DISORDER DISTAL TO MODELED STENOSES IN

STEADY AND PULSATILE FL_OW*t

R. A. CASSANOVA
and D. P. GIDDENS
School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332. U.S.A.

Abstract - Measurements of the velocity and energy spectra were made in the distal region of modeled
stenoses in a rigid tube with both steady and pulsatile water flows. Reynolds numbers of 318-2540 and a
pulsatile flow frequency parameter of 15 were employed. The effects of the degree of stenosis, the stenosis
geometry and the presence or absence of the downstream confining wall on the development of Row
disturbances were investigated. Visualixation of the distal flow pat:ems in stenotic and free jets illustrated the
existence of complex fields which included vortex shedding, highly turbulent regions, and recirculation
zones. Significant flow disorder was created by a mild stenosis in pulsatile, but not in steady, flow.
Nondimensionalization employing the stenosis diameter and flow velocity in the throat of the constriction
correlates the vortex shedding frequency and energy spectra within a limited poststenotic region,

lNTRODUCTlOS than could be provided by animal experiments.

The development of pathologic conditions associated
with certain forms of cardiovascular disease is often
accompanied by the formation of turbulence as the
blood flows past obstructions protruding from vessel
walls. The extent to which the flow is disturbed
depends, among other factors, upon the flow con-
ditions proximal to the obstruction, e.g. velocity and
pulse wave shape, and the degree and geometry of the
constriction. When the blood passes through a partial
occlusion in larger vessels, separation may occur and
the flow may transition into relatively intense turbul-
ence distal to the stenosis. The velocity fluctuations
produced pressure variations which are propagated
through the vessel wall and surrounding tissues and
can frequently be heard as sounds at the body surface.
In recent times there has been a multi-disciplinary
effort by researchers to understand the synergistic
biochemical and fluid mechanical influences on the
development of such pathologic conditions. Alteration
of the vessel wall structure and the associated potential
for plaque formation and wall dilation have been
associated with abnormal flow environments; i.e. low
shear stress regions (Caro, 1973), disordered flow
patterns (Fry, 1973), and turbulent flow (Roach, 1972).
In Co measurements of unstable and turbulent flows
in normal vessels (Nerem et al., 1972) and ofdisordered
flows associated with artificial stenoses (Giddens et al.,
1976), have demonstrated that disturbances to the flow
field may be generated by deviation of the pulse rate,
Reynolds number, or vessel wall contour from phy-
siologic conditions. In Ltirro modeling of stenotic flows
has furnished an insight into the fluid dynamics of
stenotic flow under more closely controlled conditions
* Receiwd 6 April 1977; in rerisedform 4 April 1978.
t This research was supported by the National Heart and
Lung Institute, Grant Number HL 15519 and the National
Science Foundation, Grant Number ENG 74-21986.
441
Measurements of velocity energy spectra (Kim and
Corcoran, 1974; Clark, 1976; Cassanova er ol., 1975a)
and sound power spectra (Yellin, 1966; Lees and
Dewey, 1970; Fredberg, 1973; Tobin and Chang,
1976) have been reported for a variety of stenosis
shapes and flow-conditions. At a distal position cor-
responding to the point of maximum r.m.s. wall
pressure, Fredberg (1973) was able to construct a
“universal” power spectrum for sufficiently high
Reynolds numbers. Tobin and Chang (1976) also de-
monstrated that the spectra which were obtained at
the position of maximum r.m.s. wall pressure could be
related to the degree of stenosis and other flow
variables by similarity parameters which were different
from the relationship found by Fredberg (1973). While
evidence of vortex shedding downstream of con-
strictions in pipe flow (a configuration very similar to
stenotic flow) was demonstrated earlier by Johansen
(1929), the more recent studies cited herein have not
reported spectra which would indicate that vortex
shedding was occurring.
The present investigation concentrates upon two
aspects of the fluid dynamics of poststenotic flows; the
characterization of flow disorder over a transitional
Reynolds number range with emphasis upon mild and
moderate degrees of occlusion, and the relationship of
steady to pulsatile flow through such constrictions.
Studies of the influence of the distal watl on the
formation of flow disturbances are also presented.
Experiments were conducted over physiologically re-
levant Reynolds numbers, Reo, from 318 to 2540,
based on tube diameter and mean velocity; and
velocity measurements were made over extensive
spatial regions of the poststenotic fields, employing a
hot film anemometer. Attention was given to visualir-
ation of flow phenomena, i.e. separation, vortex shed-
ding, .and turbulence, so as to provide a better
interpretation of the measured data.
441
R. A. CASSANOVA
EXPERIMESTAL APPARATUS
A schematic of the flow system is shown in Fig. 1.
The stenosis experiments were conducted in 2.54cm
I.D. x 0.3 18 cm thickwall, rigid acrylic tubing into
which were inserted the constrictions. The sharp
edged occlusions were thin brass orifice plates and
the contoured occlusions were machined from clear
acrylic with a cross-sectional shape generated by
intersecting circular arcs. Both constrictions were axi-
symmetric. The diameter of the unoccluded tube is
denoted by D while that of the constriction throat is
given by d; and the degree of occlusion is defined to be
the percent reduction in cross-sectional area created
by the stenosis.
A smoothly converging inlet which was located
immediately upstream of the occlusion for steady flow
assured laminar conditions proximal to the occlusion.
The velocity profile entering the occlusion was flat
over 80% of the tube diameter. For the pulsatile study
the occlusions were located 100 cm downstream of the
inlet so that measurements would be taken distal to the
first pulse length in the tube. The flow controls were
arranged to provide either a steady flow or a flow upon
which was superimposed a sinusoidal pulse from the
piston pump. . ponent, location of the sensor, and probe geometry.
The velocity measurements were made with a
commercially available anemometer, linearizer, and
miniature conical hot film probe (TSI-1264W) which
was frequently calibrated by using a slotted turntable
as described by Cassanova (1975). The probe position
was radially adjustable and could be mounted at
several axial locations distal to the stenosis. The
turbulent energy spectra were obtained by subjecting
the entire velocity signal to Fourier analysis using a
Hewlett-Packard 5451A Fourier Analyzer. All spect-
ral data were corrected for analyzer bandwidth and
2.54 cm ID x 0.318 LnlWall
Rigid Acrylic Tubing
(b di
Contyed Stenosis Sharp-kdgcd
I laser system in an effort to circumvent the restrictions
Centrifugal
Pump
Fig. 1. Schematic of the flow system and geometry of the
stenoees.
and D. P.
GIDDESS
low pass filtering was employed to prevent abasing.
It is important to note that there are several inherent
limitations on hot film anemometer measurements.
particularly for a flow as complex as that in a
poststenotic field. High turbulence intensities, large
flow angularities, and regions of flow reversal severely
compromise the accuracy of velocity studies with
these devices. We have refrained from performing any
measurements in regions of suspected reverse flow due
to the obvious problem of probe interference. A more
subtle problem is that posed by large fluctuations in
velocity and by divergent mean velocity streamlines.
Although several investigators have shown that
measurements with the conical probe are relatively
insensitive to slight changes in flow alignment (e.g.
Smith er al., 1967 and Clark, 1974), nonetheless large
fluctuations in velocity and divergent mean velocity
streamlines found in poststenotic flows will contribute
to presenting a velocity vector to the sensor that is not
aligned properly with respect to the calibration me-
thod which orients the probe parallel with the flow.
Thus, the measurements cannot be interpreted strictl)
as u-component velocity data.
It is well-known that the frequency response of hot
film probes is dependent upon the mean flow com-
Clark (1974) has shown the frequency response of two
probe geometries (cylindrical and blunted conical) to
be reasonably flat for Strouhal numbers between 0.01
and 0.03. (The appropriate Strouhal number is St
= 2n dl/u where f is the frequency in Hertz, I is the
length from the tip of the probe to the location of the
sensor, and 0 is the mean flow velocity). The TSI
probe employed here has a sharper tip and smaller
cone angle than that employed by Clark, and the
length I is approx. 0.1 mm. The combination of
frequencies and velocities reported here is such that the
probe is usually operating within this range of St.
_‘.‘
Further, we have made comparison of turbulence
energy spectra measured with a laser Doppler anem-
ometer at velocity similar to those employed in the
present study, and good spectral agreement is ob-
tained for frequencies as high as 200 Hz, at which
ambiguity compromises the laser results. Future
S~cnoris
measurements in poststenotic flows will employ the
of hot films.
STENOTIC FLOW PATTER%
Several of the flow visualization studies are pre-
sented in this section. For these photographs, a fine
stream of dye was introduced into the flow near the
bottom wall of the converging inlet (see Fig. 1).
Steady pow
The influence of Reynolds number, stenosis shape
and stenosis severity is illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. In
general, the sharp-edged constrictions produced a
 Dis~dc~ dist4 IO ml?d:ied stenoses in steady .md puisa$c flou

r50% Sharp-Edged Stenosis

Recirculation Zone Vortex Ring Break-Up

50% Contoured Stenosis

I-

Recirculation Zone Vortex Ring Break-Up At Wall

Fig. 2. Flow patterns for the SO”, stenoses in steady flow; ReD = 2530, Re, = 3590.
 R. A. CLSSA.UOVA
and D. P. GIDDENS

r75% Sharp-Edged Stenosis

Recirculation Zone Vortex Ring Coalescence

and Break-Up

r75% Contoured Stenosis

Recirculatidn Zone Instability Break-Up

Fig. 3. Flow patterns for the 757, stenoses in stead! flow; ReD = 635, Re, = 1270.
 ReD=63.5 ReDI

Free Jet

Re,-,:635 ReDZ1270
Stenotic Flow [Confined Jet]
Fig. 4 Effect of tube wall confinement on flow disturbances for steady flow through 500., sharp-edged
stenoses at ReD = 635 and ReD = 1270.
Center line
Velocity
cm fsec
‘~~
Time

4
Stenosis

L-i-l
Stenosis Disturbance

(C 1
4 I
Stenosis Disturbance

4. * I I
Stenosis Disturbonce
s
: .i
I

4 I
Stenosis Disturbance

Fig. 5. Development of flow disorder distal to the W, contoured stenosis in pulsatils Row with ReD, = 2540
and z = 15.
 Disorder distal to modeled stenoses in steady and pulsarile flow
distinct vena contracta while the contoured con-
strictions did not. For Ree = 2540 shown in Fig. 2, the
sharpedged constriction produced a vortex ring pat-
tern within one tube diameter downstream of the
occlusion. This orderly flow structure quickly dis-
perses into a random disturbance downstream. The
contoured occlusion, however. produced a more elo-
ngated recirculation zone and a vortex pattern near
the wall which breaks up at approx. 3 diameters
downstream from the stenosis site. Another interesting
comparison is shown in Fig. 3 for 75% occlusions at
Ree = 635. The sharp-edged occlusion produced a
pattern of comparatively small vortices which disin-
tegrate before the stenotic jet expands to meet the wall.
However, the contoured occlusion produced a large
recirculation zone and a large scale flow instability
whose break up appears to occur upon interaction
with the tube wall at the reattachment location.
A series of flow visualization experiments was also
conducted to determine the effects of wall interference
on the formation of vortex rings and the degeneration
of these rings into more random fluctuations. In
general, the presence of the tube retards the develop-
ment of vortices at the lower Reynolds numbers.
Howe\ er, at higher Reynolds numbers where the shear
is sufficiently large for the generation of a clearly
defined vortex instability, the ring contact with the
wall initiates the degeneration of the rings into random
patterns at a lower X/D location than in the free jet
case. This is illustrated in Fig. 4. The photograph for
Ren = 635 shows the vortex ring formation in the free
jet issuing from the 50% sharp-edged stenosis. These
rings do not break up until approx. XjD = 3. The
presence of the confining, distal wall reduces the
magnitude of the discrete vortex and causes a dissi-
pation of this pattern at the wall with no discernible
formation of a random phenomenon. The flow appears
to relaminarize immediately. The free jet with Ren
= 1270 shows a very distinct vortex ring system which
exists for about three tube diameters downstream
before breaking up. The confined jet with Ren = 1270
also shows a vortex ring structure. However, the
relatively large eddies are destroyed by contact with
the wall at a position one tube diameter downstream
from the constriction.
The behavior of pulsatile flow through constrictions
is more complex than steady flow. Further, the velocity
waveform encountered in a physiological situation is
relatively complicated in that it is composed of a
number of harmonics of the fundamental pulse rate
and may have a reverse flow component during part of
the cycle. However, for the purpose of illustrating the
basic phenomena present in poststenotic flow a sim-
pler, approximately sinusoidal, waveform is employed.
Of particular interest are flow disturbances created by
mild stenoses. Figure 5 is taken from a series of movie
film frames of dye flow patterns which occurred during
one pulse through a smoothly contoured 25% stenosis
44:
for a peak Reynolds number Ren, = 2540, based upon
the maximum velocity. Flow visualization for more
severe conditions is given by Cassanova (1975). At
time (a) when the mean flow velocity is nearly zero. the
flow close to the wall is reversing while the centerline
flow is still positive. However, with the slight stenosis
in place, the extent of near-wall flow reversal im-
mediately downstream of the constriction was no-
ticeably increased over that without the occlusion in
place. This is somewhat surprising since this slight
occlusion did not produce a measurable recirculation
zone in steady flow up to Re, = 2540. The flow
disturbance can be seen forming at time (b); and it
diffuses toward the centerline and is convected
downstream at subsequent times (c), (d) and (e). At
times (d) and (e) the region immediately downstream
of the stenosis is completely relaminarized and no
recirculation zone can be seen.
STEADY FLOW ESERGY SPECTRA
As indicated by the flow visualization studies, the
velocity fields distal to constrictions may be a
composite of’ laminar regions, unstable or disturbed
flow with large eddies, and highly turbulent zones with
a broad distribution ofeddy sizes. The measurement of
the velocity at a point provides a sensitive description
of the nature of the flow ; and the energy spectrum of
the velocity signal is a measure of the kinetic energy
contained within a specified frequency bandwidth and
is, therefore, an indication of the nature of flow
instabilities which are present. For example, the fluc-
tuations produced by vortex shedding result in a
spectrum which contains a concentration of energy
within a narrow frequency band, whereas the more
randomly distributed eddies in turbulent flows pro-
duce a broadband spectrum which exhibits a decay in
intensity with increasing frequency. The occurrence of
different spectral shapes and velocity waveforms in
poststenotic Rows and the effects of the distal wall on
the occlusion-induced jet are illustrated in the follow-
ing sections. All spectral analyses in steady flow
utilized an analysis bandwidth of 1 Hz. Other methods
of waveform analysis are discussed by Giddens et al.
(1976) and by Khalifa and Giddens (1978).
EfJecrs of geometry, mensurement position and pow
parameters
The proper Reynolds number and nondimensional
length scale for duplication of flow conditions in a free
jet or in a confined, stenotic jet in the near centerline
region are, in most cases, based upon the constriction
conditions, U,, and d. However, from the viewpoint of
studying degenerative vascular disease a more appro-
priate parameterization is to hold the unoccluded flow
conditions, U and D, constant while the degree of
occlusion is allowed to increase. Such a comparison of
the resulting energy spectra at ReD = 2540 is shown in
Fig. 6 for a fixed axial location, X/D = 2.125. Here U”
is the energy of the velocity fluctuations at a given
448
75’4
__-_
----_(- . .
-\
5 IO
Frequency,
Fig. 6. Steady flow centerline energy spectra for 50 and 75%
stenoses; Re, = 2540. X/D = 2.125.
frequency. As the degree of constriction increases from
50 to 75x, the magnitude of the fluctuations increases
noticeably and the spectrum changes from a peaked
shape caused by vortex shedding to a more dispersed
configuration suggestive of turbulent flow. The sharp
edged occlusion produced significantly higher in-
tensities than did the contoured geometry. The 25%
occlusion did not yield any disturbances at this
position which were of measurably higher intensity
than the unoccluded flow.
The effect of radial location on the spectra is shown
in Fig. 7 for the 50% sharpedged stenosis at an axial
position of X/D = 1.125 and ReD = 2540. The near-
centerline positions, r = 0 and 4 mm, clearly exhibit a
vortex shedding spectral peak, while the positions
IO’, I (
50% Sharp- Edged
I I
10-5,
5 IO
Frequency.
Fig. 7. Radial variation of steady flow energy spectra for 50%
sharpedged stenosis; Re, = 2540, X/D = 1.125.
R. A. CGSASOVA and D. P. GIDDEM
nearer the wall, r = 8 and 12 mm, yield broadband
spectra of higher overall intensity. This increase in the
Sharp-Edged
turbulence energy near the wall is indicative both of
energy transfer from the more or less discrete vortex
rings into a wider distribution of eddy sizes and of the
75% Contoured
conversion of mean kinetic energy into a random form.
This spectral representation is quite consistent with
observations from the flow visualization depicted in
Fig. 2(a).
As the flow progresses downstream the randomness
formed near the wall extends toward the centerline and
the turbulence intensity decreases. The peaks in the
energy spectra caused by vortices at X/D = 1.125 are
completely absent at X/D = 3.125 for this case of 50%
sharpedged constriction at I&Q,= 2540.
The influence of the wall on the initial formation of
vortex rings and break-up of these rings into turbul-
ence is less pronounced for greater degrees of occlusion
where the stenotic jet shear layer is farther removed
from the wall. As the wall interference effects are
50 100 500
reduced, the vortex ring growth and its degeneration
Hz by “natural” instabilities approaches the behavior of
the free jet case. The effects of the distal confining wall
on the development of the stenotic flow disturbances
are illustrated in Fig. 8 which shows the spectral results
For the 50% sharp-edged occlusion at a Reynolds
number of ReD = 1270. The confined jet produced a
spectral peak which increases in intensity as the flow
progresses downstream. It can be seen that the energy
contained in the free jet vortex ring system is much
greater than that of the confined jet system. At this
Reynolds number, the presence of the wall has served
to suppress, but not eliminate, the growth of the rings.
At lower Reynolds numbers the downstream wall may
reduce the intensity of the vortex to the point that little
energy is transferred into turbulence and the flow
quickly relaminarizes. Farther downstream at X/D
:the two cases produce more randomly distri-
10' I
- Confined Jet
I ,
--- ._ ---- Free Jet
Lr=4mm :
I
IC
frequency, Hz
50 100
Hz
Fig. 8. Centerline energy spectra produced by confined
stenotic jets and by free jets for a 500/, sharp-edged con-
striction at ReD = 1270, Re, = 1796.
 Disorder distal to modeled stenoses in steady and puisarile flow 449

buted energy spectra with the free jet having a slightly
higher overall magnitude.
il;ondimensional correlorions
The purposes of correlating the energy spectra are :
(1) to determine the applicability of nondimensional
parameters to scaling of the distal flow field. (2) to
compare the relative intensities of the velocity Ruc-
tuations produced by diRerent stenosis geometries,
and (3) to relate the Strouhal number of the vortex
shedding frequency to the data cited in the literature.
Since the data presented in the references are often
correlated with a Strouhal number based on con-
ditions at the jet orifice or pipe exit, it is appropriate
that the present results be nondimensionalized in a
similar manner. The energy and frequency are thus
nondimensionalized by the mean velocity at the
constriction minimum area, Lie, and the constriction
diameter, d.
Figure 9 gives the Strouhal number comparisons for
the 507; occlusions at Re, = 2540, Re, = 3592. In the
near distal field (X/D = 0.5) of the sharp occlusion, the
Strouhal number of the spectral peak is about 1.0 and
decreases to a value of cu. 0.5-0.6 at the more distal
positions (X/D = 1.125 and 2.125) prior to the ap-
pearance of the broadband spectrum at X/D = 3.125.
The intensity of the spectral peak also reaches a
maximum when fd/U, is approx. 0.6. The contoured
occlusion data show the spectral peak occurring at a
Strouhal number of cu. OS-O.6 at all positions shown.
The dominant value of nearly 0.6 for both geometries
agrees with the correlations published in the literature
for confined and free jets (Johansen, 1929 ; Beavers and
Wilson, 1970). The sharp-edged occlusion yields more
intense spectral peaks, as compared to the total kinetic
energy available at the occlusion, Vi, than did the
x/D
- 0.5
contoured occlusion. Likewise, the correlations of the
free jet spectral peaks also yield a Strouhal number of
about 0.6 and indicate an even higher transfer of
energy into the vortex structure. Similar correlations
can be demonstrated for the 759{ occlusions and for
lower Reynolds number flows. As the constriction
Reynolds number, Re,, decreases the differences in the
nondimensional intensities of the spectra produced by
the geometries are more pronounced (Cassanova.
1975).
The correlations of the steady flow energy spectra in
the near-distal region imply that the mechanisms
controlling the formation of instabilities and turbul-
ence are dominated by the constriction conditions, i.e.
Re, and constriction geometrical shape, in a manner
which is similar to a free jet. Farther downstream
where the interaction of the jet with the wall has
destroyed the “memory” of the flow, a similarity
relationship between occlusion sizes would not be
expected since the observed characteristics would no
longer possess a unique dependence on the con-
striction conditions. The correlations which have been
developed by Fredberg (1973) and Tobin and Chang
(1976) for the reattachment region apply only for
severe constrictions and relatively high stenosis
Reynolds numbers where the distribution of the energy
amongst the eddy sizes should approach a character-
istically turbulent energy cascade.
PULSATILE FLOW WAVEFORMS ASD
ESERGY SPECTRA
The steady flow experiments which were presented
in the previous sections demonstrated the occurrence
of complex flow disorder in the region distal to a
stenosis. However, the direct carryover of these results
to a more physiologically realistic situation, namely
Geometrv pulsatile flow, must be considered cautiously. The
Sharp-Edged
3, following data illustrate some of the salient features of

/-\
----- LIZ5
II the flow disturbances created by a pulsating mean
- -
- 2.125 8,
3.125 flow. In these studies the proximal flow had an
.. .. I.5 Contoured
---2.125 II approximately sinusoidal waveform with a pulse rate
-+-3.125 II
f, = 0.2 Hz, and a peak Reynolds number of 2540
based on the tube diameter and the cross-sectional
averaged, peak velocity as determined from the mea-

1 \\--
10-3 -- - ,r '\
/,a
? \
sured peak flow rate. While this waveform appro-
-+-1
.2
,q;,. 1, ximately duplicates a physiologically normal fre-
,'
,'
s.____*" \'s, '\ quency parameter (z = RJ’(21rf,!v) = 15) with the
-$ * >
\
,I'\ ? ,: \
relatively large tubing size that was used in the
x \ '.,':, \ experiments, the pulse rate is considerably lower than
,65 ---*b
\
normal. Therefore, the acceleration and deceleration
rates of the pulse were also lower than would be
normally encountered in the human cardiovascular
system. The entire velocity waveform was sampled by
\ I\ ‘\
10-7 '
, I the Fourier analyzer to obtain the energy spectra with
0.05 0.1 0:s I_, 5 IO
a frequency bandwidth resolution of 0.2 Hz. Since the
fd
UO conical hot film probe cannot be utilized successfully in
Fig. 9. Strouhal number and nondimensional spectral energy periodically reversing Aows, all data reported herein
measured on the centerline distal to the 50% stenosis at Re,, were obtained in regions where there was forward
= 2540, Re, = 3592. mean flow over the probe during the entire cycle, as
450 R. A. CASANOVA and D. P. GIDDEM

1 X/0=2.125

X/0=3.125

L
r=l2mm
X/D=6.125
25 25

I / L_ ,

OO Time, set 5 Time, set

Fig. 10. Axial variation of the centerline velocity waveforms Fig. 11. Radial variation of the velocity waveforms at X/B
distal to the 75% contoured stenosis with pulsatile flow; z = 1.125 distal to the 50% sharp-edged stenosis with pulsatile
= 15, Rer,, = 2540. flow ; z = 15,Rer,, = 2540.

determined by flow visualization. A later paper will occlusion geometries and the formation of flow distur-
consider the temporal development of the spectra. bances near the wall.
Figure 10 shows the centerline waveform at several The occurrence of measurable flow disorder distal to
axial positions distal to the 75% contoured occlusion. stenoses in pulsatile flow is further illustrated in Fig. 12
The development of flow disturbances during the which gives the energy spectra obtained distal to the
higher velocity portion of the pulse is evident. The sharp-edged occlusions. The intensity of the spectra for
intensity of the disturbance increases and the mean the case with no stenosis decreases rapidly with
velocity decreases as the measurement point moves
downstream to X/D = 3.125. The disturbances di-
ssipate during the low velocity portion of the pulse at
all locations. Disordered flow created at the stenosis
does not reach the farthest downstream position, X/D
= 6.125, until the mean velocity nears the maximum.
The typical radial variation of the waveform and the
occurrence of a large vortex ring in the initial phase of
the pulse can be seen in Fig. 11 which gives data
obtained with the 50% sharp-edged occlusion at X/D
= 1.125. The large, low frequency fluctuation which
occurs during the acceleration phase at r = 8 and
12 mm is caused by the starting vortex swirling into the
region near the wall. This would be a recirculation
zone in the steady case. The intensity and frequency of
the velocity fluctuations in the high shear region at r
= 8 and 12 mm increase as the mean velocity increases
and then dissipate before the beginning of the next
pulse.
The relatively slight degree of occlusion, i.e. 25x, did
not produce any measurable centerline flow disorder
in the steady flow experiments. However, when pul- Frequency, Hz
satile flow was introduced, the flow visualization
Fig. 12. Centerline energy spectra at X/D = 2.125 distal to
showed an increase in flow reversal during the low the sharpedged stenoses in pulsatile flow; LT= 15, ReD,,
velocity phase in the near distal region of both 25% = 2540.
 Disorder distal to modeled stenoses in steady and pulsatiie flow .ljl

increasing frequency from the fundamental pulse rate
of 0.2 Hz. This type of spectral curve indicates that the
flow was approximately laminar in nature with very
little energy in higher frequency fluctuations. The 25%
occlusion produces a noticeable increase in the spect-
ral energy at higher frequencies. As the degree of flow
constriction is increased to 75%. the energy distributed
to higher frequencies likewise increases. A broadband
spectral distribution, characteristic of turbulence, be-
gins at an intensity considerably below the 0.2 Hz peak
and no distinct harmonic peaks can be seen. Similar
trends are reported for the contoured occlusions by
Cassanova (1975). These results are in contrast to the
in cil;o results (Giddens er al., 1976) which indicated
significant energy in the first few harmonics. This
characteristic of the in cico data is due to the complex
velocity waveform present in the animals.
The energy spectra shown in Fig. 13 show evidence
of vortex shedding in pulsatile flow through a 50%
sharpedged stenosis at an axial location XjD = 0.5.
Similar data are available for the contoured occlusion
(Cassanova et al., 1975b). The centerline (r = 0) spec-
tra show peaks which indicate that discrete vortex
shedding is occurring over a significant portion of the
flow pulse. The frequency of the vortex shedding for
the 50%; occlusion agrees reasonably well with the
steady flow frequency which was obtained at the same
Reynolds number corresponding to the peak Reynolds
number of the pulsatile flow (Fig. 7). The spectrum
which was measured at r = 8 mm (Fig. 13) in pulsatile
fiow exhibits harmonics of the fundamental vortex
shedding frequency.
tween the near field, which contains sharp vortex
shedding frequencies, and the remainder of the flow is
certainly impossible. Once the vortex patterns have
disintegrated, however, and prior to reaching the far
field where the fluid will have lost its recollection of
passing through the constriction, one might expect an
intermediate region of turbulence similarity. This has
been demonstrated by Giddens er al. (1976). Clark
(1976), and Khalifa and Giddens (1978). The present
spectral data correlate well by using the dimensionless
variables
Here, Li,, is the (calculated) peak cross-sectional
average velocity in the throat of the constriction,f is
the frequency in cyclessec, and F is an energy density
function defined by
E(w)
F(w) = u’?’ (1)
where E(w) is the energy (velocity-squared) content
per unit frequency and u” is the mean square velocity
fluctuation, related to E(w) by
We postulate that the peak velocity, cop, should be
effective for scaling the spectral curves sines it is the
I

a. Khalifa and
Nondimensional correlations Giddens (1978)
The spectral results clearly indicate the complex
b. Clark (1976)
nature of the poststenotic flow field. Similarity be-

I I ’ I

’ ‘\
Stenosis Location t
50% X/D = 2.125 \ “\
- --__75% .’ ”
-50% X/D = 3.125
- -c - 75% ” 11

-*-*--a-75% X/D= 6.125

1 10 100
, I I
0.5 I 5 10 50 !OO
STROUHAL NUMBER. Ns’
Frequency, Hz

Fig. 13. Energy spectra measured at X/D = 0.5 distal to the Fig. 14. Nondimensionalized energy spectra for several cases
XI:/, sharp-edged stenosis showing a comparison with the of pulsatile flow and a comparison with other published
vortex shedding from steady flow data. work.
351 R. A. CASANOVA and D. P.
high velocity region of the pulse wave which generates
the most intense turbulence under the conditions
studied here. This tends to dominate the spectral
measurements made over the entire pulse. Figure 14
displays the results of applying these similarity para-
meters to the present measurements at several axial
stations and for various degrees of occlusion. Also
shown on the figure are results taken from the in vioo
data of Khalifa and Giddens (1978) and the in cicro
data of Clark (1976). Line (a) represents a curve faired
through the spectral results for the disturbance ve-
locity, u’, measured during an interval near peak
systolic velocity and for degrees of occlusion ranging
from 20 to 887: in the canine aorta (Khalifa and
Giddens, Fig. 6b). Line (b) represents a curve faired
through the in citro steady flow results of Clark (Fig. 7a
of that reference), which covered a wide range of
Reynolds numbers and employed an 89% stenosis for
this particular set of data. Clark’s results are slightly
higher than the present study, perhaps because he
excluded velocity fluctuations below 22.4 Hz from the
integral, equation (2), used to calculate u”. However,
the general shapes of all the spectra are quite similar;
and considering the extensive ranges of stenosis size,
Reynolds number, axial location, and the fact that data
were taken both in vitro and in uivo, the correlation of
the varied results is quite remarkable.
DISCUSSION
The present study has illustrated the highly complex
nature of poststenotic flow fields, even for the sim-
plified in vitro models employed. Despite the com-
plexity, however, certain definite trends have emerged
which contribute to an understanding of flow through
subtotal vascular stenoses.
Stenosis geometry
The results indicate that the more abrupt, sharp-
edged stenoses created a much greater flow distur-
bance at a given Reynolds number than the smoothly
contoured configuration. As expected, all data exhi-
bited the trend that the greater the degree of blockage,
the greater the disorder created in the distal field. This
is in agreement with the results reported by Kim and
Corcoran (1974) who used stenoses with a rectangular
cross-section and with a multicornered geometry.
Their results, however, did not indicate the presence of
vortex shedding immediately distal to the stenosis. A
multicornered configuration, as used by Kim and
Corcoran (1974). or irregularly shaped stenosis geo-
metry, which may be encountered in pathological
conditions, might tend to disperse an orderly structure
in the flow disturbance.
Distal wall interactions
In regions very near the plane of constriction of the
severe stenosis (75%) the stenotic jet behaves similarly
to a free jet. Vortex shedding occurs at the same
frequency and intensity for both cases and the disinteg-
GIDDEM
ration of the vortex into a random distribution of
smaller eddies occurs at about the same location.
However, for milder stenoses where the wall is closer to
the shear layer, the proximity of the boundary clearly
modifies the development of flow instabilities. At low
Reynolds numbers, the wall retards the development
of vortices, whereas, at high Reynolds numbers it
reduces the energy which is transfened to the vortex
ring structure and increases the rate at which the
energy is transferred into a random distribution of
eddy sizes, thus promoting a broadband spectral
distribution.
Steady v’s pulsatile pow
For steady flow the visualization studies and
measurements indicate that, if the stenosis is smoothly
contoured, a degree of occlusion of co. 50% is required
to cause substantial flow disturbances at the Reynolds
numbers studied. However, for a pulsatile flow, distur-
bances were created with a mild 2Y(: stenosis during
the deceleration phase of a cycle. Thus, the effect of
pulsatility was to destabilize the flow, and this was
clearly evident in the energy spectra results.
Similarity parameters
Due to the extremely complex nature of the flow
field, any correlation of energy spectra will of necessity
be valid only over a limited range of conditions and in
limited regions of space. If the Reynolds numbers are
relatively large, if the degree of occlusion is sufficient, if
measurements are avoided in zones of recirculation
and taken the vicinity of reattachment. then the energy
spectra maybe characteristically turbulent and can be
correlated by similarity parameters. When these re-
strictions are not imposed, then correlation is virtually
impossible in the transitional Reynolds number re-
gime which was covered by the study.
Implications to stenotic disease
Although thecompliant nature of the vessel wall was
not modeled, the present results illustrate certain
trends which can realistically be expected to occur in
the poststenotic field of a subtotal vascular stenosis.
The experiments confirm previous in ciro observations
that substantial flow disorder may occur for mild
stenoses, and they allow visualization of the instability
mechanism active in pulsatile flow which creates the
disorder. The limitations of employing spectral cor-
relations to estimate the degree of stenosis have been
outlined, and it would appear very unlikely that such
correlations will be of value in estimating the size of
localized atherosclerotic plaques at an early stage of
development. On the other hand, the data suggest that
detection of flow disorder per se could be a potentially
useful indicator of the existence of mild stenoses,
provided of course, that this detection could be
achieved noninvasively and that the trends exhibited
for axisymmetric stenoses are present in flow fields
associated with constrictions in the vicinity of vessel
 Disorder distal to modeled stenoses in steady and pulsatiie flow
branching and bifurcation, the geometries more tvpi-
call? prone to atherosclerosis.
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NOMENCLATURE
Diameter at throat of constriction
D Unoccluded pipe diameter
E’ Turbulence energy function
Frequency in cycles per second
Fundamental frequency for pulsatile waveform
Turbulence energy density function
Dimensionless frequency variable
Radial coordinate
Unoccluded tube radius
Reynolds number based on constriction diameter, d.
and average veiocity in the tube, c’ : Re, = pL’d/p
Reynolds number based on tube diameter. D. and
average velocity in the tube. L:; Rea = pUD,‘p
Reynolds number based on peak wave form velocity,
U,,, and tube diameter, Renp = pU$/g
Turbulence velocity component
Average fluid velocity in unoccluded portion of tube
Average fluid velocity in throat of constriction
Peak cross-sectional averaged velocity in throat of
constriction for pulsatile flow
3
Frequency parameter for pulsatile flow : 2= R
Fluid density Y
Fluid viscosity
Kinematic viscosity, Y = p/p.