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• Measurement of damping
Damping
dissipation of mechanical energy (usually conversion into heat)
• material damping (internal friction, mechanical hysteresis)
• friction at joints
• added layers of materials with high loss factors (e.g. visco-
elastic materials)
• hydraulic dampers (shock absorbers, hydromounts)
• air/oil pumping: squeeze-film damping
• impacts (conversion of energy into higher frequency vibration
which is then dissipated)
• acoustic radiation - vibration energy converted into sound (only
important for lightly damped structures or heavy fluid loading,
e.g. light plastic structures)
• structural ‘radiation’ - transport of vibration into adjacent
structures or fluids
Review of Damping Mechanisms
Viscous damping
m
x
k c
mx cx kx 0
inertia damping stiffness
force force force
Example - automotive suspension system
Free vibration effect of damping
The underdamped displacement of the mass is given by
x Xe nt
sin d t
Exponential decay term Oscillatory term
nt
x Xe
time
d x Xe nt
sin d t
2 Damping ratio
Td
d Td Damping period
Phase angle
Hysteretic Damping
Fe jt Fe jt
m x m x
k 1 j k c
Loss factor
Equation of motion
mx k 1 j x Fe jt mx cx kx Fe jt
Assuming a harmonic response x Xe jt leads to
X 1 X 1
F k 2m jk F k 2 m j c
Setting responses to be equal at resonance gives
2 where c 2 mk
m x m x
k c k 1 j
causal acausal
f (t ) f (t )
t t
x (t ) x (t )
t t
Coulomb Damping
Coulomb damping is caused by sliding or dry friction
x
x +ve Fd
k f x -ve Fd
m
Fd = friction force (always
opposes motion)
Fd
Fd Fn x 0
0 x 0 Fn mg is the reaction force
x
Fn x 0
E
0
cx 2dt (1)
Returning to Coulomb Damping
x
k f
m
• Since the damping force Fd = Fn is constant and the distance travelled
in one cycle is 4X, the energy dissipation per cycle is:
E 4Fn X
V
log
F
V 4F
F
log frequency
time
Viscous cx c
k
Hysteretic k x
4 Fn
Coulomb Fn
X
Forced vibration – effect of damping
Fe jt X 1
F (k m 2 )2 (c )2
m x
Frequency Regions
k c
Low frequency 0 X / F 1/ k Stiffness controlled
X
Log
F
1
k
= 0.01
-1 = 0.1
Mobility (m/Ns) 10 infinite plate
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
• Damping is only effective at controlling the response around the
resonance frequencies.
• At high frequencies the mobility tends to that of an infinite structure
and damping has no further effect.
Visco-elastic materials
• Visco-elastic materials (plastics, polymers, rubbers etc) have non-
linear material laws.
• For a harmonic input, visco-elastic materials are defined in terms of
their complex Young’s modulus E(1+j) or shear modulus G(1+j).
• Alternatively, we can write E = ER + jEI where ER is called the
storage modulus and EI is called the loss modulus.
• The parameters E, G and are dependent on
– frequency
– temperature
– strain amplitude
– preload
• Frequency and temperature dependencies are equivalent (higher
frequency is equivalent to lower temperature).
A model with a constant modulus and constant loss factor is often a good approximation
in a limited frequency region. However, it gives non-causal response in the time domain
Typical material damping
Visco-elastic damping – material properties
k
Simple model
Voigt model
• Combination of
c
c k
Maxwell model
k2 Dynamic stiffness is
j t
Fe
k2 2 k1 k2
k1 k1
2
j
F c c
c k1 2
2
X
1
Xe jt c k
1
Returning to Complex Stiffness
k ( ) 1 j ( ) F
F k ( ) 1 j ( )
X
F
Stiffness determined from k ( ) Re
X
F
Im
Loss factor determined from ( ) X
F
Re
X
Visco-elastic damping – material properties
Stiffness
k2 2 k1 k 2 At low frequencies k ( ) k2
c 2
k1 k1
k ( )
1
2
2
At high frequencies k ( ) k1 k2
c k
1
k1 k2
log k ( )
k2
k1 Log frequency
c
Visco-elastic damping – material properties
Loss factor
c
At low frequencies ( )
c k2
( )
k2 2 k1 k 2
1
c 2
k1 k1 At high frequencies ( )
c k1 k2
k1 k1
log ( )
k1 Log frequency
c
Visco-elastic materials
4
10
Glassy
Rubbery region
3
10 Transition region
region
Stiffness and loss factor
2
10
Stiffness
1
10
0
10
Loss factor
-1
10
-2
10
Increasing frequency
Increasing temperature
Visco-elastic materials
or
E or G
(a) (b)
Log frequency
Log frequency Log
Logfrequency
frequency
Visco-elastic materials – reduced
frequency nomogram
temperature
modulus E and loss factor η
frequency f, (Hz)
reduced frequency fαT, Hz
Visco-elastic materials – reduced
frequency nomogram
• If the effects of damping and temperature on the damping behaviour
of materials are to be taken into account, then the temperature-
frequency equivalence (reduced frequency) is important.
• To use the nomogram, for each specific f and Ti move down the Ti
line until it crosses the horizontal f line. The intersection point X,
corresponds to the value of fαT. Then move vertically up to read
the values of E and η.
Visco-elastic materials – reduced
frequency nomogram
Visco-elastic materials and damping
treatments
Temperature
Viscoelastic damper
Viscoelastic
material
Unconstrained layer damping
Damping material Ed (1 j )
h2
h1 Structure E
s
x
Damping material Ed (1 j )
h2
h1 Structure E
s
d
Ed/Es=10-2 b 1
i.e. require:
-2
10 d 1 Es I s Ed large
Ed/Es=10-3 Ed Id h2 large
d large
Ed/Es=10-4
-3
10 -1 0 1 2
h2
10 10 10 10
h1
Constrained layer damping
Constraining layer Damping material
G(1 j )
E3
h3
d h2
h1 Structure E1
Undeformed Deformed
constrained layer constrained layer
• Sandwich construction
L
E1h1 (E3 h3 )d 2 h1 : h1 : h3
1 : 0.1 : 0.1
L
0.46
E1h1 E3h3 E1I1 E3I3 1 : 0.1 : 1 3.63
1: 1 :1 12
• here I1 and I3 are relative to own centroids 1 : 10 : 1 363
• large for deep core, small for thin core (d) (E1=E3)
• ‘shear parameter’
G 1 1
g 2
h2kb 1 1 E3h3
E h
Bending wavenumber
L=0.1
10
-3
L
E1h1 (E3 h3 )d 2
E1h1 E3h3 E1I1 E3I3
-4
10 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
G 1 1
Shear parameter g 2
h2kb 1 1 E3h3
E h
Constrained layer damping
Fe jt
Pumping along joints
Squeeze-film damping I
Attached plate
Thin layer of air Main plate
Damping is achieved by air being pumped between the main plate and
the attached plate (JSV 118(1), 123-139, 1987)
Squeeze-film damping II
Oil supply
Stationary casing
Oil film
Ball/roller bearing
• impact damper
1 xi
ln
n xi n
F 2 X
Re
F
X max
2F 2 1
n X
Im
F
1
n 2 frequency
2 1
2n
Measurement of Damping – complex
modulus measurement
shaker
Impedance head
(measures force and acceleration)
very stiff, light material
specimen
l
area A
F
F
X Measure dynamic stiffness X k (1 j )
k (1 j )
F
Im
F X
Stiffness k Re Loss factor
X F
Re
EA X
Compute E by using k
l
Summary
• Review of damping mechanisms
• Measurement of damping
References
• A.D. Nashif, D.I.G. Jones and J.P. Henderson, 1985, Vibration
Damping, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
• C.M. Harris, 1987, Shock and Vibration Handbook, Third
Edition, McGraw Hill.
• L.L. Beranek and I.L. Ver, 1992. Noise and Vibration Control
Engineering, John Wiley and Sons.
• D.J. Mead, 1999, Passive Vibration Control, John Wiley and
Sons.
• F.J. Fahy and J.G. Walker, 2004, Advanced Applications in
Acoustics, Noise and Vibration, Spon Press (chapter 12
Vibration Control by M.J. Brennan and N.S. Ferguson).
• F.S. Tse, I.E. Morse and R.T. Hinkle, 1978, Mechanical
Vibrations, Theory and Applications, Second Edition, Allyn and
Bacon, Inc.