
Solution: Use Equations 3 above to solve for Ds.
Eq. 3
STRESS CONCENTRATION
Stress Concentration
The fracture of a material is dependent upon the forces that exist between the atoms. Because of the forces
that exist between the atoms, there is a theoretical strength that is typically estimated to be one-tenth of the
elastic modulus of the material. However, the experimentally measured fracture strengths of materials are
found to be 10 to 1000 times below this theoretical value. The discrepancy is explained to exist because of
the presence of small flaws or cracks found either on the surface or within the material. These flaws cause
the stress surrounding the flaw to be amplified where the magnification is dependent upon the orientation
and geometry of the flaw. Looking at fig. 1, one can see a stress profile across a cross section containing
an internal, elliptically-shaped crack. One can see that the stress is at a maximum at the crack tip and
decreased to the nominal applied stress with increasing distance away from the crack. The stress is
concentrated around the crack tip or flaw developing the concept of stress concentration. Stress raisers
are defined as the flaws having the ability to amplify an applied stress in the locale.
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Fig. 1: (a) The geometry of surface and internal cracks. (b) Schematic stress profile along the line X-X' in
(a), demonstrating stress amplification at crack tip positions.
Determination of the Maximum Stress at the Crack Tip

If the crack is assumed to have an elliptical shape and is oriented with its long axis perpendicular to the
applied stress, the maximum stress, sm can be approximated at the crack tip by Equation 1.
Eqn. 1: Determination of the maximum stress surrounding a crack tip.

The magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress is so; the radius of the curvature of the crack tip is r;
and a represents the length of a surface crack, or half the length of an internal crack.
Determination of Stress Concentration Factor

The ratio of the maximum stress and the nominal applied tensile stress is denoted as the stress
concentration factor, Kt, where Kt can be calculated by Equation 2. The stress concentration factor is a
simple measure of the degree to which an external stress is amplified at the tip of a small crack.
Eqn. 2: Determination of the stress concentration factor.
Stress Concentration Considerations

It is important to remember that stress amplification not only occurs on a microscopic level (e.g. small
flaws or cracks,) but can also occur on the macroscopic level in the case of sharp corners, holes, fillets,
and notches. Fig. 2 depicts the theoretical stress concentration factor curves for several simple and
common material geometries.
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Fig. 2: Stress concentration factor plots for three different macroscopic flaw situations.
Stress raisers are typically more destructive in brittle materials. Ductile materials have the ability to
plastically deform in the region surrounding the stress raisers which in turn evenly distributes the stress
load around the flaw. The maximum stress concentration factor results in a value less than that found for
the theoretical value. Since brittle materials cannot plastically deform, the stress raisers will create the
theoretical stress concentration situation.
Reference:
Callister, William D. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction - 3rd Edition. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York, 1994.
Stress Intensity
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The Liberty Bell (Philadelphia, PA)

Jefferson Kim, MSE 2094, Term Project (Edited R.D. Kriz 3-5-00)
Stress Intensity Factor, K, is used in fracture mechanics to more accurately predict the stress state ("stress
intensity") near the tip of a crack caused by a remote load or residual stresses. When this stress state
becomes critical a small crack grows ("extends") and the material fails. The load at which this failure
occurs is referred to as the fracture strength. The experimental fracture strength of solid materials is 10 to
1000 times below the theoretical strength values, where tiny internal and external surface cracks create
higher stresses near these cracks, hence lowering the theoretical value of strength. The large crack seen in
the picture of the Liberty Bell was the result of small cracks and internal residual stresses not known at the
time. The original, "as fabricated" cracks were very small and hard to see with naked eyes, and according
to Hertzberg, during the war against the British, the bell was polished whenever they saw a crack on the
surface. Hardly a solution based on what we understand today. Unlike "stress concentration", Stress
Intentsity, K, as the name implies, is a parameter that amplifies the magnitude of the applied stress that
includes the geometrical parameter Y (load type). These load types are categorized as Mode-I, -II, or -III.
The Mode-I stress intensity factor, KIc is the most often used engineering design parameter in fracture
mechanics and hence must be understood if we are to design fracture tolerant materials used in bridges,
buildings, aircraft, or even bells. Polishing just won't do if we detect a crack. Typically for most materials
if a crack can be seen it is very close to the critical stress state predicted by the "Stress Intensity Factor".
Stress Analysis of Cracks
Generally there are three modes to describe different crack surface displacement in Fig.8.3 (Hertzberg,
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p321). Mode I is opening or tensile mode where the crack surfaces move directly apart. Mode II is sliding
or in-plane shear mode where the crack surfaces slide over one another in a direction perpendicular to the
leading edge of the crack. Mode III is tearing and antiplane shear mode where the crack surfaces move
relative to one another and parallel to the leading edge of the crack. Mode I is the most common load type
encountered in engineering design and will be explained here in more detail.
The value of the stress intensity factor, K, is a function of the applied stress, the size and the position of
the crack as well as the geometry of the solid piece where the cracks are detected, Fig.8.5 (Hertxberg,
p323). The tensile stress in X and Y directions, and the shear stress in the X-Y plane can calculated in
terms of K and position can be written as:
Mode-I
Mode-I
Fracture Toughness, KIc

Engineers are mostly worried about the brittle fracture because the brittle fractures bring most devastating
accidents and happen rapidly, and usually the brittle fractures take place when the applied stress increases
such that the stress state at the crack tip reaches a critical value. The fracture toughness can be defined in
terms of the stress intensity factor, K, but at a critical stress state. as:
where Y is a dimensionless parameter that depends on both the specimen and crack geometry in
Fig8.11(Callister, p193), and the greek symbol "Sigma" is an applied stress and "a" is crack length.
Generally, for the elliptical shaped crack,the equation is modified to include the geometry of the crack
with three different Y's.
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However, Y factor is 1.0 for the plate of infinite width and 1.1 for a plate of semi-infinite width. When the
thickness of specimen is very large with respect to the crack length, the stress intensity factor for Mode I is
often called the plane strain "Fracture Toughness". This modification of stress intensity into a plane strain
fracture toughness parameter can be approximated by a relationship that includes specimen geometry, and
yield strength.
Hence the specimen thickness is shown to be the most significant parameter that controls the transition of
fracture toughness from "plane stress" to "plane strain", see Fig. 8.12 (Callister, p194).
The plain strain fracture toughness for Mode I, KIc is also a function of many other factors such as
temperature, strain-rate and microstructure. Hence KIc is unique for a particular material and is a
fundamental material property so it is a very important consideration for material selection and design.
Designing and Preventing Fracture with KIc
KIc, stress, and Y factor are important variables for engineers to design and to determine the safety of
machinery, and often the size of the cracks is a very important factor to make decisions such that the
maximum allowable size of the crack can be written as
Also because KIc is unique for a particular material, engineers can use this variable for selecting
appropriate materials for a range of different applications. From the table in Appendix B engineers can
also decide how much load and stress can be allowed for a particular specimen geometry. This critical
information helps engineers to optimize the design and the safety on the operations and to prevent or
minimize possible accidents. For example, in aircraft components, there are a lot of rivet holes and small
cracks which bring Y calibration factor high up to the critical stress. What engineers do is measure the
length of cracks to calculate the maximum cracks length and to compare with safety measurement. They
can also make a hole at the tip of cracks, which brings down Y calibration factor and the also the the stress
concentration. Additionally, engineers clean the fracture surfaces to prevent further damages. Not only
does cleaning lower the Y calibration, but it also helps to protect the surface from undesireable chemical
reactions. Various cleaning methods are described in the table below.
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Table A.1 (Hertzberg, p752)

Conclusion
Stress intensity and fracture toughness are critically important fracture mechanics parameters used by
materials engineers and designers. We saw that there are a lot of factors that determine fracture of a
material. KIc is an unique material property, that is used by engineers to design and manufacture products
for durability and safe operation.
Appendix B (Hertzberg, p757)

K Calibrations for Typical Test Specimen Geometries
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TENSOR CALCULUS: Hooke's law

1) Definition
For small crystal deformations, one supposes that elastic stress tensor components are linearely linked to crystal
deformations. It is Hooke's law:
Or
The elasticity tensor is a 4 order tensor, with 81 components which are not always different.
With
uv
Symmetries of the stress tensor s and the deformation tensor e ij , and the use of an orthonormal coordinate system allows to
reduce the number of elasticity tensor components to 21.
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2) Reduction of the number of elasticity tensor components induced by rotations

Symmetries of crystals allow to reduce the elasticity tensor. Some simple cases are listed below..
a) Symmetry axis C2 parallel to 0x1
All the components having an odd number of time index 1 are equal to zero.
b) Symmetry axis C2 parallel to 0x2

All the coefficients having an odd number of time index 2 are equal to zero
c) Symmetry axis C2 parallel to 0x3

All the coefficients having an odd number of time index 3 are equal to zero.
d) Symmetry axis C4 parallel to 0x1

There is also a C2 axis parallel to ox1 and indexes 2 and 3 are equivalent.
d) Symmetry axis C4 parallel to 0x2

There is also a C2 axis parallel to ox2 and indexes 1 and 3 are equivalent.
g) Symmetry axis C4 parallel to 0x3

There is also a C2 axis parallel to ox3 and indexes 1 and 2 are equivalent
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g) Symmetry axis C3 parallel to [1 1 1]

All indexes are equivalent
i) Center of Symmetry
A center of symmetry does not allow to reduce the tensor ( C )
3) Elasticity tensors of some crystal systems
a) Monoclinic symmetry with axis C2 parallel to ox3
b) Orthorombic symmetry with axes ox1 , ox2 , ox3 parallel to unit cell axis
c) Tretragonal symmetry axis C4 parallel to ox3
Crystalline classes (C4 ,S4 , C 4h )
Crystalline classes (C4v , D 2d , D4 , D4h )

d) Cubic symmetry with axes ox1 , ox2 , ox3 parallel to unit cell axis
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e) Hexagonal symmetry with axis C6 parallel to ox3
f) Isotropic body
References
Callister, W. Materials Science and Engieering. John Wiley and Sons, New York1994.
Hertzberg, R. Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials. John Wiley and Sons, New
York 1996.
2. Experiments in Fracture
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Welcome fellow engineering students to the brittle fracture section of the fracture homepage. In this
section of the homepage brittle fracture will be explained in simple and easy to understand terms. To start
the topic off, what is brittle fracture? Basically, brittle fracture is a rapid run of cracks through a stressed
material. The cracks usually travel so fast that you can't tell when the material is about to break. In other
words, there is very little plastic deformation before failure occurs. In most cases, this is the worst type of
fracture because you can't repair visible damage in a part or structure before it breaks.
In brittle fracture, the cracks run close to perpendicular to the applied stress. This perpendicular fracture
leaves a relatively flat surface at the break. Besides having a nearly flat fracture surface, brittle materials
usually contain a pattern on their fracture surfaces. Some brittle materials have lines and ridges beginning
at the origin of the crack and spreading out across the crack surface.
Other materials, like some steels have back to back V-shaped markings pointing to the origin of the crack.
These V-shaped markings are called chevrons. Very hard or fine grained materials have no special pattern
on their fracture surface, and amorphous materials like ceramic glass have shiny smooth fracture surfaces.
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Chevron Fracture Surface (Callister p. 185)
Radiating Ridge Fracture Surface (Callister pg. 186, copyright by John Wiley & Sons, inc.)
Types of Brittle Fracture

The first type of fracture is transgranular. In transgranular fracture, the fracture travels through the
grain of the material. The fracture changes direction from grain to grain due to the different lattice
orientation of atoms in each grain. In other words, when the crack reaches a new grain, it may have
to find a new path or plane of atoms to travel on because it is easier to change direction for the
crack than it is to rip through. Cracks choose the path of least resistance. You can tell when a crack
has changed in direction through the material, because you get a slightly bumpy crack surface.
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The second type of fracture is intergranular fracture. Intergranular fracture is the crack traveling
along the grain boundaries, and not through the actual grains. Intergranular fracture usually occurs
when the phase in the grain boundary is weak and brittle ( i.e. Cementite in Iron's grain
boundaries). Think of a metal as one big 3-D puzzle. Transgranular fracture cuts through the
puzzle pieces, and intergranular fracture travels along the puzzle pieces pre-cut edges.
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Ductile to Brittle Fracture Transition

In fracture, there are many shades of gray. Brittle fracture and ductile fracture are fairly general terms
describing the two opposite extremes of the fracture spectrum. I will explain the factors that make a
material lean toward one type of fracture as opposed to the other type of fracture.
The first and foremost factor is temperature. Basically, at higher temperatures the yield strength is
lowered and the fracture is more ductile in nature. On the opposite end, at lower temperatures the
yield strength is greater and the fracture is more brittle in nature. This relationship with
temperature has to do with atom vibrations. As temperature increases, the atoms in the material
vibrate with greater frequency and amplitude. This increased vibration allows the atoms under
stress to slip to new places in the material ( i.e. break bonds and form new ones with other atoms
in the material). This slippage of atoms is seen on the outside of the material as plastic
deformation, a common feature of ductile fracture.
When temperature decreases however, the exact opposite is true. Atom vibration decreases, and
the atoms do not want to slip to new locations in the material. So when the stress on the material
becomes high enough, the atoms just break their bonds and do not form new ones. This decrease in
slippage causes little plastic deformation before fracture. Thus, we have a brittle type fracture.
At moderate temperatures (with respect to the material) the material exhibits characteristics of
both types of fracture. In conclusion, temperature determines the amount of brittle or ductile
fracture that can occur in a material.
Another factor that determines the amount of brittle or ductile fracture that occurs in a material is
dislocation density. The higher the dislocation density, the more brittle the fracture will be in the material.
The idea behind this theory is that plastic deformation comes from the movement of dislocations. As
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dislocations increase in a material due to stresses above the materials yield point, it becomes increasingly
difficult for the dislocations to move because they pile into each other. So a material that already has a
high dislocation density can only deform but so much before it fractures in a brittle manner. The last
factor is grain size. As grains get smaller in a material, the fracture becomes more brittle. This phenomena
is do to the fact that in smaller grains, dislocations have less space to move before they hit a grain
boundary. When dislocations can not move very far before fracture, then plastic deformation decreases.
Thus, the material's fracture is more brittle.
In ending, I would like to say that these are just the basics of brittle fracture. There are whole books
written on just brittle fracture. So, if this section interested you at all, go look the books up at your local
university library.
Good Luck with your studies MSE 2034/44 students.
Experimental Fatigue
Overview: Here is a little of what you will find on this page.
Background information on general causes and recognition of material failures

The influence of different factors on material fatigue
A sample experiment that may be performed at home
Insight into experiments dealing with fatigue
Fatigue considerations in real life
Causes and Recognition of Fatigue Failures
General Causes of Material Failures:
Design deficiencies
Manufacturing deficiencies
Improper and insufficient maintenance
Operational overstressing
Environmental factors (i.e. heat, corrosion, etc.)
Secondary stresses not considered in the normal operating conditions
Fatigue failures
Improper and insufficient maintenance seems to be one of the most contributing factors influenced by
some improper designs such as areas that are hard to inspect and maintain and the need for better
maintenance procedures. In many circumstances the true load is difficult to predict resulting in a structure
being stressed beyond its normal capabilities and structural limitations. When a structure is subject to
cyclic loads, areas subject to fatigue failure must be accurately identified. This is often very hard to
analyze, especially in a highly composite structure for which analysis has a high degree of uncertainty.
Thus, in general, experimental structural fatigue testing is frequently resorted to.
Recognition of Fatigue Failure
Two fatigue zones are evident when investigating a fracture surface due to fatigue, the fatigue zone and
the rupture zone. The fatigue zone is the area of the crack propagation. The area of final failure is called
the rupture or instantaneous zone. In investigation of a failed specimen, the rupture zone yields the
ductility of the material, the type of loading, and the direction of loading. The relative size of the rupture
zone compared with the fatigue zone relates the degree of overstress applied to the structure. The amount
of overstressing can be determined from the fatigue zone as follows: highly overstressed if the area of the
fatigue zone is very small compared with the area of the rupture zone; medium overstress if the size or
area of both zones are nearly equal; low overstress if the area of rupture zone is very small. Figure 1
describes these relations between the fatigue and rupture zones.
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Figure 1 Fracture appearances of fatigue failures in Bending by Dr. Charles Lipson,"Why Machine Parts
Fail," Machine Design, Penton, Cleveland 13, Ohio. From Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F.
Madayag, pg. 5.
The fatigue zone can be described as follows: a smooth rubbed, and velvety appearance, the presence of
waves known as "clam-shells" or "oyster-shells", "stop marks" and "beach marks," and the herringbone
pattern or granular trace which shows the origin of the crack. In general, stop marks indicate the variations
in the rate of crack propagation due to variations in stress amplitude in a cyclic application varying with
time. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the fatigue zone.
Figure 2 Typical fatigue zone with identifying marks. From Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F.
Madayag, pg. 3.
Design Considerations
Even if careful attention to good design practices is constantly the goal of design engineers, fatigue
problems are sometimes introduced into the structure. Fatigue failures are often the result of geometrical
or strain discontinuities, poor workmanship or improper manufacture techniques, material defects, and the
introduction of residual stresses that may add to existing service stresses.
Typical factors affecting fatigue include the following: Stress raisers, usually in the form of a notch or
inclusion; most fatigue fractures may be attributed to notch effects, inclusion fatigue specimens are rare.
High strength materials are much more notch-sensitive than softer alloys. Corrosion is another factor that
affects fatigue. Corroded parts form pits that act like notches. Corrosion also reduces the amount of
material which effectively reduces the strength and increases the actual stress. Decarburization, the loss of
carbon from the surface of the material, is the next factor. Due to bending and torsion, stresses are highest
at the surface; decarburization weakens the surface by making it softer. Finally, residual stresses which
add to the design stress; the combined effect may easily exceed the limit stress as imposed in the initial
design.
Influence of Processing and Metallurgical Factors on Fatigue
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A myriad of factors affect the behavior of a material under fatigue loading. Obvious factors include the
sign, magnitude, and frequency of loading, the geometry and material strength level of the structure and
the ambient service temperature. However, processing and metallurgical factors are not often considered,
but these factors determine the homogeneity of materials, the sign and distribution of residual stresses, and
the surface finish. Thus, processing and metallurgical factors have an overriding influence on the
performance of a structure.
Processing Factors
Stresses are normally highest at the surface of a structure, so it follows that fatigue usually initiates at the
surface. Stress raisers are more likely to be present as a result of surface irregularities introduced by the
design of the structure or produced in service or resulting from processing. Processing factors can
introduce a detrimental or beneficial effect into a structure, usually in the form of effect on strength level
or residual stress condition of the surface material. Therefore, the effect of processing on the mechanical
properties of a material, especially the surface of the material, directly affects fatigue properties.
Processing factors that influence the fatigue life of a structure include the following: the process by which
a part is formed, such as die casting; the heat treatment of a material, such as quenching, which builds up
residual stresses and annealing, which relieves internal stress (see Figure 3); case hardening, such as
carburization or nitriding, which increases surface hardness and strength (see Figure 4); surface finish,
such as polished smooth by electropolishing; cold working, which increases strength; also, cladding,
plating, chemical conversion coatings, and anodizing.
Figure 3 Effect of hardness on the fatigue life of threads rolled before and after heat treatment. From
Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 82.
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Figure 4 Bending fatigue test results on sections from crankshafts: endurance limit versus surface
treatment. From Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 70.
Metallurgical Factors
Metallurgical factors refers to areas within the material, wither on the surface or in the core, which
adversely affect fatigue properties. These areas may arise from melting practices or primary or secondary
working of the material or may be characteristic of a particular alloy system. In virtually all instances the
detriment to fatigue properties results from a local stress-raising effect. Therefore, metallurgical factors
affecting fatigue include the following: surface defects, sub-surface and core defects, inhomogeneity,
anisotropy, improper heat treatment, localized overheating, corrosion fatigue, and fretting corrosion.
Experimental Analysis of Fatigue
Fatigue Life Curves
Failure due to repeated loading is known as fatigue. A small crack, a scratch, or some other such minor
defect causes localized deformation. This deformation leads to a small crack if one was not initially
present. After cyclic loading, that is, loading in the same way multiple times, the crack grows, and
eventually the material fails. A fatigue life curve is a graphical representation of the cyclic loading.
Simply, a fatigue life curve, also known as an S-N curve is a plot of the stress amplitude versus the
number of cycles the material goes through before it fails. That is, for a certain stress, the material will fail
within a certain number of cycles. Figure 5 is an example of a typical fatigue life curve.
Figure 5 Typical Fatigue Life Curve. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory, Prepared by
Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 8-3.
To help understand the concept of fatigue life curves, an experiment that may be performed easily by
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anyone is presented here.

Fatigue Life Curves Experiment
What you need:
4 Jumbo Paper Clips

A Copy of Figure 6
What to do:
1. Bend four paper clips at each of the four bending angles indicated in Figure 6 until each fails,
counting the number of times the paper clip is bent. For instance, bend a paper clip 45, then bend it
to -45, then back to zero. This is one cycle.
2. Record the data in Table 1.
3. Using a spreadsheet program, plot the number of cycles versus the angle. The angle represents the
stress amplitude.
Figure 6 Bending angle guide. Place paper clip in a vertical plate and bend in the middle using this guide
to judge the angles. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering
Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 8-6.
Table 1: Table For Experimental Data

Cycles to Failure Angle,
? 90
? 45
? 20
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? 10
An example of this experiment:
Table 2: Experimental Data
Cycles to Failure Angle,
1.5 90
7 45
29 20
79 10
Fatigue Crack Growth

If an engineering component contains a crack, and if a cyclic or repeated load is applied, the crack is likely
to grow slowly with increasing number of load cycles. This process is known as fatigue crack growth. In a
fatigue crack growth experiment, the progress of a crack growing under a cyclic load is measured, and the
results are plotted as a fatigue crack growth rate curve, da/dN versus K (that is, change in crack length
divided by change in number of cycles to failure versus change in fracture toughness). A typical fatigue
crack growth curve is shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7 Crack growth rates obtained from adjacent pairs of a vs. N data points. From [Dowling 93] p.
465; ©1993 by Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials
Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg.
9-3.
In the simplest form of a fatigue crack growth rate test, a cyclic load is applied that has fixed maximum
and minimum loading levels. The test specimen is usually a plate of material in which a crack has already
been started at the end of a V-bottom machined slot. In a typical fatigue crack growth experiment, the
sample is loaded in a closed-loop servohydraulic testing machine and data for crack length, number of
cycles to failure, and fracture toughness is recorded. From this data the mechanical behavior for a certain
material can be described under fatigue crack growth loading by the fatigue crack growth rate curve. This
sort of experiment is useful for materials that would undergo high cyclic loading stresses such as an
airplane wing or a helicopter rotor.
Low Cycle Fatigue
Low cycle fatigue is the repeated cyclic loadings that cause significant plastic deformation in a material
and may cause fatigue cracking after a relatively small number of cycles-hundreds or thousands. Low
cycle fatigue typically occurs as a result of repeated localized yielding near stress raisers, such as holes,
fillets, and notches, despite the elastic deformation occurring over the bulk of the component. Uniaxial
testing is performed on several smooth (unnotched) specimens under different cyclic deformation levels in
a typical low cycle fatigue test. Each specimen follows a given constant stress amplitude, completely
reversed, cyclic strain. That is, the mode of testing is strain control instead of stress control. Stress
response is monitored during cyclic loading, and the number of cycles to failure is recorded for these tests.
The results from several tests are necessary to determine the cyclic stress-strain curve and the strain life
curve for the material. A schematic representation of a completely reversed controlled strain test is shown
in Figure 8.
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Figure 8 Completely reversed controlled strain test and two possible stress responses, namely
cycle-dependent hardening and softening. From [Landgraf 70]; ©ASTM. From Mechanical Behavior of
Materials Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, pg. 10-2.
If a sufficiently high strain level is reached, yielding may occur before the maximum strain is reached on
each cycle of loading. Stress amplitude usually varies; if it increases, the material is said to cyclically
harden, if it decreases, the material is said to cyclically soften. However, this behavior tends to stabilize
such that the variation in the stress amplitude is small after an initial period of transient hardening or
softening. Once the behavior is stabilized, a closed stress-strain hysteresis loop is formed during each
strain cycle. This hysteresis loop typically looks like Figure 9. The area inside the hysteresis loop is the
energy absorbed per unit volume of the material. This energy mostly dissipates as heat. Fatigue failure
results under repeated cycling and the life is measured by the number of strain cycles to failure. A strain
life curve may be plotted from the data contained in the hysteresis loop as is shown in Figure 10. This sort
of experiment is useful in analysis of parts where the material is strong enough to withstand the cyclic
loading it may go through, but fails due to fracture at a bolt hole or other such stress raiser. An example of
this is a structural member bolted to another structural member which fails due to a crack originating from
the bolt hole.
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Figure 9 Stable stress-strain hysteresis loop. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory,
Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 10-2.
Figure 10 Elastic, plastic, and total strain vs. Life curves. Adapted from [Landgraf 70]; ©ASTM. From
Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 10-5.
Real Life-Design and Manufacturing Considerations

The following describes a relationship between factors that shape the S-N curves as they are influenced by
design and manufacturing conditions and the effects of such conditions on the fatigue properties of
materials, components, and structures.
Recommendations for Designs to Avoid Fatigue Failures
A designer can help to minimize the possibility of fatigue failure by proper design of structural
components. Many fatigue failures may be attributed to lack of sufficient consideration of design details
or a lack of appreciation of engineering principles. These principles, which are an integral part of good
design of structures subject to fatigue are well reported in literature, but this information has been
scattered throughout sources and may be inaccessible to a designer who needs to understand and utilize
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the principles. It is good design practice to seek out sources of this information and to utilize the
principles before, during and after the design process.
Fatigue Considerations in Helicopter Design and Service
The helicopter is subject to many fatigue considerations that fixed wing aircraft are not, such as the
significant oscillatory loads due to the harmonic content of aerodynamic loads from the combined
rotational and translation blade motion through the air, also the cyclic loading of the rotor start-stop
cycles, transient maneuver loads, gust loads, coriolis loads, and torque loads. These are just a small
example of the many unique fatigue loading considerations in helicopter design. Thus one may realize the
complexity of helicopter design and service. The helicopter is one of many vehicles and structures which
undergo unique fatigue loading, therefore, fatigue considerations are an important part of the design
process.
Figure 11 A tension fatigue failure of a helicopter rotor blade flapping link. Fatigue crack originated at
arrow B, propagated to arrows. From "Metal Fatigue and Its Recognition," Civil Aeronautics Board,
Bureau of Safety, Bulletin No. 63-I, April 1963, by Frank R. Stone, Jr. From Metal Fatigue: Theory and
Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 10.
Summary
In summary, fatigue plays an important role in all areas of the engineering process, from design to
manufacture to service during the life of a product or structure. All engineers must carefully study the
effects and the many types of fatigue, no matter what field of engineering and what part of the engineering
process.
References
Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design. ed. A.F. Madayag, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969.
Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. 3rd Edition, William D. Callister, Jr., John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1994.
Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory. N.E. Dowling and R.A. Simonds, University Printing
Service, 1995.
Ductile Fracture
One of the most important and key concepts in the entire field of Materials Science and Engineering is
fracture. In its simplest form, fracture can be described as a single body being separated into pieces by an
imposed stress. For engineering materials there are only two possible modes of fracture, ductile and
brittle. In general, the main difference between brittle and ductile fracture can be attributed to the amount
of plastic deformation that the material undergoes before fracture occurs. Ductile materials demonstrate
large amounts of plastic deformation while brittle materials show little or no plastic deformation before
fracture. Figure 1 (below), a tensile stress-strain curve, represents the degree of plastic deformation
exhibited by both brittle and ductile materials before fracture.
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Crack initiation and propagation are essential to fracture. The manner through which the crack propagates
through the material gives great insight into the mode of fracture. In ductile materials (ductile fracture),
the crack moves slowly and is accompanied by a large amount of plastic deformation. The crack will
usually not extend unless an increased stress is applied. On the other hand, in dealing with brittle fracture,
cracks spread very rapidly with little or no plastic deformation. The cracks that propagate in a brittle
material will continue to grow and increase in magnitude once they are initiated. Another important
mannerism of crack propagation is the way in which the advancing crack travels through the material. A
crack that passes through the grains within the material is undergoing transgranular fracture. However, a
crack that propagates along the grain boundaries is termed an intergranular fracture. Figure 2 (below)
shows a scanning electron fractograph of ductile cast iron, examining a transgranular fracture surface.
On both macroscopic and microscopic levels, ductile fracture surfaces have distinct features.
Macroscopically, ductile fracture surfaces have larger necking regions and an overall rougher appearance
than a brittle fracture surface. Figure 3 (below) shows the macroscopic differences between two ductile
specimens(a,b) and the brittle specimen (c).
On the microscopic level, ductile fracture surfaces also appear rough and irregular. The surface consists of
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many microvoids and dimples. Figure 4 (below left) and Figure 5 (below right) demonstrate the
microscopic qualities of ductile fracture surfaces.
The failure of many ductile materials can be attributed to cup and cone fracture. This form of ductile
fracture occurs in stages that initiate after necking begins. First, small microvoids form in the interior of
the material. Next, deformation continues and the microvoids enlarge to form a crack. The crack continues
to grow and it spreads laterally towards the edges of the specimen. Finally, crack propagation is rapid
along a surface that makes about a 45 degree angle with the tensile stress axis. The new fracture surface
has a very irregular appearance. The final shearing of the specimen produces a cup type shape on one
fracture surface and a cone shape on the adjacent connecting fracture surface, hence the name, cup and
cone fracture. Figure 6 (below) shows cup and cone, and brittle fracture in aluminum.
The Charpy and Izod tests measure the impact energy of a specimen. By using an apparatus and impacting
a specimen with a weighted pendulum hammer the impact energy can be measured. A primary use of the
Charpy and Izod tests is to determine if a material experiences brittle to ductile transition with decreasing
temperature. Brittle to ductile transition is directly related to the temperature dependency of the impact
energy absorbed. Also an examination of the failure surface can prove very beneficial. If a section of the
failure surface seems to demonstrate the visual properties of both brittle and ductile fracture, then brittle to
ductile transition is evident at that temperature range. It is very important to remember that with most
specimens, there is a fairly wide band of temperatures that support brittle to ductile transition. Therefore,
for many specimens it is nearly impossible to predict any one temperature as the transition temperature. In
figure 7 (below), a graph is given that determines brittle to ductile transition through an impact test for a
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1018 hot-rolled steel.
In most design situations a material that demonstrates ductile fracture is usually preferred for several
reasons. First and foremost, brittle fracture occurs very rapidly and catastrophically without any warning.
Ductile materials plastically deform, thereby slowing the process of fracture and giving ample time for the
problem to be corrected. Second, because of the plastic deformation, more strain energy is needed to cause
ductile fracture. Next, ductile materials are considered to be "forgiving" materials, because of their
toughness you can make a mistake in the use, design of a ductile material and still the material will
probably not fail. Also, the properties of a ductile material can be enhanced through the use of one of the
strengthening mechanisms. Strain hardening is a perfect example, as the ductile material is deformed more
and more its strength and hardness increase because of the generation of more and more dislocations.
Therefore, in engineering applications, especially those that have safety concerns involved, ductile
materials are the obvious choice. Safety and dependability are the main concerns in material design, but in
order to attain these goals there has to be a thorough understanding of fracture, both brittle and ductile.
Understanding fracture and failure of materials will lead the materials engineer to develop safer and more
dependable materials and products.
Fracture Toughness
What is fracture toughness Kc?
Fracture toughness, Kc, is the resistance of a material to failure from fracture starting from a preexisting
crack. This definition can be mathematically expressed by the following expression:
0K_c = Y sigma SQRT{pi a}
Where Y is a dimensionless factor dependent on: the geometry of the crack and material, the loading
configuration (i.e. if the sample is subject to tension or bending), and the ratio of crack length to specimen
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width, b. is the amount of load (stress) applied to the specimen, and a is the crack length.
Figure 1 A specimen with an interior crack. Note that the entire crack length is equal to 2a.
Figure 2 A specimen with a through-thickness crack.
Figure 3 A specimen with a half circle surface crack.

Source Figures 1,2,3: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Figure 1 shows that a is not always the total length of the crack, but is sometimes half the crack length, as
for an interior crack. The values for Y vary with respect to the shape and location of the crack. Some
useful values of Y for short cracks subjected to a tension load are as follows:
Y = 1.00 For an interior crack similar to the crack shown in Figure 1
Y = 1.12 For a through-thickness surface crack as shown in Figure 2
Y = 0.73 For a half-circular surface crack as shown in Figure 3
Fracture toughness, Kc, has the English customary units of psi in, and the SI units of MPA m (1,2).
What is the plane strain fracture toughness, KIc?

For thin samples, the value Kc decreases with increasing sample thickness, b, as shown by Figure 4.
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A fracture toughness vs. thickness graph. Note the location of KIc. Source: Materials Science and
Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Ultimately, Kc becomes independent of b, at this point the sample is said to be under the conditions of
plane strain. This fixed value of Kc becomes known as the plane strain fracture toughness, KIc. KIc is
mathematically defined by:
0K_{Ic} = Y sigma SQRT{pi a}
This value for the fracture toughness is the value normally specified because it is never greater than or
equal to Kc. The I subscript for KIc , stands for mode I, or tensile mode, crack displacement as shown in
Figure 5(a).
The three modes of crack surface displacement.(a) Mode I, tensile mode; (b) mode II, sliding mode; and (c
)mode III, tearing mode. Source: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
In general, KIc is low for brittle materials and high for ductile materials. This trend is supported by the KIc
values in Table 1 (3,4).
Table 1 Room-Temperature Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Values
KIc
Material
MPA m psi in
Metals
2024-T351 Aluminum 36 33,000
4340 Steel
50.0 45,800
(tempered @ 260 C)
Titanium Alloy
44-66 40,000-60,000
(Ti-6Al-4V)
Ceramics
Aluminum Oxide 3.0-5.3 2,700-4,800
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Soda-lime glass 0.7-0.8 640-730

Concrete 0.2-1.4 180-1,270
Polymers
Polymethyl methacrylate 1.0 900
(PMMA)
Polystyrene 0.8-1.1 730-1,000
(PS)
Source: Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York.
How is KIc experimentally developed?
Two ASTM standard compact specimen of different b sizes. Source: Mechanical Behaviors of Materials,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.
There are many different experiments which can be run in order to obtain a value for KIc. Almost any size
and shape sample can be used, as long as it is consistent with mode I crack displacement. A possible, an
rather simple, experiment that can be performed to find a value for KIc involves a sample, with known
dimensions, similar to the one shown in Figure 6 and a screw-driven universal testing machine. This
testing machine loads the specimen, at a constant strain rate, while a Load vs. Displacement curve is
plotted by a X-Y recorder. From this plot, a possible value for can be calculated. With this value for , KIc
can be calculated. For a more in depth explanation of this specific experiment, please refer to Experiment
6 in the Laboratory Manual for ESM 3060 (Prof. Duke) (5).
What is the effect of microstructure, temperature, thickness, and crack size and location on KIc?
As stated in the previous sections, many factors figure into the value of KIc for a given material. By
definition (Equation 2), KIc varies with crack size and location, because crack size and location both
factor into the value for a. As shown by Figure 4, KIc does not change with sample thickness. This
non-variance is due to the condition of plane strain that the sample must be under to have a value for KIc.
KIc does vary with temperature and strain rate.
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Fracture toughness vs. temperature for various steels. Source: Mechanical Behaviors of Materials,
Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey.
Fracture toughness vs. temperature for various strain rates applied to A572 steel. Source: Mechanical
Behaviors of Materials, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey.
It can be shown, by Figures 7 and 8, KIc increases with decreasing strain rate and increasing temperature.
General strengthening methods, such as solid-solution hardening and strain hardening, tend to increase the
samples yield stress, but these procedures commonly lead to a decrease in KIc . Additionally, KIc typically
increases with decreasing grain size as composition and other microstructural variables are held constant
(6,7,8).
Example Problem
1. If a support beam of 4340 Steel (tempered at 260 C) has an interior crack of length 5 mm, how much
stress ( ) can be applied to it before it is expected to fracture?
Solution:
K_{Ic} = Y sigma SQRT{pi a}#
50.0 MPa SQRT{m} = 1.00 sigma SQRT{pi {5*10^{-3} m} OVER 2}#
sigma = 564 MPa
From Table 1, KIc for 4340 Steel (tempered at 260 C) is 50.0 MPA m. Then by knowing that Y = 1.00 for
an interior crack, solve Equation 2 for .
Sources
1. Material Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, William Calister, John Wiley & Sons,
46 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
Inc. 1994, p. 193-195.

2. Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue,
Norman E. Dowling, Prentice Hall, 1993, p. 329 - 330.
Inc. 1994, p. 194-196.
Norman E. Dowling, Prentice Hall, 1993, p. 287-291.
5. ESM 3060 Laboratory Manual, Professor Duke, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Copy Center.
Inc. 1994, p. 193-195.
Norman E. Dowling, Prentice Hall, 1993, p. 302-310.
8. Physical Metallurgy Principles, 3rd Edition, Robert E. Reed-Hill and Reza Abbaschian, PWS
Publishing Company, 1994, p. 737-738.
Modes of Fracture
The types of fracture surface characteristics, know as fractography, are classified into four modes of
fracture: microvoid coalescence or dimple rupture, transgranular cleavage, fatigue, and decohesive
rupture.
Microvoid Coalescence or Dimple Fracture usually occurs under single load or tearing. This is
shown by depressions in the microstructure called dimples, which occur from microvoid emergence
in places of high local plastic deformation. Under increased strain micrvoids grow, coalescence,
until rupture occurs, thus dimple rupture. Dimple size and shape depends on the type of loading and
extent of microvoid emergence. When a material is put under uniaxial tensile loading, equiaxed
dimples appear which have complete rims. Under a tear loading the dimples are elongated, the rims
of the dimples are not complete and the dimples are in the same direction as the loading. Shear
loading has the same features as tear loading except the dimples are in opposite directions. The
following sentences provide other common terminology associated with dimple fracture. Oval
dimples occur when a large void intersects a smaller subsurface void, the dimples form an oval
shape and exhibit complete rims. A serpentine glide is an interwoven pattern of glide plane
decohesion steps. Ripples are partially smoothed out areas of serpentine glide. A stretched area is a
flat, featureless area resulting from further straining of a ripple pattern. Intergranular dimple rupture
occurs along grain boundaries due to nucleation and coalescence of voids at grain boundaries.
Transgranular Cleavage occurs at well defined planes in the crystal which are shown in body
centered cubic and hexagonal close packed materials. Cleavage results from high stress along three
axes with a high rate of deformation and at low temperatures. Characteristics of cleavage are
cleavage steps, feather markings, herringbone structure, tongues and microtwins, Wallner lines and
quasi-cleavage. A cleavage step is a step on a cleavage facet joining two parallel cleavage fractures.
Feather markings are very fine, fan like markings on a cleavage fracture. Tongues and microtwins
tongues are fine slivers of metal on cleavage facets which form from cleavage across microtwins
which, in turn, are formed by plastic deform at the tip of the main crack. Wallner lines a distinct "V"
shaped by pattern intersection of two groups of parallel cleavage steps, primarily found in brittle
materials. Quasi cleavage is a fracture mode resembling cleavage because of its planar facets but
where the fracture facets are not specific well-defined planes.
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Fatigue failure is classified into two types, high and low cycle. Striations show the propagation of
the crack front. High cycle fatigue (HCF) failure often shows close, well-defined striations. Low
cycle fatigue (LCF) failure commonly shows sparse and less detailed striations than failure in HCF.
Common terms associated with fatigue failure are: beach marks or clam shells, ratchet marks,
secondary cracks and tire tracks. Beach marks or clam shells are crescent shaped macroscopic
marks on fatigue fractures representing positions of the crack propagation. Ratchet marks are
macroscopic step marks which are formed when cracks emanating from multiple origins meet.
Secondary cracks are cracks seen at the fatigue striations (prevalent in some alloys). Tire tracks
microscopic features observed in high-stress LCF fractures caused by repeated impacting and
relative motion of the mating surfaces.
Decohesive Rupture occurs along weak material surfaces. Surfaces such as grain-boundary
precipitation, low-strength phases, defect structures, stress-corrosion cracking and hydrogen
embrittlement. In layman's terms, surfaces such as: in-between the individual grains; an area of the
material which is not completely crystallized (see crystallized) or due to conditions, is undergoing a
phase change (see phase change); vacancies and interstials in ceramic materials; rupture due rusting
and rupture due to oxidation. Decohesive rupture frequently occurs with a combination of other
modes of fracture. Stress-corrosion cracking is identified as intergranular and transgranular cracks
which form in stressed materials due to interaction between the material and the corrosive
environment. Hydrogen embrittlement of the material caused by rapid diffusion of hydrogen into
grain boundaries and other areas of some materials. Hydrogen embrittlement promotes fracture
failure under sustained load. Rubbing or attrition marks surface features resembling striations which
result from mutual rubbing of the mating surfaces after fracture. Mud cracking fine fissures found in
some corrosion products in fractured surfaces. Glide plane decohesion separation of material by
glide along a slip plane.
Design - Table of Contents
Summary
Composite Materials and Fracture Design
Ceramic Materials and Fracture Design
Fracture Toughness and Fracture Design
Residual Stress and Fracture Design
Post Fracture Design
Sources
Summary of Fracture Design

Overview:
One of the most important parts of the any engineering design are the materials that involved in its
construction. All materials have weaknesses and strengths and it is vital that a designer realize the
limitations of certain materials. The purpose of this section of the fracture web project is to inform MSE
2034 and MSE 2044 students what principle material parameters should be taken into consideration to
prevent or promote fracture. In addition, this section of the web project will desribe how these materials
can be modified so that they meet necessary design criterion.
Factor of Safety and Fracture Design

All engineers must answer a fundemental question, "How safe is the design?" An equation, Se-1, is used
to express the safety of a design's mechanical strength as a ratio between the applied stresses on the
materials in the design, and the materials' yield or tensile strength.
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Equation Se-1 [1]. the equation for the factor of safety

su = The ultimate or yield strength of the material.
sa = The stress that is applied to a material.
Usually when designing a part, a material's su is replaced with the material's yield strength, not tensile
strength. This makes good common sense. Most airplanes, for example, can not afford to have their wings
plastically deformed by stresses and still have the same flight characteristics as before. The value of the
factor of safety is also dependent on the application. Fighter jets may have a factor of safety of 1.1, but
industrial machinary may have a factor of safety of 3 or higher.
How will the Design Fracture?
What if a material does begin to fail or fractures? Will the people nearby have time to react? The time
interval between the beginning of failure and total failure is a very important question in fracture design.
There are two primary ways that a material can fail, ductile fracture, or brittle fracture. In brittle fracture,
the material fails in a quick, catastrophic fashion. Ductile fracture is little more forgiving. Often there is
ample time to notice crack propagation in a material that fails ductily, and fix the problem before the
materials completely fails. Engineering students you are strongly encouraged to read over the topics
ductile fracture and brittle fracture.
Can the Design be Tested without Destroying It?

Today's engineers now have the ability to model a design in a computer environment and apply loads to
the virtual design. The standard way of doing this is with a FEA (Finite Element Analysis) program.
Engineering students should take a good look at the section on FEA that was developed for this web
project to get a better understanding of how computers can help improve fracture design.
Why do Things Usually Fail?

Most failures occur not because one applied load is too great, but because a small load is applied
repeatedly, this kind of failure is a result of fatigue.
Geometry and Fracture Design:

Not surprisingly, a part's geometry has an impact on its mechanical performance. The geometry of a part
can lead to stress to concentrations. Mechanical engineers, especially, should beware of stress
concentrations when they design any part, no matter how small. No matter how strong or tough the
material that the part is made of, a poorly shaped design can have catastrophic consequences. Figures Sf-1
and Sf-2 show two machined pieces. Figure Sf-1 has a sharp end that creates a stress concentration. Figure
Sf-2 uses a fillet instead, minimizing additional stresses on the part.
Figure Sf-1 [1]. A poor design that will create a stress concentration
Figure Sf-2 [1]. Good design will minimize stress concentrations

To learn more about these concentrations the web project has an entire section set aside for stress
concentrations.
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Example Problem : Factor of Safety

A high strength piece of cabling is made from a special alloy, called Ronkrizite.
(st = 3500 MPa, sy =2000 MPa). The fiber's diameter is 0.01 m. The load that will be applied to the
cabling is 105 N. What is the factor of safety?
Answer:
Step 1) Calculate the applied stress.
sa = Load / Area = (105 N) / ( (Pi/4) (0.01 m)2 )
sa = 1270 MPa
Step 2) Assume that the material's yield stress, not tensile stress should be used in the factor of safety
equation. A designer should always use the yield strength unless told otherwise.
F.S. = su / sa
F.S. = sy / sa
F.S. = 2000 MPa / 1270 MPa
F.S. = 1.57
Composite Materials and Fracture Design

Overview:
Materials can be customized by reinforcing them with rods, fibers, whiskers, and even large particles of a
dissimilar material. Materials that include such enhancements are called composites.
Composites have two components, a matrix phase and a dispersion phase. The matrix is the material that
surrounds the the fibers, or dispersion phase. Steel reinforced concrete is an example of a composite.
Concrete is the matrix, reinforced by a dispersion phase, steel rods. The result is a composite material that
can handle greater tensile stresses than ordinary concrete can handle alone. (From this point on in the
discussion of composites, the dispersion phase will be equivalent with fiber reinforcements.)
A composite works by taking an applied stress and distributing it on the matrix and predominately on its
reinforcements. The result of putting strong fibers into a weak polymer can be a very strong and
lightweight material. You may ask, if the fibers are so much stronger than the matrix, why not just use the
fibers alone? The answer to that question is simple, design application. There aren't too many parts that
are used in industry that can be made of fibers alone. You usually need a solid piece of material in order to
build a product. The matrix allows designers to apply the high strength fibers to real-life situations.
Composite materials allow a designer to customize a material so that it will properly cope with the
stresses placed upon it. The fundamentals of composite design are based on the materials that are being
used for the matrix, and the fibers, the fibers' lengths compared to their diameters, and how the fibers are
arranged in the matrix.
Fiber Length:
There is a critical length, lc, that the fibers must have to strengthen a material to their maximum potential.
The critical length is given in equation Pe-1.
Eq.Pe-1 [1]. The minimum fiber length for a continuous fiber composite
lc= critical length
sf = tensile strength of the fiber
d = diameter of the fiber
tc = shear strength of the bond between the matrix and the fiber
Assuming that the actually length of the fiber is at least 15 times greater than the lc value; the fiber is said
to be "continuous"; Otherwise the composite is "discontinous." Generally speaking, continuous fiber
composites have superior mechanical properties. Callister states, "short fiber composites can be produce
having moduli of elasticity and tensile strengths that approach 90% and 50%, respectively, of their
continuous fiber counterparts." [4]
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Materials:
There is no practical limit to the number of combinations of materials that can be used as the
reinforcement or matrix in a composite. Don't get the wrong impression that all composites are metals in a
ceramic matrix, or ceramics in a polymer matrix. Tables of materials commonly used in the dispersion and
matrix phases of a composites are given in tables Pt-1, and Pt-2.
Materials Commonly Used in the Dispersion Phase of Composites
Whiskers
Material 3
Tensile Strength ( MPa *10 )
Graphite 20
Silicon carbide 20
Silicon nitride 14
Aluminum oxide 14-28
Fibers
Material 3
Aramid (Kevlar-49) 3.5
E-Glass 3.5
Carbon 1.5-5.5
Alumnina oxide 2.1
Silicon carbide 3.9
Metallic Wires
Material 3
High carbon steel 4.1
Molybdenum 1.4
Tungsten 4.3
Table Pt-1 [1].
Polymeric Materials Commonly Used in the Matrix Phase of Composites
Matrix Materials
Material Tensile Strength ( MPa )
Epoxy 35-85
Polymide 120
Ploysulfone 75
Table Pt-2 [2].
What's the difference between a whisker, a fiber, and a rod? The answer is diameter to length ratio. A wire
has a relatively large thickness, probably large enough so that you could pull out a ruler and measure its
diameter. A fiber is much thinner, and a whisker even more so. In addition, whiskers are single crystals
and by virtue of their extraordinarily small volume are almost defect free.
Fiber Alignment and Performance:

Probably the most important consideration that goes into composite design it aliment of its reinforcing
fibers. The fibers is many composites are arranged in one direction; the fibers are aligned unilaterally.
Figure Pf-1 is a graphical way of representing the strength of a unilateral composite as a function of the
direction of an applied stress. As you can clearly see, the strength of a composite drops dramatically when
the stress is applied off the alignment of the fibers.
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Figure Pf-1 [2]. Composite performance in relation to stress alignment

As a future designer you must remember that composite materials will only give you good performance if
the fibers are aligned to meet the applied stress. There are ways of aligning the fibers in patterns to
compensate for this draw back, but they will not be covered in this report.
Strength Equations for Discontinous Composites:

Equation Pe-2, and Pe-3 describes the tensile strength of a discontinous composite material with fibers of
length greater than and less than lc, respectively.
Eq. Pe-2 [1]. The tensile strength of a discontinous fiber composite with fiber length greater than lc.
Eq. Pe-3 [1]. The tensile strength of a discontinous fiber composite with fiber length less than lc.
Vf = volume fraction of the fiber in the composite
(TS)c = tensile strength of the composite
(TS)f = tensile strength of the composite
(TS)'m = tensile strength of the matrix
lc = critical fiber length
d = diameter of the fiber
tc = shear strength of the bond between the matrix and the fiber
Example Problem : Composite Design

Stresses on the fuselage of a high performance aircraft have been calculated with an FEA program to be
approximately 50 MPa. Initially designers have been thinking about using a new composite material called
Boloney-ium. Boloney-ium is made from an epoxy resin (st = 80 MPa ) and extremely short polymer
fibers, called Kanderite, (st = 2000 MPa). The fibers will make up 30% of the matrix and have an average
length and diameter of 0.25 mm and 10-6 m respectively. The shear strength between the fibers and the
matrix is very high, approximately 100 MPa. Will the new composite be able to withstand the applied
stress?
Answer:
Step 1) First check to see of the fibers are longer than lc
lc = (st d) / tc
lc = (2000 MPa) (10-6 m) / 100 MPa
lc = 2*10-5 m
lc = 0.02 mm
The fibers are longer than lc
The fibers' lengths are less than 15lc; therefore it is a discontinous fiber reinforced composite.
Step 2) Plug the known constants into the equation for the tensile strength of a discontinously reiforced
composite with fibers length greater than lc and find the tensile strength of the composite.
(TS) c = (TS)'f Vf ( 1 - (l c / 2l ) ) + (TS)' m (1- Vf )
(TS) c = (2000 MPa)*0.3[1 - ( 0.02 mm / (0.25 mm) )] + (80 MPa)' m (1- 0.3)
(TS)c = 608 MPa
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(TS)c = 608 MPa

The composite should be able to handle the stress.
Ceramic Materials and Fracture Design

Overview:
Ceramics have interesting design properties. They have excellent mechanical properties in compression,
but are terrible when tensile loads are applied to them, and are typically very brittle. As a student in MSE
2034 or 2044, you should be aware not just that ceramics handle differently in tension or compression, but
why this dissimilarity exists under different types of loading.
The difference between the tensile and compressive performance of a ceramic is caused by the presence of
preexisting cracks and flaws in the material. When the material in placed in tension these cracks act as
stress amplifiers, which in turn lead create a single dominant crack starting at the tip of a flaw. The
dominant crack will quickly cut through the material, ending its life prematurely. In compression,
however, the cracks don't behave like stress amplifiers. As a result the ceramic can handle compressive
stresses very well.
Since tensile tests conducted on ceramics are difficult to make because of the presence of cracks in the
materials, ceramics are exposed to bend tests that measure a parameter of the material called its modulus
of rupture. Students in MSE 2044 or MSE 2034 should simply be familiar with the term. I highly
recommend that you read over bend testing on page 405 of Callister.
The presence of cracks and defects in the ceramic materials is called porosity. The porosity of a ceramic
has a major effect on a ceramic's modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture. In figures Cf-1, and Cf-2
aluminum oxide's modulus and elasticity and modulus of rupture show, respectively, as a function of
porosity.
Figure Cf-1 [1]. aluminum oxide's modulus of elasticity as a function of porosity
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Figure Cf-2 [1]. aluminum oxide's modulus of rupture as a function of porosity

Improving Ceramics' for Fracture Design:
Since the porosity of a ceramic is highly correlated with its mechanical properties, reducing the number of
defects in a ceramic is a common way of increasing its strength. The most common way of lowering a
ceramic's porosity is sintering. During sintering a ceramic material is heated in a furnace or oven like
device; where it is exposed to high temperatures. These temperatures depend on the material, but you
should know that they will always be below the melting point of the ceramic. During the sintering process
pores in the ceramic will close up as seen in the figures Cf-3, Cf-4, and Cf-5.
Figure Cf-3 [1]. Before of Sintering
Figure Cf-4 [1]. During of Sintering
Figure Cf-5 [1]. After of Sintering
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Why Sintering Works:

The explanation for why sintering works will be very general and lacking technical specifics. The
following statements break down the rationale for why porosity decreases during sintering.
1. The ceramic material wants to be at the lowest possible energy state.

2. Grain boundaries, along the surfaces of these ceramic particles, are areas of high energy.
3. If it could the ceramic material would like to get rid of all its grain boundaries so that it would have
the lowest possible energy state.
4. The thermal energy the furnace gives to the ceramic material allows it change the size of its grain
boundaries, so as a result the porosity is decreased.
Titration:
Another way of decreasing porosity in a ceramic and altering its mechanical properties is called titration.
Titration is not covered in Callister, but it is an easy concept to grasp. Titration is immersing a ceramic in
a bath of molten material. The molten material infiltrates the cracks and pores in the ceramic, so that when
the process is complete some or much of the ceramic's porosity has been replaced by solid pieces of the
liquid material.
Working for DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), Dr. Ihan A. Aksay, and Aleksander
J. Pyzik heated a ceramic, boron carbide, up to 2000oC. At 2000 oC the carbide became very porous, and
was submerged in molten aluminum. The final result of the aluminum titration was a "fully densified
boron carbide-aluminum cerment." The fracture toughness of cermert is ranges from 5-7 MPa(m)1/2 .
While the cermet is still a brittle material, the titration effectively doubled boron carbide's fracture
toughness of (2-4) MPa(m)1/2 . [3]
Fracture Toughness and Fracture Design

Overview:
One of the most important properties of any material for virtually all design applications is fracture
toughness. Given the unusual units of MPa(m1/2 ), fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing
"a material's resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present." [5]. If a material has a large value of
fracture toughness it will probably undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of
materials with a low fracture toughness value.
Differences between Fracture Toughness:
There are actually four different types of fracture toughness, KC, KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC. KC is used to
measure a material's fracture toughness in a sample that has a thickness that is less than some critical
value, B. When the material's thickness is less than B, and stress is applied, the material is in a state called
plane stress. The value of B is given in equation Te-1. A material's thickness is related to its fracture
toughness graphically in figure Tf-1. Equation Te-2 shows a material's KC value in relation to the
material's width.
Eq. Te-1 [1]. The minimum thickness of material before plane strain behavior occurs.
B = minimum thickness to distinguish between KC and K1C
KC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness less than B
sy = yield stress of material
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Figure Tf-1 [1]. Fracture Toughness as a function of material thickness
Eq. Te-2 [1]. The fracture toughness of a material with a thickness less than B.
KC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness less than B
Y = constant related to the sample's geometry
a = crack length (surface crack), one half crack length (internal crack)
s = stress applied to the material
KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC all represent a material's fracture toughness when a sample of material has a
thickness greater than B. If a stress is applied to a sample with a thickness greater than B, it is in a state
called plane strain. The differences between KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC, however, do not depend on the
thickness of the material. Instead, KIC, KIIC, and KIIIC are the fracture toughness of a material under the
three different modes of fracture, mode I, mode II, and mode III, respectively. The different modes of
fracture I, II, and III are all graphically expressed in figures Tf-2, Tf-3, and Tf-4. Equation, Te-3 shows
how KIC can be calculated knowing the material's parameters.
Figure Tf-2 [1]. Mode I Fracture
Figure Tf-3 [1]. Mode II Fracture
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Figure Tf-4 [1]. Mode III Fracture
Eq. Te-3 [1]. The fracture toughness of a material with a thickness equal to or greater than B; when it fractures in mode I.
KIC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness greater than B
KIC values can be used to help determine critical lengths given an applied stress; or a critical stress values
can be calculated given a crack length already in the material with equations Te-4 and Te-5.
Eq. Te-4 [1]. Critical applied stress required to cause failure in a material.
sC = critical applied stress that causes the material to fail
KIC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness less than B
Eq. Te-5 [1]. Critical crack length required to cause failure in a material.
a = critical crack length (surface crack), one half crack length (internal crack)
KIC = fracture toughness, when the sample has a thickness less than B
Callister provides a table, Table Tt-1, of fracture toughness of common engineering materials.
KIC values for Engineering Materials
Material K1C MPa (m) 1/2
Metals
Aluminum alloy 36
Steel alloy 50
Titanium alloy 44-66

Aluminum oxide 14-28
Ceramic
Aluminum oxide 3-5.3
Soda-lime-glass 0.7-0.8
Concrete 0.2-1.4
Polymers
Polymethyl methacrylate 1
Polystyene 0.8-1.1
Table Tt-1 [1].
Students may notice that the ceramic materials have a much lower KIC value than the metals. The low
KIC value reflects the fact that ceramic materials are very susceptible to cracks and undergo brittle
fracture, whereas the metals undergo ductile fracture.
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Example Problem : Fracture Toughness

Plates of a ceramic material called boron carbide are being used to absorb neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
Boron carbide has a KIC of approximately 4 MPa(m) 1/2 and a high yield strength of 400 MPa. The
compressive stresses being applied to the boron carbide plates, only 10-3 m thin, are about 5 MPa; Y =
1.1. What is the critical crack length in the boron carbide plates?
Answer:
Step 1) Are the ceramic plates thick enough to be in plain strain when a stress is applied to them?
B = 2.5 (KIC / sy)2
B = 2.5 (4 MPa(m)1/2 / 400 MPa)2
B = 2.5*10-4 m
The width of the material is greater than 2.5*10-4 m, therefore plane strain applies to the problem
Step 2) Plug the known and calculated values into the equation given and calculate the critical crack
length.
ac = (1 / Pi) (4 MPa(m) 1/2 / (5 MPa * 1.1)2
ac = 0.168 m
Residual Stress and Fracture Design

Overview:
After or during the processing of any piece of material, stresses may be applied to the material sample.
These stresses are used to help prevent failure of a material. Callister mentions two examples of this type
of fracture design, tempered glass and prestressed concrete. Tempered glass is glass that has been heated
up and then quenched in an oil bath or cooled in a jet of air. The result of the semi-rapid cooling process is
that the interior of the glass cools much slower than the outside; which places the exterior in compression
and the interior in tension. A graphical illustration of the tensial and compressive forces on tempered glass
is shown in figure Rf-1.
Figure Rf-1 [1]. Tensile and Compressive Stress on Tempered Glass

Any tensile load must overcome the compressive stresses on the exterior of the glass first, before the
tension placed on the glass can cause it to fail. The prestressed concrete that Callister mentions works in
much the same way. Concrete, before or after it hardens, has a compressive load applied to it. Being a
ceramic the concrete can easily withstand the compressive loading without failing. The advantage is that if
a tensile load is ever applied to the prestressed concrete, like the tempered glass, it would not fail as
easily.
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Post Fracture and Design

A quick case study:
What happens when a material fails? If any students are interested in this topic, a good short paper to read
is available at the Newman library. It is entitled "Failure analysis of a broken diesel engine." The
bibliographic information is below, along with its call number at Newman. Then Newman call number
may not be up to date, however.
Newman Call Number: TA418.38 I57
Habib K., and Husain, A. "Failure analysis of a broken diesel engine."

International Journal of Fatigue. v 16, n5, p357-359, July 1994.
3.Introduction to Finite Element Analysis

A Brief History
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant,
who utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of
variational calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration systems.
Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R. W.
Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of
numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of
complex structures".
By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers
generally owned by the aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear
industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of computers and the
phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an
incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to produce
accurate results for all kinds of parameters.
What is Finite Element Analysis?
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results. It is used in new
product design, and existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the
client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design
modifications to meet the new condition.
There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D modeling. While 2-D modeling
conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results.
3-D modeling, however, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers
effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous algorithms (functions) which may
make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account
plastic deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material all
the way to fracture.
How Does Finite Element Analysis Work?
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid
called a mesh (Figure 2). This mesh is programmed to contain the
material and structural properties which define how the structure will
react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain
density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress
levels of a particular area. Regions which will receive large amounts of
stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience
little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of
previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high
stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node,
there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of
vectors is what carries the material properties to the object, creating
many elements.
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Finite elements – frontispiece examples
Freehand isometric sketch of the airways

in a typical mine ventilation circuit
powered by the induced draft fan on the
surface at top left.
Each airway is essentially a flow
resistance element, the resistance being a
function of length, cross-sectional size,
wall roughness etc. The airway junctions (
nodes ) are numbered sequentially in the
sketch. The system is thus a 1-net, ie. a
network of line elements, each line
connected between two nodes.
Preliminary network model for the quality

of rangeland in the Sahara.
The sketch only goes so far as to identify
the causes and effects between related
factors in this study in the field of
Agricultural Economics.
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A FEM1 mesh of triangular in-plane

elements for evaluating stress
concentration around the central hole of a
uniformly loaded square plate.
Only one quarter of the symmetric
prototype is modeled thus conserving
memory without sacrificing accuracy ( or
increasing the accuracy possible with
limited memory ).
The model supports are chosen to
minimise constraints thus mimicing the
prototype and preventing rigid body
motion.
An assemblage of three-dimensional brick

elements models a representative slice of
a concrete reactor vessel.
The idealised model of the slice appears
on the left; the corresponding finite
element assembly on the right. Supports
are not shown.
Determining the stress intensitiy at a

corner crack is aided by preferential mesh
refinement.
The sketch shows the mesh both before
and after deformation.
Longitudinal symmetry permits this

assembly of flexural plate elements to
model a 150 tonne ore trailer.
The elements are two-dimensional, either
triangular or quadrilateral - and unlike
the elements of FEM1 above, support
both in- and out-of- plane loading.
Theory of Finite Element Analysis
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Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a numerical method which provides solutions to problems that would
otherwise be difficult to obtain. In terms of fracture, FEA most often involves the determination of stress
intensity factors. FEA, however, has applications in a much broader range of areas; for example, fluid
flow and heat transfer. While this range is growing, one thing will remain the same: the theory of how the
method works.
The most efficient method of learning is by example. Therefore, I would like to present to you a simple
FEA problem: the case of a three-member truss. The method of solution to this problem should
demonstrate the basic concepts of FEA which are present in any analysis.
Before introducing specific quantities for our example, let's first take a look at our structure:
The overall objective of our analysis will be to determine the displacements of the truss members given
the load P.
The first thing we must do is choose our elements. For our situation this is easy: each truss member should
be one element. Further division would accomplish nothing, since each truss member can only support
axial loads.
Let us now examine a single truss member:
Nodes are located at each end of the bar, each of which can have displacements in the x and y directions.
The displacements are denoted u1 , u2, u3 , and u4. Corresponding forces due to these displacements are F1,
F2 , F3 , and F4 . The bar has a uniform cross-sectional area A and Young's Modulus E. The general
relationship between force and displacement is Fi = kij*uj, where Fi is the force in direction i, uj is the
displacement in direction j, and kij is the "stiffness" coefficient relating Fi to uj. In our particular example
of a horizontal truss element, we have the following system of equations:
F1 = k11u1 + k12u2 + k13u3 + k14u4
F2 = k21u2 + k22u2 + k23u3 + k24u4
F3 = k31u1 + k32u2 + k33u3 + k34u4
F4 = k41u1 + k42u2 + k43u3 + k44u4
Alternatively, in matrix form:
The matrix kij is called the " stiffness matrix." It is the matrix which defines the geometric and material
properties of the bar. Stiffness matrices are a fundamental part of FEA. These matrices always define
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inherent properties of the system being studied. For the system at hand, we need to determine the stiffness
matrix. The way we will go about doing this may seem a little strange at first, but try to follow the
reasoning as it does make sense. Let's begin by assuming u1 = 1 and u2 = u3 = u4 = 0. Then our matrix
takes the form:
Each force Fi is equal to k j1. Now, recall from mechanics of materials that the displacement of a rod is
given by u = FL/AE. With displacement u1 = 1, force 1 is F1 = AE/L. To maintain equilibrium, we must
also have a force F3 = -AE/L:
Since our Fi's equal our ki1 's, we have:
It important to remember that our element can support only axial loads. Therefore, displacements u2 and
u4 can not give rise to stresses in the bar since these displacements are perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
Thus, the stiffness coefficients of these displacements must be zero: ki2 = ki4 = 0. Finally, a displacement
u3 = 1 will result in forces just opposite to those from u1 = 1, so ki3 = -ki1 . Our stiffness matrix is:
It must be emphasized that the stiffness matrix just derived is only valid for bars parallel to the x-axis.
Through a similar derivation it can be shown that the stiffness matrix for any bar oriented at an angle
"theta" to the x-axis is:
where c = cos"theta" and s = sin"theta". Note that when "theta" = 0, this stiffness matrix reduces to the one
we derived for a horizontal bar.
Now knowing the stiffness matrix for any axially loaded bar, we can apply it to a real situation with
specific quantities. Consider the following truss:
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The displacements and external forces are:
Note the symbols we are using: R is an external force on the truss; F is an internal force resulting from the
stresses imposed on the structure during a displacement. Knowing the orientations of each element, we
can set up matrices for them. Using "theta" = 90 degrees for element 1, "theta" = 135 degrees for element
2, and "theta" = 0 degrees for element 3 we obtain the following matrices:
Element 1:
Element 2:
Element 3:
We can now generate a set of equilibrium equations for each node. Consider the following figure:
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The nodal forces (resulting from element displacements) must be equal and opposite to the externally
applied forces. Note that we have all forces drawn in positive x and y directions. Thus, for equilibrium at
node 1:
x - direction: R2 - F 2(element3) - F 2(element2) = 0
y - direction: R 1 - F 1(element3) - F1(element2) = 0
We want to solve for R1 and R2. Obtaining the nodal forces F2(element3), F2(element2) , F1(element3) , and
F1(element2) from our previously determined matrices we get:
R1 = AE/L ( 3u1 /2 - u2 /2 - u3 - u5 /2 + u6/2 )
R2 = AE/L ( -u1 /2 + u2/2 + u5 /2 - u6/2 ).
Similarly, from equilibrium of nodes 2 and 3 we obtain:
R3 = AE/L ( -u1 + u3 )
R4 = AE/L ( u 4 - u6 )
R5 = AE/L ( -u1/2 + u2 /2 + u5/2 - u6 /2 )
R6 = AE/L ( u1/2 - u 2/2 - u4 - u5/2 +3u6 /2 )
We can now combine all of our external forces into one matrix:
Now recall what we are trying to do here: given a load P, we want to solve for the displacements at each
node. Observing that node 2 is pinned and that node 3 is on a roller, the displacements u3, u4 , and u5 must
equal 0. These values are quite important because without them we wouldn't be able to solve the problem.
As a matter of fact, values such as these are always needed in finite element analyses; they are known as "
boundary conditions." Next, we must state the reactions which are known from our particular loading. We
can see from the truss that R1 = 0, R2 = -P, and R6 = 0. Entering the known displacements and reactions
into our matrix we get:
This matrix reduces to:
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We can now finish our problem by solving this matrix for u1 , u2, and u6 :
u1 = - PL/AE
u2 = -4PL/AE
u6 = -PL/AE
This application of FEA to a simple three-member truss shows in general how the method works. Most
applications to engineering problems, however, are much more complex. Such analyses require large
numbers of elements and nodes in order to accurately represent the physical system being studied. These
analyses inevitably require the application of a computer.
For Virginia Tech engineering students interested in FEA, one undergraduate course is available: ESM
4734 - An Introduction to the Finite Element Method. In this course, students study the theory and
application of FEA to problems in various fields of engineering and applied sciences. The pre-requisite for
the course is: ESM 2074 - Computational Methods.
SIMPLE COMPUTER PROGRAM

OBJECTIVES:
To develop an algorithm in FORTRAN 90 for the sophomores in upcoming years to learn from, using the example
problems in the MSE 2034/2044 text (Callister).
To help the student become familiar with crack stress analysis in actual applications.
To keep the program simple enough so is not to discourage the interest in the field of Material Science and Engineering.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION:
Program for CRAck STRess ANalysis (CRASTRAN) in FORTRAN 90 programming language.

Used equations from Callister, Material Science and Engineering: An Introduction.
Made comments when necessary for variable names and process of program.
Created flexible algorithms of the equations.
Referenced the images/figures with explanations of the logic in the program.
REFERENCES/EXPLANATIONS:
Maximum stress at crack tip (stmax) - Eq.(8.1) - Case(2.10) in program.
Stress concentration (Kt), Eq. (8.2) -- Case(2.13) in program.
Stress intensity (K) -- (See fig.8.10) As plate thickness decreases, z=0 , this is called plain stress. Plain strain, on the
other hand, increases with thickness and z=0.
Thus giving equations (8.5a,b,c) listed below: Case(1.6,7,8), respectively in program.
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The corresponding f() functions1 are incorporated into each respective equation.:
Conditions for brittle fracture exist when critical value of the stress intensity in the vicinity of a crack is termed fracture
toughness (Kc) , Eq.(8.6) - Case(3.17) in program.
Plane strain fracture toughness (K1c) is when Kc becomes constant as the material increases in thickness (B).
Eq.(8.7) - Case(4) in program.
See also Figure (8.12) in Callister for a schematic representation of the relationship.
The relationship for thickness (B) with K1c, where y is the yield strength at a 0.002 offset of the material is as follows:
Eq. (8.8) - Case(4.20) in program.
Critical stress c is fixed because the allowable flaw size is measured or limited by detection techniques, or a corrosion
factor of the environment is set , or a density factor. And only two parameters is needed for fixation. Eq.(8.9) Case
(4.21) in program.
Maximum allowable flaw size(crack length), Eq. (8.10) Case (4.22) in program.
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RESTRICTIONS:
Stress intensity(K) stress concentration(Kt), the reason, K is a function of position of the crack, the size, and the apllied
stress.
Y parameter for a infinite width plate is 1.0 and for a semi-infinite width is 1.1. Not much change in the Y variable.
HELPFUL HINTS (PROGRAM):
Use Control Z to get back to the DOS prompt if there is any trouble.
Make sure to keep units consistent within the program.
K1c denotes the critical value of K in a mode 1 plastic deformation. (See Fig.8.9)
If plate thickness B is greater than equal to the value 2.5 times(K1c/y), then the material does not fracture.
FORTRAN 90 PROGRAM:
PROGRAM CRASTRAN
implicit none
!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
! To arrange equations and to prompt the user for input data for the
! equation selected. Easy access to menus, straight forward input
! prompts, and usage of equations to solve example problems from
! Callister are for the benefit of the sophomore class enrolled in
! MSE 2034/2044.
!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
!Cv is the conversion from degrees to radians.

REAL,PARAMETER :: PI=3.141593, Cv=3.141593/180.0
!Initialize the variables.
REAL:: stapp=0.0,a=0.0,K=0.0,r=0.0,thet=0.0,stx=0.0,sty=0.0,stxy=0.0
REAL:: rcurv=0.0,Kt=0.0,Kc=0.0,Y=0.0,intcr=0.0,ac=0.0,B=0.0,stc=0.0
REAL:: stmax=0.0,K1c=0.0,Ystr=0.0
INTEGER:: NUMBER=0
CHARACTER(1):: response
!Do loop used throughout for continuous usage of the case constructs.
DO
WRITE(*,*)"Choose one of the following:"
WRITE(*,*)
WRITE(*,*)"1) Stress Intensity Factor (K)"
WRITE(*,*)"2) Stress Concentration Factor (Kt)"
WRITE(*,*)"3) Fracture Toughness (Kc)"
WRITE(*,*)"4) Plane Strain Fracture Toughness(K1c)"
WRITE(*,*)"5) Exit program"
WRITE(*,*)"Enter the Number:"
READ(*,*) NUMBER
!Case is used to catagorize the equations.
select case (NUMBER)
case (1)
!Applied stress (stapp) & crack length (a).
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,a:"
READ(*,*)stapp,a
K=stapp*SQRT(PI*a)
WRITE(*,*)"K =",K
WRITE(*,*)
DO
WRITE(*,*)"6) x-axis stress (stx)"
WRITE(*,*)"7) y-axis stress (sty)"
WRITE(*,*)"8) x- & y-axis shear stress (stxy)"
WRITE(*,*)"9) Exit to main menu"
READ(*,*)NUMBER
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case (6)
!Radial distance from crack tip (r) in m(in) & angle
! between x-axis and r (thet) in degrees.
WRITE(*,*)"Enter r,thet:"
READ(*,*) r,thet
thet=thet*Cv
stx=(K/SQRT(2*PI*r))*COS(thet/2.0)*(1-SIN(thet/2.0)*SIN(3*thet/2.0))
WRITE(*,*)"stx =",stx,"MPa(psi)"
case (7)
sty=(K/SQRT(2*PI*r))*COS(thet/2.0)*(1+SIN(thet/2.0)*SIN(3*thet/2.0))
WRITE(*,*)"sty =",sty,"MPa(psi)"
case (8)
stxy=(K/SQRT(2*PI*r))*SIN(thet/2.0)*COS(thet/2.0)*COS(3*thet/2.0)
WRITE(*,*)"stxy =",stxy,"MPa(psi)"
case (9)
exit
case default
WRITE(*,*)"Reenter number"
END select
WRITE(*,*)"For 1-5, enter y :: For 6-9, enter n)"
READ(*,*) response
if (response/="n") exit
END DO
case (2)
DO
WRITE(*,*)
WRITE(*,*)"10) Maximum stress (stmax)"
WRITE(*,*)"11) Surface crack length (a)"
WRITE(*,*)"12) Radius of curvature (rcurv)"
WRITE(*,*)"13) Stress concentration factor (Kt)"
WRITE(*,*)"14) Exit to main menu "
READ(*,*) NUMBER

case (10)
!stapp in MPA(psi)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,a,rcurv:"
READ(*,*)stapp,a,rcurv
stmax=2*stapp*SQRT(a/rcurv)
WRITE(*,*)"stmax =",stmax,"MPa(psi)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (11)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,stmax,rcurv:"
READ(*,*)stapp,stmax,rcurv
a=rcurv*(stmax/(stapp*2))**2
WRITE(*,*)"a =",a,"m(in)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (12)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,a,stmax:"
READ(*,*)stapp,a,stmax
rcurv=a*(2*stapp/stmax)**2
WRITE(*,*)"rcurv =",rcurv,"m(in)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (13)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,stmax:"
READ(*,*)stapp,stmax
Kt=stmax/stapp
WRITE(*,*)"Kt =",Kt
WRITE(*,*)
case (14)
exit
case default
END select
WRITE(*,*)"For 10-14, enter n)"
READ(*,*) response
END DO
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case (3)
DO
WRITE(*,*)"15) Internal crack length (intcr) "
WRITE(*,*)"16) Surface crack length (a)"
WRITE(*,*)"17) Fracture toughness (Kc for intcr)"
WRITE(*,*)"18) Fracture toughness (Kc for a)"
READ(*,*)NUMBER

case (15)
!Y is a dimensionless parameter.
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,Y,Kc:"
READ(*,*)stapp,Y,Kc
intcr=2*(Kc/(Y*stapp))**2/PI
WRITE(*,*)"intcr =",intcr,"m(in)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (16)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,Y,Kc:"
READ(*,*)stapp,Y,Kc
a=(Kc/(Y*stapp))**2/PI
WRITE(*,*)"a =",a,"m(in)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (17)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,a,Y:"
READ(*,*)stapp,a,Y
Kc=SQRT(PI*a)*Y*stapp
WRITE(*,*)"Kc =",Kc,"MPa sqrt(m) (psi sqrt(in))"
WRITE(*,*)
case (18)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,intcr,Y:"
READ(*,*)stapp,intcr,Y
Kc=Y*stapp*SQRT(PI*intcr/2.0)
WRITE(*,*)"Kc =",Kc,"MPa sqrt(m) (psi sqrt(in))"
WRITE(*,*)
case (19)
exit
case default
WRITE(*,*)"Reenter Number"
END select

READ(*,*) response
END DO
case (4)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,Y,K1c,a:"
READ(*,*)stapp,Y,K1c,a
K1c=Y*stapp*SQRT(PI*a)
WRITE(*,*)"K1c =",K1c,"MPa sqrt(m) (psi sqrt(in))"
WRITE(*,*)
DO
WRITE(*,*)"20) Plate thickness (B) "
WRITE(*,*)"21) Critical stress (stc)"
WRITE(*,*)"22) Maximum allowable flaw size (ac)"
READ(*,*)NUMBER

case (20)
!Yield strength (Ystr).
WRITE(*,*)"Enter Ystr:"
READ(*,*)Ystr
B=2.5*(K1c/Ystr)**2
WRITE(*,*)"B =",B,"m(in)"
WRITE(*,*)
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case (21)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter Y,a:"
READ(*,*)Y,a
stc=K1c/(Y*SQRT(PI*a))
WRITE(*,*)"stc =",stc,"MPa(psi)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (22)
WRITE(*,*)"Enter stapp,Y:"
READ(*,*)stapp,Y
ac=(K1c/(stapp*Y))**2/PI
WRITE(*,*)"ac =",ac,"m(in)"
WRITE(*,*)
case (23)
exit
case default
WRITE(*,*)"Reenter number"
END select
READ(*,*) response
END DO
case(5)
exit
case default
WRITE(*,*)"Reenter"
end select
END DO
stop
END PROGRAM CRASTRAN
Numerical Examples of Fracture
Finite Element Analysis
Finite element analysis is a tool used in engineering to determine the physical effects a given set of
boundary conditions will have on a part. Boundary conditions can be forces, temperatures, hydrostatic
pressures, centrifugal pressures, torques, and displacements. Finite element analysis can be as basic as a
simple FORTRAN code or as complex as some of
today's high end Finite Element Analysis Software
Packages (MARC). The basic theory of finite element
analysis is the same regardless of the type of analysis
being done. The geometry being modeled will always
be divided up into smaller divisions known as elements
and the elements are connected together to form the
finite element mesh. Each element contains nodes
which are points were the elements are mathematically
connected to one another. The idea of dividing a
domain up into subdomains is the basic principle of
how FEA works. The basic steps which are involved in
creating a finite element model are now going to be
outlined as we create a plain strain model of an infinite plate, with an elliptical hole in the middle, loaded
in the simple tension. This model represents one of the basic ideas of fracture mechanics, stress intensity.
This problem also has an analytical solution with which we can compare our FEA results to determine the
validity of our model.
The first step in creating a finite element
model is to input the geometry of the part
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you want to model. Often the geometry

being modeled will have some type of
symmetry, which can be taken advantage of
to save time both generating the model and
solving the model. As you can see only ¼
of the geometry (the crosshatched section
of Image 2) will need to be modeled to look
at the stress intensity at the transverse side
of the elliptical hole. After the geometry
has been created the next step is to turn the
surface of the plate into a mesh. For this
model we will use a four-sided element
with a node at each corner. A technique
commonly used in FEA is mesh biasing.
Mesh biasing is using smaller elements in
areas where the stress gradient is the large
or in areas where an extremely accurate
prediction of stress is necessary. In this
model we biased the mesh towards
elliptical hole to produce an accurate value
of the stress intensity.
Since we are only
modeling part of the
plate it is important
that add the correct
boundary conditions
to simulate the same
effects that would
occur if the entire
plate were being
modeled. The only
things we will need
to add are
displacement
restraints on the
bottom edge of the
model perpendicular
to the direction of
the loading. We
want to induce a
Farfield Stress of
1273 psi in the plate
so we will put a
100-LB tensile force
on each node across
the top of the plate.
This completes the
boundary conditions
for the model.
Now we must define the

material properties for the
elements, in this model we will
use the physical properties of
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steel, modulus of elasticity 30

*10^6 psi and poison ratio of
0.30. This completes the finite
element model, now we will
submit the model to a solver,
ABAQUS was used for this
model, which will return the
geometry with the stress levels
indicated by different colors.
The results of an FEA from
most software packages look
fairly similar to the output of the
above model. The areas of
highest stress are indicated by
red, descending to the lowest
stress levels in blue. The next
task is to determine whether or
not the results our model
produced are accurate. In this case we can obtain an exact solution to our model using the analytical
solution to the stress concentration produced by an elliptical hole in an infinite plate under simple tension,
which given by the relationship:
where "a" and "b" are both parameters of the ellipse (shown in second image). In this model the ellipse
was actually a circle so the stress concentration is just three times the Farfield Stress, which gives a stress
concentration of 3819 psi. The FEA returned the stress concentration at the hole to be 4050 psi, which is
6% higher than the exact solution. The 6% error would be reasonable for most engineering design
applications because an exact solution is not critical because a factor of safety will be added in the part
design.
Next we will examine the same
plate with two smaller "b" values
for the ellipse. Decreasing the
"b" of the ellipse is analogous to
decreasing the radius of a crack
tip in crack. In the next model
"b" decreases to 0.5 in. Again we
have the luxury of being able to
calculate an exact solution for
the stress concentration, which is
five times the Farfield Stress,
6365 psi. The FEA result was
6110 psi, which is 4% lower
than the exact solution. Again
this small error negligible,
however inspecting the stress as
you approach the crack tip from
the right reveals a very large
stress gradient across a very
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small number of elements. This

model still produces a valid
solution but we will see that
when "b" is reduced to 0.25 in.
the mesh size around the crack
tip is too large to produce a valid solution. When "b" is reduced to 0.25 in. the analytical solution for the
stress concentration becomes nine times the Farfield stress, 11457 psi. However the FEA only shows a
stress concentration of 7010 psi.
This large error, 38%, is due to
the fact the stress gradient is so
large across the elements next to
the crack tip that they no longer
yield valid solutions. The
corrective action for this
problem would be to decrease
the element size around the
crack tip, resulting in more
elements around the crack tip.
With increased exposure to FEA
one would learn to question
results that come from a mesh
which has such a large stress
gradient over a small number of
elements. Thus we can see that
an FEA can produces highly
accurate results of stress
concentration when the mesh is
sized reasonably well compared
to the stress gradient and the
same rule holds true for any type
of FEA. However in real
engineering applications there will be no exact solution to the models. Engineers must depend on their
knowledge and intuition to determine whether the results of an FEA are valid.
4. Summary
Fracture Mechanics is the study of cracks and crack-like defects - such as might occur in welds
for example - with a view to understanding and predicting the cracks' growth tendencies. Such
growth may be either stable - that is relatively slow and safe - or unstable, virtually
instantaneous and catastrophic.
Let us first reiterate some familiar topics from Strength of Materials to set the scene for Fracture
Mechanics concepts . . . .
Ductiles vs Brittles - their relative behaviour under the conventional, slow tensile test.
ductile brittle
Slow controlled extension; final instability due Fast catastrophic failure with no warning.
to gross area reduction. Cup -and -cone failure Transverse granular cleavage surface - no
shear lip.
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surface characterised by 45 o shear lip.
Relatively high energy absorption capacity ( Low energy absorption capacity.

stress -strain area ) - "tough".
Localised yielding at high stress No significant yielding so no reduction of high
concentrations redistributes stresses stresses.
advantageously.
Shear causes failure, triaxiality is relatively Triaxial stresses cause failure, unlike ductiles.
benign.
Fatigue of Ductiles
Fatigue is recognised as a
mechanism of crack growth
terminated by catastrophic
fracture - hence the S-N
diagram which may be used
to predict failure. If we can
understand, and formalise mathematically, the fundamentals of the crack growth process
and the interaction between the factors which affect it, then the onset of catastrophe may be
predicted more confidently - rather than having to rely upon a somewhat contrived
correlation between S-N curves, notch sensitivity, stress concentration and the like.
Fracture Mechanics currently offers the only satisfactory route to understanding these and
similar problems.
Stress Concentration
The effect of plasticity in way of high
stress concentrations in a ductile tensile
member is reviewed here. The long bar
a-b-c-d-e, subjected to a uniform tensile
load over its ends, can be expected to fail
first at e as the load is increased. Why?
Because it is here that the geometric singularities are the most severe, and hence stress
concentrations are highest.
Regarding nomenclature, if the load at some stage is 1 kN, then, in c, d, e :-
σa = 1000/5 = 200 MPa is referred to as the 'background' stress
σb = 1000/4 = 250 MPa is referred to as the average 'ligament' stress
Consider the notional stress distribution across the ligament of e under this load if the
material is elastic- perfectly plastic with a yield strength of 400 MPa. The simplistic model of
uniform stress is untenable due to the stress
concentration at the root of the crack.
If the material had been linear elastic then
this stress concentration could lead to a peak
stress of say 500 MPa.
However the material cannot support
75 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
stresses greater than yield, so the actual distribution will be more as sketched on the right.
The fact that some material has reached yield is not particularly deleterious as it offers load
support and is backed up by adjacent sub-yield elastic material.
If this material had been brittle with an ultimate strength of 400 MPa, then the peak stresses
would have corresponded to the linear elastic case and the bar would have broken at a load of
800 N.
'Notch sensitivity' is a measure of a ductile material's inability to shrug off localised stress
concentrations.
Temperature / Rate Effects

These effects have a marked influence on a material's ability to withstand loads. Cracks and
low temperatures are most unhappy bedfellows - as evidenced by many weld failures at low
temperatures. The pressure vessel Code for example, makes special provision for welded
vessels at low temperatures.
In both the slow tensile test and in the fatigue of a ductile material, the final stage of failure is
brittle ( ie. unstable ) since the crack speed is so high that the material's toughness has been
reduced to a value which is more characteristic of a brittle material.
This is partly the reason for the 'unzipping' of sub-sea pressurised pipelines, with disastrous
consequences. Although these ductile pipes are designed via cylinder theory with the usual
factors of safety against yield, the pipe material behaves in a brittle fashion at the
propagation speeds involved. Furthermore, since
- a crack advances at the speed of sound in the metal wall ( around 2 km/s ), and
- a pressure pulse travels only at the speed of sound in the fluid ie. less than the above
. . . then it follows that the crack front is subjected always to the original pressure of the
fluid and a leak is NOT self- relieving.
The Column Analogy

The behaviour of a crack of characteristic length a loaded by a background stress σis
similar to that of a column of length L loaded by the force F.
column If ideal loading is wholly elastic then the load may be
increased, slowly and with complete safety, until it
reaches the critical Euler load, Fc, governed by
elastic instability, whereupon catastrophe is
immediate. If ideal loading is wholly plastic on the
other hand then the material's yield strength limits
the load that can be applied. Failure in practice is governed by elastic- plastic
interaction - such as the dashed blue locus of the sketch.
crack If ideal loading is wholly elastic then the load may be
increased, slowly and with complete safety, until it
reaches the critical LEFM load, σc, governed by
elastic instability, whereupon catastrophe is
immediate. If ideal loading is wholly plastic on the
other hand then the material's yield strength limits
the load that can be applied. Failure in practice is governed by elastic- plastic
interaction - such as the dashed blue locus of the sketch.
Additionally in the case of a crack the failure locus may be reached by various
76 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
paths - for example the load may remain constant while the crack length
increases in a controlled manner, until eventually a critical length is reached and
the crack front advances catastrophically.
With this background in mind, we can summarise what Fracture Mechanics is and does. It . . .
. . . presupposes the existence of cracks in the material, which may be
- microscopic ( grain cleavage or surface roughness for example ), or
- large ( casting or weld defects for example )
- due to manufacture, to corrosion, to fatigue, &c
. . . correlates three parameters quantitatively . . .
- load - the background stress, σ, for example
- geometry - the crack size, a ( and to a lesser extent, crack shape )
- material - its resistance to cracking ie. its fracture toughness K c measured by
special tests
. . . and predicts, amongst other things
- degree of safety, or imminence of catastrophic ( brittle ) fracture
- crack growth rate whilst advancing in a controlled manner
- component life which remains.
The application of Fracture Mechanics can thus be regarded assomewhat similar to the
conventional use of design equations, viz :-
function ( material, load, geometry, "degree of safety" ) = 0
however it should be understood that, at its present level of development, Fracture
Mechanics is less precise than conventional stress-strength-safety analyses. The predictions
mentioned above cannot therefore be viewed with quite the same confidence afforded
conventional safety factors.
As noted previously, temperature and rate effects are both significant parameters in the crack
propagation process. They affect the material's fracture toughness generally in the manner
sketched.
The effect of a change of loading /crack
growth rate is to move bodily the fracture
toughness curve parallel to the temperature
axis. This, together with the shape of the
curve, means that a higher rate or lower
temperature will decrease fracture toughness.
Also indicated on the sketch are the regions in which the various failure mechanisms dominate.
When the material's resistance to crack growth is low, elastic crack instability is the dominating
failure mechanism; plastic effects are negligible and the material behaves in a brittle, linear
elastic manner analogous to a long Euler column. Fracture mechanics in the absence of plastic
effects is known as Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics ( LEFM ).
Conversely, if fracture toughness is high then failure is dominated by plastic yield - elastic
instability is relatively insignificant as in the analogous case of a short column.
As with column buckling, we shall start by examining linear elastic instability ( LEFM )
before introducing the effects of plasticity and demonstrating simple techniques for handling
mixed mode ( elastic- plastic ) fracture.
Linear elastic fracture mechanics

A crack of length 2a extends right through an infinite elastic flat plate of small thickness b.
The plate is loaded by a background stress, σ, normal to the crack. From equilibrium,
compatibility and the linear elastic constitutive law, the stresses in an element located at ( r, θ)
77 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
close to the crack tip, may be shown to be :-
The following points should be noted :

- The stress field ( 1) arises from the crack itself and not directly from the background stress.
If the element were well removed from the crack tip vicinity then the background stress
would dominate, ie. σy --> σ; σx , τ
xy --> 0.
- The stress components ( 1) are of the general form :-

stress component = constant ( K ) x function of element location ( r, θ)
The constant is termed the stress intensity factor and embodies the geometry and
loading.
K o refers to the particular centrally cracked infinite plate arrangement considered above.
K is an amplitude, a scale factor, a measure of the intensity of the singularity and the
severity of the stress field immediately adjacent to the crack tip - and it is the near-tip
field which directly influences crack advance
If the stress intensity factor were to double, due to doubling of the load for example, then
all stress components on all elements would also double. Note the inherent linearity here.
- A compressive background stress tends to close the crack and is therefore not deleterious (
as long as it is steady ).
- Provided the loading is tensile, mode I, then for

geometries other than the infinite plate with central
through -crack, and background loads other than a
uniform tensile stress, the stress field close to the
crack tip is identical in form to ( 1) - since the near-tip
region is not directly affected by distant events. However the field strength, that is the
stress intensity, KI
corresponding to
mode I, will reflect the
particular geometry
and loading, and will
thus differ from Ko.
A configuration
factor Y = KI /K o
reflects this difference.
Values of Y for
various configurations
appear in the
literature.
Defining the normalised crack size as α= a/w, approximations for some common cases
and for α≤0.7 are shown here.
78 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
- The above analysis would be completely useless if the aim were to calculate the
maximum equivalent stress ( in order to correlate with the yield to find the safety factor for
example ) because all stress components theoretically tend to infinity as r --> 0. Stress
redistribution prevents this happening in practice of course, but this is a plastic
phenomenon, irrelevant to elastic analyses. So, rather than using stress magnitude as a
measure of loading severity ( and hence a basis from which to reckon safety ) we use stress
intensity instead. The stress intensity factor is one of a number of measures whose values
describe the damage due to the crack - other common parameters are the 'crack opening
displacement' ( COD, see below ), and the 'J-integral' ( an energy integral around a path
enclosing the crack ).
The material's fracture toughness ( Kc ) can be recognised as just the critical maximum
stress intensity ( K ) which the material can withstand without catastrophic crack
propagation. An additional subscript 'I' refers to the most common tensile mode I loading.
The distinction between stress intensity, KI , a crack characterising parameter and
fracture toughness, KIc , a material parameter should be clearly understood.
The appraisal of safety in fracture mechanics is similar in principle to the determination of safety
factor in traditional
Strength of Materials
contexts - a parameter
expressing loading
severity is compared
to the maximum
severity which the
material can withstand
ie. a material property.
The two appraisal
approaches are
compared here,
though it must be
pointed out that in Fracture Mechanics it is more usual to cite the fatigue life which remains,
rather than a factor of safety per se. Life aspects are considered below.
There are two common forms of fracture toughness test specimen, the 'single edge notch' (
SEN, case ( e) above ) and the 'compact tensile specimen' ( CTS, case ( c) ). In both of these a
crack is started by machining a chevron notch in a specimen of standard proportions ( thickness
b = w/2 ), then fatiguing the specimen to obtain a sharp crack front. The load - bending or
tension respectively - is then applied and increased until catastrophe occurs. In principle, the
maximum load in conjunction with the configuration factor ( Y) corresponding to the final crack
size enables the fracture toughness to be calculated. Testing in practice is not quite so
straightforward as this might indicate, eg. we shall see that size effects also have to be reckoned
with.
It is now possible to appreciate how fatigue occurs.

On the stress /crack-size diagram, loci of constant stress intensity
appear as hyperbolae ( σ√a = constant ) and a typical fatigue
79 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
trajectory under constant stress is horizontal. An initial crack will

thus grow with corresponding increase in stress intensity, until
the critical stress intensity of the material - ie. its fracture
toughness - is reached, whereupon catastrophic fracture occurs.
This explanation and the foregoing example are LEFM and
neglect the effects of plasticity in the ductile material - plastic effects must now be examined.
Plasticity
Specimens of a given ductile, having standard proportions but different absolute size (
characterised by thickness ) give rise to different measured fracture toughnesses, as indicated
here.
Fracture toughness is constant for thicknesses exceeding some critical dimension, bo, and is
referred to as the plane strain fracture toughness, KIc . It is a true material property,
independent of size. As with materials' other mechanical properties, fracture toughness is
tabulated in the literature, though not so extensively as is yield strength for example.
This table gives some typical values and material yield toughness
illustrates the trend - increasing yield MPa MPa√m
strength generally implies decreasing Aluminium 2024-T851 455 26
fracture toughness.
7075-T651 495 24
Below bo, toughness increases with decreasing
Titanium Ti-6Al-4V 910 115
thickness ( within limits ) and is termed the
'plane stress fracture toughness', Kc. This *Ti-6Al-4V 1035 55
behaviour may be explained by the following Steel 4340 860 99
argument. *4340 1515 60
Material within the crack tip stress field, 52100 2070 14
situated close to a free surface, can expand * heat treated for higher strength
laterally - in the z-direction in figure ( g) below.
The state of stress thus tends to biaxiality and the material fractures in a characteristic ductile
manner, with a 45o shear lip being formed at each free surface.
Material at the centre of the component however, is not free to deform laterally as it is
constrained by the surrounding material. The stress state thus tends to plane strain ( triaxiality )
and fracture in this region is brittle. ( It will be recalled that shear failure tendency in ductiles is
negligible under triaxial hydrostatic loading. )
If the size of a shear lip is taken to be approximately constant for a given material, the differing
behaviour of thin and thick components follows from there being insufficient material at the
centre of the thin component ( h) to exhibit significant constrained behaviour - so the material
seems ductile with high toughness. As the thickness increases ( j) the shear lips occupy a
decreasing proportion of the cross -section and so the material acts more and more like a brittle,
with reducing toughness. Eventually the lips' effect is insignificant and the toughness assumes a
constant minimum value - the plane strain fracture toughness, KIc.
Evidently the accurate determination of the plane strain fracture toughness requires a specimen
whose thickness exceeds the critical thickness, bo,
80 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
and the question now arises, what is the value of this

critical thickness for a particular material ?
To answer this, we first recognise that a plastic zone
must exist in front of a crack, since stresses are high
- theoretically tending to infinity at the crack tip.
Setting the equivalent stress derived from the stress field ( 1) to equal the yield strength, the
polar coordinates of the plastic zone boundary are found to be :-
(2) r = ro ( (1-k) 2 + 3 sin2θ/2 ) cos2θ/2 ; ro = 1/2π( KI /Sy )2 = a / 2 ( σ/Sy )2
where the constant k = 0 ( plane stress ) or k = 2ν( plane strain ).
The proof of this is left as an exercise for the reader. The yield zones ( r,θ) plot out as shown at
right above, from which characteristic zone sizes are :-
(i) ry ≈ ro ( plane stress ) and ry ≈ ro /3 ( plane strain, ν= 0.3 )
Despite the questionable use of an elastic field to deduce the size and shape of a plastic zone,
experiments confirm the above general findings. The derivation assumed perfectly plastic
behaviour - to make some allowance for strain hardening, Sy is often taken as the average of the
yield and ultimate strengths, whereupon it is referred to as the 'flow stress'.
For plastic effects to be negligible, other dimensions such as component width or ligament size,
must be at least 50 times the plane strain plastic zone size, so :-
( 2a) bo ≈ 50 ro / 3 ≈ 2.5 ( KIc /Sy )2
In testing for plane strain fracture toughness therefore, the toughness must first be estimated
to enable prediction of the minimum specimen dimensions, via ( 2a). The specimen is then
made and tested. If the measured toughness is less than that assumed initially then the
measured value is valid. Otherwise a larger specimen must be tested. It sometimes happens that
the required specimen size or forces exceed the capacity of available testing machines, however it
is usually possible, and perfectly valid, to test a specimen of the same thickness as the eventual
component - ie. to measure the plane stress fracture toughness for use in the safety
determination - but this toughness is not a material property.
It is clear from ( 2) that
the plastic zone size in
front of a given crack
must increase as the
load increases, until
eventually it extends
right across the
ligament as suggested
here, so an upper limit
of the load which can be withstood by a cracked component will correspond to gross plastic
collapse across the ligament.
Plastic collapse loads can usually be found easily from equilibrium without recourse to any
fracture mechanics considerations - since for a perfectly plastic material any stress must equal
the yield stress, either tensile or compressive ( see also plastic hinges ).
Yielding fracture mechanics

We have examined the effect of load and crack size when the material is either perfectly elastic or
perfectly plastic - but how does a real ductile behave ? There are various approaches to
81 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
answering this, ranging from simple interaction models between the two perfect mechanisms
which we have already examined, through to the 'J-integral' technique involving an energy
integral around the crack tip, and three- dimensional finite element models with elastic- plastic
constitutive laws. Let's see how we might tackle the problem without the complexity ( or
accuracy ) of these last methods.
In practice, the inevitable yield zone ahead of the crack leads to
a blunt crack tip. Thus, LEFM predicts a sharp tip to the crack
of length a, as indicated in figure ( k) here. Further
considerations require a yield zone, of size ry as shown in the
previous section. In actuality ( l) the tip is stretched by an
amount δ- the crack tip opening displacement or COD -
which may be confirmed and measured experimentally.
Plastic effects are sometimes allowed for approximately by applying LEFM with an 'equivalent
crack size', a' figure ( m), equal to the actual crack size plus some proportion of the plastic
zone size. This 'small scale yielding correction' becomes increasingly inaccurate when the
background stress reaches an appreciable fraction of yield.
δ, being strain-based, is a more suitable crack characterising parameter in the post -yield region,
than is K which is stress -based. It may be shown that, for a centrally cracked infinite plate, the
crack opening displacement and the plastic zone size are
( ii) δ = a 8/ π Sy /E' ln sec ( π/2 σ/ Sy ) ; where E' = E plane stress
ry = a ( sec ( π/2 σ/ Sy ) - 1 ) or E' = E/( 1 -ν2) plane strain
Crack opening displacement is similar to stress intensity in that it is a function of crack length a
and load ( eg. background stress σ), however it also takes material properties - particularly Sy -
into account. The ratio of background stress to yield stress is particularly relevant as the
following results from ( ii) illustrate.
σ--> Sy Tending towards plastic collapse; both δand ry --> infinity
2
σ= /3 The plastic zone and crack sizes are equal
Sy
Tending towards LEFM ( negligible plasticity ) and enabling binomial expansion of (
σ--> 0
ii)
( iii) δ --> πa σ2 / E' Sy and since this refers to LEFM, then from ( 1) :
--> KI 2 / E' Sy
The advantages of COD as a crack characterising parameter should now be apparent - it is
applicable over the whole range of loading, from linear elastic fracture to plastic collapse. One
may expand on the COD theme as was done for stress intensity - configuration factors for non
-infinite shapes, a critical maximum COD ( δc ) being a material property, and so on - however
we shall restrict ourselves to the adaptation of the COD equation to provide an interaction
formula for correlating the two extreme mechanisms noted above.
We take σE as the failure load when the mechanism is perfectly elastic ( LEFM ), and σP as the
failure load when the mechanism is perfectly plastic ( plastic collapse ) - both of these can be
computed by the methods of the previous sections. To find σF, the failure load when both elastic
fracture and plastic collapse occur, we proceed as follows.
δc = a 8 / π( Sy /E' ) ln sec ( π/ 2 σF /Sy ) is the critical COD from ( ii) under failure load
σF
= KIc 2 / E' Sy on equating critical properties from ( iii).
But for an infinite plate KIc = σE √( πa ) and σP = Sy , so the
82 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
interaction is
π
(3 ) / 2 ( σF /σP ) = arccos ( exp [ - 1/2 { π/ 2 ( σE /σP ) } 2 ] )
Predicting the failure load in this way via the COD equation, is known
as the 'two criteria' or 'CEGB R6' approach to failure assessment -
the failure locus from ( 3) plots as shown. Although ( 3) was deduced
on the basis of a centrally cracked infinite plate, it is applicable to any
configuration provided the axes are interpreted as load ratios rather
than merely stress ratios.
This approach is just one of many possible interaction models.

Recalling the Column Analogy and adapting the nomenclature
used with imperfect columns, it is apparent that the R6 locus is a
particular case of the general interaction model shown here, which
requires θ--> 1 as ψ--> 0 and θ--> 0 as ψ--> 1.
Various empirical correlations such as ( 1/θ- 1) ∗( 1/ψ- 1) =
constant have been proposed - some of which describe particular
experimental results better than others. One model which finds wide
acceptance is the 'circular' failure locus θ2 + ψ2 = 1, that is
( 4) 1/σF2 = 1/σE2 + 1/σP2
For an infinite plate K Ic = σE √( πa ) and σP = Sy as above, so this may
be written
( 4a) σF = Sy / √( 1 + a / a* )
in which a* = 1/ π( K Ic / Sy ) 2 is a material property, like
bo ( 2a)
The interaction approach does not provide detailed understanding of the failure mechanism - for
this one must resort to more complex techniques - however it gives some insight into the role of
plasticity in fracture mechanics.
The implication of critical crack size and limitations of crack size detection during inspection
must be appreciated. If a crack of the critical size remains undetected by the inspection process
then no amount of inspection will avert potential catastrophe.
Fatigue crack growth

Steady loads only have been considered so far, for which we have noted
the effect of increasing crack size on failure tendency. We now consider
crack growth under alternating loads, ie. the fatigue process.
A typical crack history under a cyclic load of constant amplitude, Δσ, is
sketched. A crack of size a 1 exists initially, and grows in a stable,
controlled manner until the critical crack size is approached - when
crack growth rates increase out of hand and disaster strikes.
For a given material, the instantaneous rate of crack growth, the slope da/dN, is found to
depend mainly upon the stress intensity range, ΔK, as expected - since
- it is the near tip field ( characterised by K ) which affects crack advance, and
- fatigue is known to be greatly dependent upon the range of stress and of load ( the 'S' of
the S-N diagram ) which is proportional to the range of stress intensity, as suggested here :
83 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
Growth rate da/dN is affected also by the mean component of intensity - typically characterised
by the load ratio R = Kmin/Kmax - but this is largely a reflection of Kmax approaching the critical
K c , ie. of impending fracture.
Closure of the crack, if and when the load becomes compressive, is usually allowed for by simply
ignoring any sub -zero compressive excursions. Further evidence suggests that as the load
changes from tensile to compressive, the crack closes while the load is still tensile - a result of
residual stresses; however we shall neglect such complications here. So, accepting that intensity
range is the main contributor to growth rate, the relationship is found to be as follows - this
being a unique sigmoidal curve for each particular material. There are three stages
I Initiation. Relates to cleavage along grain boundaries at
rates of the order of one lattice spacing per cycle ( 4 E-7
mm/cycle ); growth requires the stress intensity range to
exceed some threshold value; influenced greatly by
environment. This stage is byepassed if a crack exists prior to
loading ( eg. the point 1 sketched may be the initial state ).
II Stable Propagation. This is the most important stage,

dealing with identifiable cracks (say > 0.1 mm ) growing in a
stable manner. The direction of propagation is less random
than in stage I and the material behaves more homogeneously.
The material characteristic crack growth rate vs intensity range
is approximately log-log linear throughout stage II and so we
may write
(5) da/dN = C ΔKn
- the so-called Paris equation in which C and the index n are constant material
properties. Selected values appear in the literature, it being customary to cite C
indirectly by the stress intensity range, ΔK o , which corresponds to a certain crack
growth rate, (da/dN)o - often 1 mm/Mc thus C = (da/dN) o / ΔKon
III Instability. Although important, this stage exists only for a very small fraction of the
component's life, since the instability is catastrophic. The onset of stage III is dictated by
the critical crack size being approached, that is by Kmax tending to Kc - 2 in the sketch.
One empirical modification of ( 5) which caters for both stages II and III, is :
( 5a) da/dN = C ΔKn / { 1 - ( Kmax /K c ) n }
Thus if Kmax << Kc, then the RHS denominator --> 1 corresponding to stage II;
alternatively if Kmax --> K c then da/dN tends to infinity ( stage III ).
Integration of ( 5a) yields the component life ( ΔN12 cycles ) which elapses during crack growth
from a1 to a2, thus, in normalised form :
( 5b ) { (da/dN) o ΔN12 /w } { Δσ√( πw) / ΔKo }n = ∫12( Y √α) -n dα - ( Yc √αc ) -n ( α2 - α1 )
in which αc is the normalised critical crack size corresponding to Kc, and α2 ≤
84 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
αc.
5. Fracture mechanics problems

1. A large sheet containing a 50 mm long crack fractures when loaded to 500 MPa.
Determine the fracture load of a similar sheet with a 100 mm crack. [ 354 MPa ]
2. Rocket motor casings may be fabricated from either of two steels :

(a) low alloy steel yield 1.2 GPa toughness 70 MPa√m,
(b) maraging steel yield 1.8 GPa toughness 50 MPa√m
3. The relevant Code specifies a design stress of yield/1.5.
Calculate the minimum defect size which will lead to brittle fracture in service for
each material, and comment on the result ( this last is important ). [ 4.9, 1.1 mm ]
4. The bar of 100 x 20 mm rectangular cross-section is

loaded by a force of 250 kN as shown.
Determine the critical crack length if the toughness is
50 MPa√m. [ 14 mm ]
5. Derive equation ( 2) by applying the distortion energy failure criterion to the stress
components of ( 1).
1. The CTS testpiece is from a 1.2 GPa steel.

If the failure load is 10 kN, what fracture toughness is
indicated ?
Is the result valid ?
Note that width and crack size are reckoned from the
load's line of action. [ 80 MPa√m ]
2. The toughness of a 700 MPa yield structural steel is estimated to be 140 MPa√m.
What size and mass of SEN bend test specimen is necessary, and what capacity of
testing machine would be required ?
Assume fracture at α= 0.5. [ 126 kg, 590 kN ]
3. The long strip may be made from either of the two materials :
tough, weak yield 700 plane strain toughness 100
(a)
MPa MPa√m
brittle, yield 1400 plane strain toughness 50
(b)
strong MPa MPa√m
4. A central crack extends through the strip.
Plot, as a function of crack length, the failure stress for each material
due to the separate mechanisms of elastic fracture and plastic collapse.
Comment on the trends of these graphs.
85 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
5. The bar of rectangular cross-section, w x b, is edge-cracked and loaded by a tensile

force, N, and a bending moment, M.
Consider the equilibrated distribution of yield stress
across the ligament and hence show that plastic
collapse may be caused by any combination of M and
N which satisfies :-
m + n ( n + 2α) = ( 1 - α)2 where α= a/w ; n = N/bwS y ; m = 4M/bw2
Sy
6. A long, 50 mm diameter rod is manufactured from a material of 700 MPa yield and
40 MPa√m toughness. The rod is circumferentially cracked, case ( f), whilst
tensioned by a force, P.
What is the maximum safe load if the crack depth is 2 mm ? [ 770 kN ]
If the load is 200 kN, what crack depth is tolerable ? [ 12 mm ]
7. Welded plates, 10 mm thick, are subjected to bending as shown.

Crude manufacture leads to the expectation of 2 mm cracks extending right along the
weld root. Multiple service failures occur when the deposition properties are as (b)
below. Would a change to (a) or to (c) alleviate the
problem ?
deposition (a) (b) (c)
yield ( MPa ) 600 800 1000
toughness ( MPa√m ) 120 90 60
8.
9. A pressure vessel, of bore 850 mm and wall thickness, w
= 24mm, is designed with a safety factor of 2.5 based on
the yield of 500MPa. The material's fracture toughness is
50 MPa√m.
A semi-elliptical longitudinal fatigue crack ( a=10, b=20
mm) is discovered at the bore during routine inspection.
What is the actual safety factor of the flawed vessel. [
1.26 ]
If the toughness were to drop to 35 MPa√m due to a drop
in ambient temperature, what then would be the safety
factor ?
Assume configuration factors - plastic as graphed, and elastic 'Y' thus :
Y = C1 [ 1 + C2 ( 1 - cos πα)] where
C1 = 2.24 /( 1 + exp πβ/4) ; C 2 = 2.34/( 1 + exp 4√β) ; β= a/b
10. Derive equation ( 5b) from ( 5a).
11. An aluminium shaft, 50 mm diameter and rotating at 3000 rpm, is subjected to a

reversed bending moment of 200 Nm. A crack, 0.1 mm deep, extends radially from
the surface.
Estimate the crack depth after 100 hours operation, assuming a Paris exponent of 2.7
and a stress intensity range of 1.6 MPa√m corresponding to a growth rate of 1
86 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56
mm/Mc. The configuration factor Y may be approximated by that of case ( d). [ 11

mm ]
12. An axially stressed component of width 20 mm is made from a material which obeys
the Paris equation with an index of 4 and a crack growth rate of 1 mm/Mc
corresponding to a stress intensity range of 6 MPa√m. The configuration factor may
be approximated by Y = 0.84/( 1 - α).
Neglecting instability, determine the number of cycles necessary for a 5 mm crack to
grow to 15 mm, if the component is subjected to a cyclically varying stress of :
(a) 0 to 40 MPa [ 2.1 Mc] ; (b) 100 to 120 MPa [ 34 Mc]
13. Repeat the previous problem with KIc = 60 MPa√m [ 2.1, 32 Mc]
14. Estimate the life of the component of the previous problem with an initial crack size
of 5 mm, if the material yield is 250 MPa. Assume a plastic configuration factor of ( 1
- α). [ 2.1, 27 Mc]
87 de 87 26/12/2006 18:56

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Finite Element Analysis Amazing QLink HolidaySale Your Spreadsheets in 4D

1. Energy Concepts and Analysis of Failure

3. Numerical Approach - Finite Element Analysis

1. Energy Concepts for Fracture

fracture and the length of the crack as shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1 A plate with a crack growing with an applied stress.

Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture

U : the total potential energy of the system

Fig. 2 Fractograph of ductile cast iron showing a transgranular fracture surface.

Fig. 3 Fractograph of an intergranular fracture surface.

G: the strain energy release rate.

sc= (2(2.38*109 Pa)(0.0365 J / m2 ) / ( * (0.03m)/2) ) ^ (1/2)

Griffith - Orowan - Irwin Failure Criteria

Energy Release Rate

intensity factor, KIC.

P: the potential energy of the external forces.

U: the strain energy.

Crack Speed and Kinetic Energy

Ekin: the kinetic energy.

1. crack propagation takes place under constant stress

3. the crack growth resistance R is constant

Crack Growth using Energy Theorems

Fig. 6 A graph of the increase of growth rate with crack size.

Fracture Energy of Specimen of Different Sizes

U1 and U2 : cross head speeds applied during the tensile test.

Impact Energy Testing Methods

1. deformation at low temperatures

Fig. 7 Illustration of Charpy and Izod Impact Tests.

The S-N Curve

Crack Initiation and Propagation

Note: Nf is an estimate of the number of cycles to failure

Factors That Affect Fatigue Life and Solutions

Determination of the Maximum Stress at the Crack Tip

Eqn. 1: Determination of the maximum stress surrounding a crack tip.

Determination of Stress Concentration Factor

Eqn. 2: Determination of the stress concentration factor.

Stress Concentration Considerations

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Fracture Toughness, KIc

Table A.1 (Hertzberg, p752)

Appendix B (Hertzberg, p757)

TENSOR CALCULUS: Hooke's law

2) Reduction of the number of elasticity tensor components induced by rotations

b) Symmetry axis C2 parallel to 0x2

c) Symmetry axis C2 parallel to 0x3

d) Symmetry axis C4 parallel to 0x1

d) Symmetry axis C4 parallel to 0x2

g) Symmetry axis C4 parallel to 0x3

g) Symmetry axis C3 parallel to [1 1 1]

c) Tretragonal symmetry axis C4 parallel to ox3

Crystalline classes (C4 ,S4 , C 4h )

Crystalline classes (C4v , D 2d , D4 , D4h )

e) Hexagonal symmetry with axis C6 parallel to ox3

Chevron Fracture Surface (Callister p. 185)

Types of Brittle Fracture

Ductile to Brittle Fracture Transition

Background information on general causes and recognition of material failures

anyone is presented here.

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Table 1: Table For Experimental Data

Fatigue Crack Growth

Real Life-Design and Manufacturing Considerations

1018 hot-rolled steel.

sc= (2(2.38109 Pa)(0.0365 J / m2 ) / ( (0.03m)/2) ) ^ (1/2)

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