Example/ Calculate the solubility-product constant for each of the following

substances, given that the molar concentrations of their saturated solutions are
as indicated:

(a) RaSO4 (6.6 X 10-6 M), (b) Ce(IO3)3 (1.9 X 10-3 M).

(a)RaSO ⇄ Ra2+ + SO 2–
4 4

[Ra2+] = [SO42–] = 6.6 × 10–6 M

K = [Ra2+][SO 2–] = (6.6 × 10–6 M)2 = 4.4 × 10–11

sp 4

(b) Ce(IO3)3 ⇄ Ce3+ + 3IO3–

[Ce3+]=1.9×10–3 M, [IO3–]=3×1.9×10–3 M=5.7×10–3 M

K = [Ce3+][ IO –]3 = 1.9 × 10–3 × (5.7 × 10–3)3 = 3.5 × 10–10

sp 3

Buffer solution

What do you think will happen if the pH of our blood changes drastically from its
normal pH of 7.35? Yes, the cells of our body will not function properly and our
body systems will fail! Human blood contains a ‘buffer’ that allows it to maintain
its pH at 7.35 to ensure normal functioning of cells. Buffer solutions are also
important in chemical and biochemical processes where the control of pH is very
important. Let’s understand buffer solutions in more detail.
Buffer Solutions

Buffers are solutions that resist change in pH on dilution or on the addition of

small amounts of acids or alkali. 

A lot of biological and chemical reactions need a constant pH for the reaction to
proceed. Buffers are extremely useful in these systems to maintain the pH at a
constant value. This does not mean that the pH of buffers does not change. It only
means that the change in pH is not as much as it would be with a solution that is
not a buffer.

Types of Buffer Solutions

Buffers are broadly divided into two types – acidic and alkaline buffer solutions.
Acidic buffers are solutions that have a pH below 7 and contain a weak acid and
one of its salts. For example, a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate acts as a
buffer solution with a pH of about 4.75.

Alkaline buffers, on the other hand, have a pH above 7 and contain a weak base
and one of its salts. For example, a mixture of ammonium chloride and
ammonium hydroxide acts as a buffer solution with a pH of about 9.25. Buffer
solutions help maintain the pH of many different things as shown in the image
below.
Preparation of a Buffer Solution

If you know the pKa (acid dissociation constant) of the acid and pKb (base
dissociation constant) of the base, then you can make a buffer of known pH by
controlling the ratio of salt and acid or salt and base. Buffers can either be
prepared by mixing a weak acid with its conjugate base or a weak base with its
conjugate acid.

For example, phosphate buffer, a commonly used buffer in research labs, consists
of a weak base (HPO42-) and its conjugate acid (H2PO4-). Its pH is usually
maintained at 7.4.

Buffers are used in all types of chemical applications whenever it is important

to maintain the pH of a solution at a constant and predetermined level

For example, buffered aspirin contains buffers to help prevent stomach irritation
from the acidity of the carboxylic acid group in aspirin. The analgesic action is
thought to arise because aspirin interferes with the synthesis of prostaglandins,
which are hormones involved in the transmission of pain signals.
Buffer Action

So, how does a buffer work? Let’s take the example of the mixture of acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and sodium acetate (CH3COONa). Here, acetic acid is weakly
ionized while sodium acetate is almost completely ionized. The equations are
given as follows:

CH3COOH    H+ + CH3COO–

CH3COONa    Na+ + CH3COO–

To this, if you add a drop of a strong acid like HCl, the H+ ions from HCl combine
with CH3COO– to give feebly ionized CH3COOH. Thus, there is a very slight
change in the pH value. Now, if you add a drop of NaOH, the OH– ions react with
the free acid to give undissociated water molecules.

CH3COOH + OH–     CH3COO– + H2O

In this way, the OH– ions of NaOH are removed and the pH is almost unaltered.