si it

WJELDOX an HMDOX

OXElOSUND
 1 Read this first
WELDOX - EHS and HS steels in plate structurer
Extra High-Strength (EHS) and Abrasion Resistant (AR) steels
are the steel industry's answer to the demands of markets,and
designers for steels that permit lighter, more durable and more
wear -resistant structures. . numbers with special high-speed drills (20% more expensive).
In order to permit lighter and more durable structures, the
steels, and especially the EHS steels, must have a high yield
stress.
Yield stress, N/mm2
MS (Mild Steels)
e.g. S 235, BS 40, St 37 ................................ 200 - 300
HS (High Strength steels)
e.g. S 355, ASTM A 572-50, BS 50, St 52-3.... 300 - 500
EHS (Extra High Strength steels)
e.g. WELDOX 600, WELDOX 700,
WELDOX 900, WELDOX 960 ........................... 600 - 960
Demands for abrasion resistance have led to the development
of the AR (Abrasion-Resistant) steels, which are abrasion
resistant steels that can also be used as structural steels.
Brinell hardness HB
MS ................................................................. 100-150
HS .................................................................. 150 - 210
EHS ................................................................ 240 - 320
AR HARDOX 400, HARDOX 500 ........................ 360 - 560
The principal area of application for the EHS and AR steels is
within sectors where a premium is placed on reducing:
- the dead load of the structure
-wear
- the effects of impacts and shocks
- surface damage (by increasing the hardness of the compo-
nent)
These steels are used very widely today within the transport
sector, on construction vehicles, mobile cranes, forestry machines,
within the process industry (cement and timber processing), in
the mining and minerals industry etc.
The Heavy Plate Division of SVENSKT STAL has sold more
than 700 000 metric tons of EHS and AR plate (1986).
Svenskt SteWs vast and long experience with EHS and AR
steels has been compiled in this design manual. The manual is
primarily intended to serve as a valuable aid to designers and,
hopefully, to encourage creative thinking and unconventional
design approaches.
EHS and AR steels have fundamentally the same analyses as
MS and HS steels and exhibit roughly the same weldability as
these steels. Their high strength and toughness have been
achieved through heat treatment.
The steels are very pure and therefore possess good bending
properties in the cold state.
HARDOX - AR steel as protection against abrasion
Despite their great hardness, they permit satisfactory produc-
tion economy. It is, for example, possible to drill in the AR steels
- a small number of holes with high-speed steel drills and larger
WELDOX and HARDOX steels actually
involve nothing new in design work.
The usual formulae for stress and strain can be used and addi-
tional design data are given in this manual.
The design manual does not cover the entire field of welded
structures, concentrating instead on aspects of special interest
pertaining to the use of EHS and AR steels.
The purpose of the manual is to provide:
- extensive information on EHS and AR steels
- design data
- answers to questions that can arise when first working with
these steels
- a deeper understanding of important subjects such as:
fatigue, buckling, torsion, impact stress, wear etc, in
which instruction provided at present is inadequate
The contents of the manual are not bound to Swedish build-
ing codes and standards, in part because the work of codifica-
tion and standardization is lagging behind engineering practice
and only partially covers EHS steels today, and in part because
EHS and AR steels are primarily used within areas where codes
and standards are not needed. Another reason is that the same
design data should be applicable also in export markets. Wher-
ever portions of standards have been used, they have been
adapted to international practice and standards such as ISO,
ECCSand IIW.
This handbook has been produced at the initiative of the
Heavy Plate Division of Svenskt Stal in Oxel6sund, Sweden, in
cooperation with Dr. Arne Johnson Ingenj6rsbyra AB in Stock-
holm and SIKOB in Stockholm.
The principal author and chief editor of the d~sign manual has
been Lennart Bergqvist, M. Eng.
After this Design Manual was published in 1981,
developments in the production of heavy plate have forged
ahead, and so has effective utilization of this product in the
engineering industry. Steels with yield strengths of up to 1100
N/mm2 have been developed in Oxelosund, and they have also
found appropriate applications.
The WELDOX family has been expanded by the iclusion of
steels in the "intermediate range" with yield strengths of 420 •
500 N/mm2. The development of these steels has been ·guided
by the groving demands of the engineering industry for steels
that are favourable in production. Weldability and bendability
have been assigned priority in the development work.
HARDOX steels have developed further within the existing
framework, but are now being produced to closer tolerances on
hardness, etc.
This 4th edition has been relatively extensively revised by the
inclusion of new steels.
Claes Lowgren, M.Sc., the head of our Applications Develop-
ment Group, has been responsible for the revision work.
We wish to thank those who have submitted valuable views on
various occasions concerning the contents of the manual.
These have led to certain amendments and additions.
Oxelosund, June 1991
SSAB OxeliSsund AB
, .,
Key to symbols used in this manual
As a rule, the SI system of units is used and N/mm2 is used for
mechanical stress.

A area of cross section R stress ratio

a . throat thickness for weld, crack length, length s standard deviation
dimension Sf safety factor
ac critical crack size T temperature, time, transverse (shear) force
b width t plate thickness
c coefficient, length dimension U potential
Cv impact strength u displacement
D Palmgren-Miner cumulative damage sum, plate V voltage
stiffness v velocity
d diameter W overall width
e eccentricity, impact coefficient, shear centre Wv section modulus in torsion
ex, ey distance from the centroid of a cross section to Ww warping resistance
an actual section w displacement
E Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity), energy x position, displacement
F fu nction of ..... y position, displacement
G shear modulus z position, displacement, utilization factor
H horizontal force a angle, parameter for determination of permissible
h height, depth (of section)
stress=~ (u su = ReL )
radius of inertia uel
I second moment of area, current fJ angle, parameter
J J integral cp angle, function of a
K stress intensity ~,o deflection. COD value
kB material factor f strain
Kc fracture toughness i: strain rate
Kf fatigue factor (fatigue strength reduction factor) fA parameter
kH factor for Hertz surface pressure A d/W"lug"
kR stress alternation factor v Poisson's ratio = 0.3
ka ky. buckling coefficients (! density, radius
Kt stress concentration factor Us upper yield point = ReH
Kv section factor with respect to torsional stiffness uO.2 proof stress (proportional limit)
Kw section factor with respect to warping stiffness UB ultimate tensile strength = Rm
Kx joint factor ur stress range
m mass, mean value u ru endurance limit
Mk stress intensity coefficient for weld ua stress amplitude
n exponent in Norton's creep law um mean stress
N normal force, load cycles Uw warping normal stress
Nd design load cycle number ueL Euler critical stress
nj load cycles, number of uH Hertz surface pressure

Nk buckling load Uj initial stress

P point force Uj equivalent stress
p spectrum parameter, gas or liquid pressure, bearing uk critical stress
stress up necessary stress amplitude for propagation

Pm maximum plastic deformation Tv shear stress due to torsion

Q total load Tw shear stress due to warping
q load per unit length cp angle

QB probability of failure !p angle

radius w angle

1:2
2 What are WELDOX and
HARDOX steels?
Quenched and tempered steels.. ........
Direct-cooled steels ...........................
Classification of the steels ................ ,.
Chemical analysis, strength values ......
Comparison with ordinary steels .: .......
2.1 • Lean chemical composition for
2.2 excellent weldability ......................... 2.5.1
2.3 Strength ......................................... 2.5.2
2.4 Toughness ...................................... 2.5.3
2.5 Machinability .. ' ................................ 2.5.4
Economics ...................................... 2.5.5
 2 What are WELDOX and HARDOX?
2.1.1 Brief history - quenched and tempered steels
WELOOX - 'quenched and tempered' or 'direct-cooled' structural Quenched and tempered steel plate is nothing new. Armour plate
steels. has been made in this way for decades. These steels had high
HARDOX - 'quenched' or 'quenched and tempered" abrasion- contents of carbon and alloying elements and were very difficult
resistant steels. to weld. It was not until the early 1950s that US Steel launched a
quenched and tempered steel with better weld ability. This was
2.1 Quenched and tempered steels known as T1 steel. The company then developed its static
WELDOX quenched and tempered structural steels have very high quenching presses (see Figure 2.2a) and achieved better cooling
yield strengths and are known as Extra High Strength (EHSI' capacity.
steels. HARDOX is an Abrasion-Resistant (AA) steel.
High-strength steels are not difficult to produce. But refined Figure 2.2a
technology is needed if EHS and AR steels are to be made tough,
veldable and bendable. Modern EHS steels such as WELDOX and
AA steels such as HAADOX are imparted this combination of
strength and toughness by metallurgical purification and harde·
ning in a continuous roller-quenching plant.
The 'grade steps' shown in Figure 2.1 can be used to compare
these quenched and tempered steels with conventional structural
steels of lower strength.

Figure 2.1 Static quenching plant

New research findings revealed that extremely small quantities

ReH
(0.002%) of boron (B) produced considerably increased
hardenability. The contents of carbon and alloying elements could
,.....
Nlmm'
)
thus be greatly reduced, and steels with much better weldability
I~'----------------.------------- could be produced by the addition of boron.
The real "breakthrough came in the mid-1960s when Bethlehem
Steel, together with the Drever & Co. consultancy company,
developed a continuous quenching process in a 'roller quench"
plant. The principle is shown in Figure 2.2b.
5OO.~-----------------

Figure 2.2b

High-pressure zone Low-pressure zone

The classification of steels into EHS and AR steels conforms to

the practice that has long been accepted on the" market. In the
past, abrasion-resistant plate was regarded as plate intended for
chutes, troughs, buckets, etc. for which hardness was the only
requirement. Continuous roller quench plant
Modern abrasion·resistant plate has been developed so that
guaranteed high hardness can be combined with guaranteed
toughness and strength. In addition, most of these hard steels The hot plate is quenched continuously as it is fed out of the
are readily bendable in the cold state. furnace." .
The boundary between structural steel and abrasion-resistant In the roller quench plant, the plate is quenched directly and at
steel plate is therefore becoming increasingly diffuse. Modern a cooling capacity which is far higher than that of the static quen-
abrasion-resistant steel plate should therefore be regarded as ching press.
structural steel plate which is also highly resistant to abrasive In 1969, a roller quench plant was built in Oxel6sund with the
wear. assistance of Drever, and production was in full swing in 1970.
The high strengths are put to use today for: Since that date, more than one million tonnes of EHS and AR
- designing structures with low deadweight plate have been produced in Oxel6sund.
- designing more wear-resistant structures
- lowering the total cost by shortening the welding times
The mechanical properties of these steels are achieved princi-
pally by heating to approx. 900°C and then quenching to room
temperature (hardening). This determines the maximum yield
strength and hardness. During subsequent heating to 400 -
700°C (tempering), the yield strength and hardness gradually
decline to a predetermined level, but the toughness simultane-
ously increases.

2:1
 What are WELDOX and HARDOX steels?

2.2 Direct-cooled steels 2.3 Classification of the steels

A direct-cooling plant was completed in 1988. This is used for Structural steels can be classified according to strength into
cooling plate directly after rolling to achieve yield strength levels MS, HS and EHS steels. The strength is achieved by varying the
between 420 and 500 MPa. The entire strength range between fundamental chemical composition and by employing different
high-strength, micro-alloyed, grainrefined steels such as S 355 manufacturing processes.
(BS 50, St 52-3) and the quenched and tempered EHS steels are
covered by the directcooled WELDOX 420 and WELDOX 500
steels (see Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 Yield stress, N/mm2

HS

MS (Mild Steels)
e.g. S 235 (BS 40, St 37)...................................... 200 - 300
R.H
H/mnl
(MP.)
HS (High Strength) steels
e.g. S 355 (BS 50, St 52-3), WELDOX 420,
1000 - -_.--
WELDOX 500 .. ........ ................... .......... ...... ..... ..... 300 - 500
EHS (Extra High Strength) steels
150
e.g. WELDOX 600, WELDOX 700,
WELDOX 900, WELDOX 960 ................... ....... ........ 600 - 960

Modern AR steels are sometimes used as structural steels.

AR steels are classified principally according to hardness. These
steels also have a very high yield strength.

Hardness,
A controlled rolling process produces high toughness due to Brinell
the fine-grained structure achieved in this way. The strength is
achieved by cooling the steel directly after rolling (see Fig. 2.4).
The cooling procedure can be controlled within a wide range. The MS ..................................... 100-150
new WELDOX 420 and WELDOX 500 steels have av microstruc-
ture which differs from that of the quenched and tempered steels HS ..................................... 150 - 210
which have a martensitic hardened structure. WELDOX 420 and EHS .................................... 240 - 320
WELDOX 500 are mainly ferritic and are thus related to the nor-
malized, grain-refined steels. AR HARDOX 400, HARDOX 500 ............... 360 - 560
Figure 2.4

Direct cooling

2:2
 What are WELD OX and HARDOX steels?

2.4 Chemical analysis

Table 2.b
Chemical analysis - typical values for WElDOX structural steel plate
Thickness mm C Si Mn Cr NI Mo B CE I
WELDOX420 8 -50
(50)-80
.13
.14
.30
.30
14
14
.36
.38
i
WELDOX460 8-30 .09 .25 14 35
(30)-50 .09 .25 1.55 .36
(50)-SO .15 .43 1.4 41
WELDOX 500 8-50 .09 .25 1.55 37
(50)-80 .15 .43 1.4 41
WELOOX 600 6 -25 .13 45 1.4 .002 39 \

WELOOX 700 6 -12 .13 .45 lA .002 .37

(12)-20 .15 .45 lA .10 .002 41
(20)-45 .16 .22 lA .60 .25 .002 .56
(45)-SO .17 .22 lA .25 .50 .002 .56
WELOOX 900
WELOOX 960

Table 2.1b
6-60
6 -13
(13)-25
.17
.17
.17
.22
.22
.22
1.4
1.4
1.2
.25
.25
A5 1.0
.50
.50
.50
n.002.56
.002
S6
.64

Chemical analysis - typical values for HARDOX steel plate

--
Thickness mm C Si Mn Cr NI Mo B CE"

HAROOX400 6-20 .13 .45 1.4 - - - .002 .37

(20)-30 .16 .32 1.3 .60 - - .002 .50
(32)-51 .17 .22 lA .25 - .50 .002 .56
(51)-SO .24 .25 .9 .60 .50 .35 .002 .62
HAROOX 500 6 -20 .25 .50 1.2 .60 - - .002 .57
(20)-50 .25 .50 1.2 .50 - .20 .002 .59
(50)-SO .28 .25 .9 .60 .50 .35 .002 .66

.) CE = C + ~ + Cr + Mo + V + Ni + Cu
6 5· 15

Table 2.2a
WELDOX structural steel plate
Thickness ReH Rm A5 Impact Hardness Bending recommendations
mm N/mm' N/mm' % toughness Typical Min. internal radius
min J by values HB ----
Perpendicular' Parallel'
-40°C
WELDOX420 S-16 420 500- 650 19 40 190 1,0X! 1,5Xt
(16)-60 3S0 4S0- 650 19 40 180 1,OXt 1,5XI
(60)-SO 3S0 4S0- 650 19 40 ISO 1,OX! 1,5Xt
WELOOX460 S-16 460 530- 730 17 40 200 1,0Xt 1,5Xt
(16)-40 440 530- 720 17 40 200 l,OX! 1.5Xt
(40)-SO 420 510- 720 17 40 190 I,OX! 1,5XI
WELDOX500 8-16 500 570- 720 16 40 210 I,OX! 1,5Xt
(16)-40 480 570- 720 16 40 210 l,OX! 1,5Xt
(40)-80 460 550- 720 16 40 200 1,0Xt 1.5XI
WElDOX 600 6-25 600 700- 850 14 40 240 1,5Xt 2,5Xt
WELOOX 700 6 -64 700 7S0- 930 14 40 260 2Xt 3Xt
(64)-80 630 690- 930 14 40 250 2Xt 3Xt
WELDOX900 6-50 900 940-1100 12 40 310 3Xt 4Xt
(50)-60 830 850-1100 12 40 300 3X! 4Xt
WELDOX 960 6 -25 960 980-1150 12 40 320 3Xt 4Xt

Table 2.2b
HARDOX steel plate
Hardness Re Rm A5 Toughness Bending recommendations
HB N/mm' N/mm' % Min. internal radiUS

Perpendicular' Parallel'

HAROOX400 360-440 ca 1050 1250 ca 10% ca30J, -40'C 3XI 4Xt

HAROOX 500 450-560 ca 1300 1550 caS% ca 20JI, - 40 'C - -
*) Orientation of the bend line in relation to the direction of rolling.
2:3
 What are WELDOX and HARDOX steels?

2.5 Comparison with ordinary steels
2.5.1 lean chemical composition for excellent weldability
A primary goal at Oxel6sund is that our steel must be readily
weldable, i.e. that it should have the lowest possible content of
alloying elements. On the other hand, a steel that is to be harde-
ned must have a certain amount of alloying elements to ensure
through hardening.
So our philosophy is: Use as lean an analysis as possible and
quench rapidly. This produces a less expensive steel with better
weldability.
Table 2.3 shows an analysis comparison (typical analyses)
between WElDOX 700, HARD OX 400 and S 355 (SS 50), which
demonstrates that WElDOX 700 und HARDOX 400 are ordinary
steels. in terms of composition. In plate thicknesses below
20 mm, these steels therefore offer the same weldability as
ordinary steels.
For heavier plate, preheating of the workpiece is necessary for
welding, in the same way as for ordinary steels (see our welding
brochure).
2.5.2 Strength - High yield strength and high
yield/ultimate tensile strength ration.
WElDOX and HARDOX steels have high yield strengths. It may be
of interest to see the appearance of the tensile test curve as
compared to that for ordinary steels such as S 355 (SS 50,
St 52-3) This comparison is shown in Figure 2.5.
The tensile test curve shows that WElDOX and HARDOX steels
have a high yield strength, a smooth transition to a yield plateau
and low strain hardening. The vurves show that the yield/ultimate
strength ratio is higher and the rupture strain is lower than those
of ordinary steels.
Even though the rupture strain (-,) of WELDOX and HARDOX
steels is lower, the values are perfectly acceptable. This has
been clearly demonstrated by the experience gained from
practical operation of our steels in many demanding applications.
The strength values are shown in Table 2.2. The modulus of
elasticity (E) is the same as that of ordinary steels, i.e. 21· 10·
N/mm2.
Figure 2.5

Cl N/mm'

1000
Table 2.3
Typical analysis at t ~ 20 mm
800
WELDOX 700 <45 mm
C Si Mn Cr Mo B CE
600 WElDOX 500
S 235 0.16 0.25 LlO 0.34
S 355
400
S 355 0.16 0.43 1.36 0.38

WELDOX 500 0.09 0.25 1.55 0.37 200

WELDOX 700 0.15 0.45 1.40 0.10 0.002 0.41

HARDOX400 0.13 0.45 1.40 0.002 0.37 o 10 20 30
E%

"Carbon equivalents" (CE or El are the weightings of certain

alloying elements that have been obtained from experience. The
carbon equivalents describe the effects of various alloying
elements on the ability of the steel to harden during the fast
temperature changes that occur during welding. Various formulae
have been developed for this purpose, although the most com-
mon is the one from the International Institute of Welding (IIW):

CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + lli.±...CJ.!
6 5 15

If the CE is lower than 0.41 %, the steel is considered to be 'very

readily weldable". Our welding brochure includes further
information.

2:4
 What are WELDOX and HARDOX steels?

2.5.3 Toughness Figure 2.7

WELDOX and HARDOX steels are manufactured to very close to-
lerances on composition and also have very low inclusion Brinell
contents. Freedom from inclusions is particularly characteristic of hardness
steels that must have a high guaranteed toughness and of steels
for which we give bending recommendations.
Sulphur (S) readily combines with manganese (Mn) to form 600
manganese sulphide (MnS). Manganese sulphide is soft during
the rolling process and is rolled out into long streaks, which
results in impaired toughness and bend ability of the steel. We 500
expect our WELDOX and HARDOX steels to have excellent tough-
ness and bendability. To achieve this, we desulphurize them.
We carry out desulphurizing in our TN (silicon calcium, SiCa) or 400
our ASEA-SKF (cerium, Ce) plant. In these plants, the sulphur
combines with Ca to form CaS or with Ce to form CeS, and is
removed with the slag, i.e. the sulphur content drops radically. 300
The CaS or CeS residues that remain in the steel are hard during
rolling and retain their nodular shape. This shape is much more,
favourable from the toughness and bending viewpoints than the 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40
long MnS streaks. %C
The sulphur contents of the steels for which we guarantee the
toughness and give bending recommendations is around 0.004%.
The bending recommendations for WELDOX and HARDOX
steels are summarized in Table 2.2, and a comparison with ordi-
nary steels is made in Figure 2.6. 2.5.4 Machinability
WELDOX and HARDOX steels can be gas-cut in the same way as
Figure 2.6 ordinary steels. Certain HARDOX steels should be gas-cut at
elevsted workpiece temperatures (150 - 200°C).
In machining operations, WELDOX structural steel plate can
very well be machined with high speed steel tools, although the

•
cutting data should be adjusted to suit.
High speed steel drills can be used for WELDOX and, on a
limited production scale, also on HARDOX 400. Special Coalloyed
high speed steel drills designated "HSS-E" (about 20% more
w _-+-----,~
expensive than ordinary drills) are recommended for abrasion-
r----+_ _ resistant steels. Cemented carbide tools can be used if the
t
machine tool is appropriately stable.
-t Machining costs can readily be maintained at a reasonable
level provided that the right machines, the right tools and the
right cutting data are used.
For more detailed information, please refer to our machining
brochures.

Steel grade r/t 1. wit 1. r/T /1 wit /1

2.S.S Economics
S235 2.0 7.0 2.5 7.5 WELDOX and HARDOX steels are more difficult to manufacture
S 355 2.5 7.5 3.0 8.5 than ordinary steels, and thereby have a greater technology
WELDOX500 1.0 6.0 1.5 7.5 content. As a result, these steels are more expensive in terms of
WELDOX 700 2.0 7.0 3.0 8.5 price per tonne (see our price list). . .
WELDOX 900 3.0 8.5 4.0 10.0 Considering the price/unit of yield stress (Figure 2.8) or pnce/
unit of hardness (Figure 2.9), it will be obvious that WELDOX and
WELDOX 960 3.0 8.5 4.0 10.0 HARDOX steels are profitable provided that the strength and/or
HARDOX400 3.0 8.5 4.0 10.0 hardness can be exploited.
In most WELDOX and HARDOX steel applications, the dead-
weight of the structure is extremely important to the end user and
The steels are also fundamentally grain-refined, although actual thus also to the competitiveness of the manufacturer. In earth-
grain refinement takes place by the quenching and tempering pro- moving vehicles, for instance, an expenditure of more than
cess which results in high yield strength and high toughness. 1 GBP/kg can be justified for making the structure lighter.
The same reasoning can be applied to the hardness of
Are hardened steels not brittle? HARDOX steels. In most wear applications, increased hardness
Materials technology textbooks often state that if a material is results in reduced wear. A longer useful life reduces the number
made hard, it will also be brittle. But what this statement does not of stoppages for replacement and repairs.
take into account is that the hardness of martensites depends on It can be said in summary that WELDOX and HARDOX steels
the carbon content (see Figure 2.7), and that low-carbon marten- are profitable to use provided that the designer and user can
site is very ductile and lends itself readily to forming. The graph really exploit their advantages. .
applies to pure, untempered martensite and shows the hardness Some of the techniques for achieving this are explained in thiS
test results for our WELDOX and HARDOX steels. The micro- manual.
structure of our steels consists of virtually pure martensite. Some clarifying examples of applications for which WELDOX
We can therefore produce abrasion-resistant steels, particularly and HARDOX steels have been put to use are given below (see
HARDOX 400, which has a guaranteed hardness of at least 360 Figure 2.10).
HB combined with a typical impact strength of 30 Joules at
-40°C.
For WELDOX 700, for instance, we can guarantee 40 J at
-60°C, if required.

:5
 What are WELDOX and HARDOX steels?
Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9

GBP/guaranteed yield stress GBP/typical Brinell hardness

S 275 (SS 43) The steels meet the same Plate thickness = 12 mm
toughness requirements

30mm M
S 355 (SS 50) '<t
()')
WELDOX 7000 !B
22mm 1.0 0
..... 6
1.0 0
C'I
11 mm en ()')
0
.....
!B
1.0
. 1.0
~
0
('/') ....J
()')
IJ.J
~

0
0
'<t 0
X 0
0 1.0
0 X
Cl:: 0
:f 0
«Cl::
:::c

2:6
 What are WELDOX and HARDOX steels?

figure 2.10

Dumptrucks/Tippers
Suitable steel grades: HARD OX 400, WELDOX 700
in body, chassis, bumpers, protection plates, joint lugs.

Mining equipmentjloaders/Buckets Crushers/Bins

Suitable steel grades: WELDOX 700, HARDOX 400,
HARDOX 500 in lift arms, buckets and skips.
R Suitable steel gra~~s~~:rR~~~s:OO, HARDOX 500 ~;

• • • • • • •EiiI.F~'1dNBI'.1:'lw.·iI.ltl'''lIi_~i

Cyclones/pipelines
Mobile cranes
Suitable steel grades: HARDOX 400, in certain

IWIIIIIII
Suitable steel grades: WELDOX 700, WELD OX 900
in jibs, outriggers and chassis. cases WElDOX 700. in dosl colleclo". bark and
wood ship cyclones and dredging pipes ..

2:7
3 Factors of safety 3
Risks and probabilities, general.......... 3.1 Choice of factors of safety .................. 3.2
Failure criteria ................................... 3.1 Factors of safety for WELDOX ............. 3.2
Safe-Life - Fail-Safe ............................ 3.1 Table of strength results ..................... 3.4
Calculation of probability of failure
and coupling to factors of safety ......... 3.2
 3 Factors of safety

Risks and probabilities, general "Acceptable risks of failure" used in design

Enlightened people today know that 100% certainty doesn't Objects Risk during period of service
exist and cannot be expressed in mathematical terms. We
expose ourselves daily to risks of various kinds. Car components not vital to safety 5· 10-2
The concept of "probability of failure" is actually not particularly Car's steering mechanism, suspension 10-3
associated with WELDOX and HARDOX steels. But because, the Military airplanes 10-3
steels are new to many and will often be used in completely new Passenger airplanes 3· 10- 5
structures with high stresses where experience may often be Nuclear power plants (vital safety part) 10- 10 - lO- 11 /hour
lacking, it may be of benefit to introduce this approach.
Moreover, the market is becoming increasingly aware of Load-bearing structures (experience and recommendations)
the importance of availability (= the percentage of the time a
product can be used) and will increasingly demand precise Risk during period
guarantees of function from the manufacturer. Indeed, high of service
availability will become a very important selling argument (and
has already done so in some industrial sectors). Very limited material damage 10- 2
Below is a breakdown of the influence of various factors on Limited material damage 10- 3
the availability of a product: Bodily injuries or very extensive material damage 10-4
Probability of extensive bodily injuries 10- 5
Product development and design 40%
Regulations for Welded Steel Structures
Improper use 30% <10- 5
StBK-N2 (fatigue)
Fabrication and quality control 20%
Other factors 10%
In other words, the design department plays an important role. Failure criteria
One measure of risk is probability of failure, i.e. the probabili- Under former standards and codes, structures were designed
ty that a given structure will fail or "break" at a given point in a for the most dangerous load to which they could be expected to
given fasion. be subjected.
In general, the entire system in a structure is included in the The term "failure" in a wider sense means that the promised
concept of "Probability of failure" and this branch of science is function cannot be achieved.
called "Reliability engineering" and is an interdisciplinary sub- Some typical failure criteria are, for example, when the struc-
ject. In this Simple treatment, we must limit ourselves to study- ture reaches
ing a few details.
a given stress
Readers who wish to find out more are referred to (2), which
yield point
contains many interesting references and is easy to read. maximum deflection
Government regulations for building structures often specify
ultimate strength
permissible stresses, factors of safety or partial coefficients for fracture toughness
load and bearing capacity. These often stand in direct relation greatest permissible crack length
to the desired probability of failure. Standards, codes and fatigue fractu re
government agencies often specify loads in the form of load instability (overall or local buckling)
assumptions.
Some examples of probability of failure or risk of death (from
e.g. reference 1) are given in table 3.1.
Safe-Life - Fail-Safe
Two principles of design can be worth mentioning in connection
with fatigue:
- Safe-life
Table 3.1 - Fail-safe
Reference levels Risk of death The Safe-Life principle requires that the structure be simple
per hour per year Risk and isostatic. The risk of fatigue failure is kept extremely small
during the intended useful life of the structure. In order to
Disease, average W-o 10-2 High risk prolong the useful life of the structure, the component must be
Natural disaster, replaced with a new one. If a fatigue crack should nevertheless
snakebite, etc 10- 10 10-0 Negligible risk occur, it is catastrophic, since it will probably propagate and
lead to fracture before it is discovered. This method can be
suitable for inexpensive, easily replaceable components (for
example vital bolts).
The Fail-Safe principle requires that there be alternative
Accident statistics
paths for the loads (hyperstatic structure). The structure is de-
(resulting in death) Risk during period
signed in such a manner that fatigue cracks are prevented from
of service
propagating and do not lead to failure. Furthermore, periodic
inspection of the structure must be possible.
Passenger car In such a structure, the stress level can be kept high and the
(all causes) 10-6 4· 10-3/4000 hours material can be better utilized, although not so high that cracks
Passenger airplane appear before half of the useful life of the structure has been
10-6 reached (rule of thumb).
(all causes) 40· 10-3/40000 hours
Before it is repaired, the residual static strength of a unit with
Passenger airplane cracks must never be less than the maximum load (max. test
(fatigue) 0.4· 10-6 8· 10-3 /20000 hours load).

:1
 Fadors of sarety

Examples of Safe-Life and Fail-Safe principles: Solution:

Figure 3.1
Forged fork laminated fork
m = 797 - 500 = 297
Safe-life o Fail-safe
s= V 602 + 23 2 = 64

QB = 1 - 1>( ~ )

<i> ( ~ ) = <i> ( 2il )

= 1> (4.60)

The table 3.5 gives cP (4.60) = 0.95 7888

QB = 1 - 0.999997888 = 0.000002112
i.e. the probability of failure is 2· 10- 6
Our "factor of safety" Sf = m2/ml = 1.59.
Factors that influence overall probability We have made one error in this example. We have not taken
of failure account of the fact that the steels have a guaranteed yield
strength. The steels are tested by means of tensile testing, and
a. Material strength (inci. surface treatment) if any plate is found to be below the guaranteed yield strength,
b. Fabrication (weld classes etc.) the plate is rejected and never reaches the customer, being
c. External loads. instead replaced in the consignment by a flawless plate.
d. Accuracy of design calculation In other words, the strength distribution of the steel plate in a
e. Possibility of inspection consignment to a customer is as shown in figure 3.3, giving an
a, band c are statistically determined; we cannot analyze band even lower actual probability of failure.
d here, but rather the individual designer must evaluate these Table 3.3 shows the scatter in material strength (static data).
factors himself in the light of his own fabrication operation (or What is difficult now is to determine the scatter in load.
that of sub-suppliers) and previous design experience. Here we can only provide a few simple hints.
From experience, we know that load has greater scatter than
the material strength, and a rough rule of thumb is that the
Calculation of probability of failure standard deviation of the load is twice as great as that of the
We shall only consider material strength and external loads material strength.
under the assumption that we have very good calculation Try therefore to determine the various applications of the
accuracy. structure and the scatter of the loads in these different applica-
We know that loads are statistically distributed, both when it tions.
comes to static loads (loading and unloading) and fatigue loads. In most cases, there are two load cases that the designer
They are often normally distributed with a mean value m and must take into consideration in his calculations:
standard deviation s. extreme load and
Material strength such as as, a B, fatigue strength etc. is also fatigue load
statistically distributed.
Figure 3.2 shows the relationship between load, material We have only dealt with extreme load, i.e. static load. A similar
strength and probability of failure. probability of failure line of reasoning applies for fatigue load.
See the section entitled "Fatigue".
Figure 3.2
Frequency Figure 3.3
e.g. tensile stress due to external load Frequency

This risk is the steel manufacturer's head-

ache and never reaches the customer.

Data on our steels (m2, S2) are presented in table 3.3.

The dangerous region represents the probability of failure
(QB) in this case and is calculated as follows:

Choice of factor of safety

The purpose of a factor of safety is to provide a safeguard
against an undesirable consequence. Despite the fact that
m = m2- ml stresses and strains can be calculated and the steel has a
guaranteed yield strength, great uncertainty exists with respect
s = Vs1 2 + S2 2 to factors such as scatter of loads, fabrication etc. Furthermore,
we cannot take all factors into account in design. In other
The function 1> (~ ) is obtained from table 3.5 words, we do not feel secure about allowing the design stress to
be equal to the yield stress of the material.
In order to provide a margin of safety, we have introduced
factors of safety, which are often based on many years of expe-
Example 3.1 rience.
Assume a steel WELD OX 700 t = 10 mm with guaranteed yield There are different factors of safety in different industries, for
stress 700 N/mm2 and with a mean value m2 = 797 N/mm2 and example in steel construction in Sweden the factor of safety is
s2 = 23 N/mm2. See table 3.3. Sf = 1.5 against as, for road vehicles Sf = 2 against as, for
The external load causes a tensile stress whose mean value vehicles on poor roads Sf = 3 against as.
ml = 500 N/mm2 and s = 60 N/mm2. What is the probability In any case, it is understood that a probability of failure is
of failure? associated with the factor of safety.

3:2
 Factors of safety
The factor of safety can be divided into four components:
Kj : Material strength, often determined via a guaranteed value,
i.e. = 1.0.
K2: Fabrication factor, which is dependent upon practice in
production, scope of inspection, inspection requirements
and production control (the right steel in the right place).
The more thorough the inspection, the higher the level to
which the material can be stressed.
Normal workshop practice 0.6
Extensive inspection 0.9
K3: Load factor 1.0 - 1.2 for static load, depending on how well
the conditions'are known.
For fatigue under known conditions 1.5
For fatigue under unknown conditions 2.0
K4 : Calculation accuracy
The accuracy in design calculations is dependent upon the
knowledge, experience and skill of the designer. In the case
of new structures where there is no experience to call. on, or
where measurements cannot be carried out, deviations of
30% are not unusual, i.e. factor = 1.3.
Even where experience is available and conditions are
favourable, the deviation can be 10%, i.e. factor = 1.10.
The factor of safety can be expressed as
It is essential in this connection for the designer to have a
feeling for all these factors. He must, for example, be intimately
familiar with his own fabrication operation.
Example 3.2
Estimate the factor of safety against as for a construction vehicle
that is manufactured in long production runs with small scope
of inspection, with varying load conditions (fatigue) under
known conditions, and with experience from previous manufac-
ture and design calculation.
Solution:
Kj = 1
K3 ,", l.5
Sf == --,,1__.5~·_1._2--= 3.0 i.e. agrees well with previously
1 . 0.6 mentioned rules of thumb.
Factor of safety against what?
In most cases, a margin of safety is desired against bodily
injuries in connection with failures. These failures stem from
plastic deformation (yield), fatigue, buckling, brittle failure etc.
For the most part, we associate the factor of safety with safety
against plastic deformation, and this is right for many cases.
In this context, however, we would like to point out a possible
risk where a non-linear relationship exists between, for example,
moment and stress at a point in the structure, in other words
the factor of safety against an overload moment is not as great
as Sf indicates (see figure 3.4),
Figure 3.4
Moment
Ms-+--------------~
Mperm - + - - - - 7 f '
L-----L----L--i_ Stress
operm = as/Sf Os
Always choose a factor of safety against the most critical
variable!
Factor of safety (static) for WELD OX steels
Of the more than one million tonnes of WELDOX and HARDOX
steel plate supplied thus far by Svenskt Stal, approximately 50%
is WELDOX. Most is used in highly stressed and advanced
structures that are not subject to national standards or
regulations. It has therefore been up to each fabricator to select
this own factors of safety in accordance with the principles
outlined above. As far as we know, WELDOX steel has not been
treated differently from HS (S 355, SS 50) in static design
calculations. We have not received any reports of failures with
WELDOX steel due to the fact that the same factors of safety
have been used as for ordinary steels.
Nevertheless, we often encounter doubt on the part of future
users of WELDOX steel, and especially on the part of national
authorities, when it comes to factors of safety.
Doubt is understandable, since the steels often have new and
different characteristics - higher stress, higher yield/ultimate
strength ratio and lower elongation - compared to ordinary
steels, and since the experience of the indiViduals concerned IS
based on C and CMn steels.
Previous design criteria were based on ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength or/and the yield strength to ultimate
tensile strength ratio.
This is associated with the fact that it was formerly (1940s
and 50s) believed that brittleness was related to the yield
strength to ultimate strength ratio. This view was supported by
the evidence from tests and use of C and CMn steels, namely
the fact that low toughness was associated with a high yield/ulti-
mate strength ratio. Furthermore, it was known that the strain
and ageing of such steels results in a high yield/ultimate
strength ratio and reduced toughness.
In view of this, it is not surprising that certain designers and
authorities are negatively disposed towards quenched-and-tem-
pered steels with a high yield/ultimate strength ratio (approx.
0.80 - 0.95, compared to 0.50 - 0.70 for ordinary steels)
We now know that this correlation does not generally hold.
In quenched-and-tempered steels, as the yield/ultimate
strength ratio increases with rising tempering temperature,
toughness increases as well.
The quenched-and-tempered steels exhibit excellent toughness,
despite their high strength (see chapter entitled "Toughness-
brittleness'). Good evidence is provided by applications with
WELDOX 700 for the handling of LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas at
- 55°C).
The lower values of A5 (elongation) say nothing about the
ductility of the steel. For example, it is just as easy to bend
WELDOX 700 (os = 700 N/mm2, A5 = 14%) as S 355 (os =
350 N/mm2, A5 = 22%). ..
There seems to be only one case where As can be a Critical
factor. This is when it is necessary to have high rotational capa-
city in a plastic hinge in the event of e.g. the collapse of a
structure and the course of failure is dependent upon whether
or not the desired rotational capacity exists, provided that
buckling does not occur. . .'
Using the ultimate tensile strength as a deSign criterion
cannot be right in view of what we know today about fracture
mechanics. The ultimate tensile strength applies for a steel
without any stress-raisers, and as soon as we have a stress-
raiser, fracture mechanics should be used (more about this in
the chapter entitled "Toughness-brittleness" l.
It is therefore not so strange that factors of safety for WELDOX
steels vary between different government authorities and
countries. .
The following are some examples of factors of safety against
yield stress in Sweden:
Table 3.2
--
Steel Pressure Storage Building Cranes
grade vessels tanks structures
W500 P 1.5 1.5 - -
W500 - 1.7 1.65* 1.66
W 700 - - 1.75* 1.7
W900 - - - 1.72
'-----
* Preliminary
Equivalent German steels all have a factor of safety of 1.5 for
cranes and pressure vessels in relation too s'
::1
 Factors of safety

Table 3.3 Example 3.3

Typical strength values for OX steels What is the actual probability of failure for Sf = 1.5 for S 355 and
WELDOX 700?
Steel Plate Us guaran- Us mean Standard
grade thickness teed N/mm2 deviation Assume normal distribution of load = ~ = ~;
mm N/mm2 N/mm2
and s = 60 N/mm2 (standard deviation).
We further assume that the strength values of both steels are
S 355 8 -10 350 396 22 normally distributed.
(SS 50) (10) - 20 350 383 20
(20) - 40 350 381 22
Solution:
WELDOX 6 -12 700 797 23 S 355 (BS 50)
700 (12) - 20 700 768 29
(20) - 40 700 779 38 ml = 350 = 233 N/mm2 SI = 60 N/mm 2
(40) - 50 700 774 41 1.5
(50l- 70 700 780 47
m2 = 383 N/mm 2 S2 = 20 N/mm 2
HARDOX 6 -20 900 1150 50
400 (20) - 40 900 1030 51 m= m2- ml = 150 N/mm2
(40) - 75 900 1056 43
s= vi 602 + 202 = 63.2

<I> (~) = <I> ( 150 ) = <I> (2.37) (Table 3.5) =

s 63.2
Table 3.4 shows a comparison between different steels with
respect to yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, most commonly = 0.991106 (0.92 11(5)
occurring factors of safety, permissible stress and difference The probability of failure OB = 1- <I> = 0.009, i.e. 9· 10-3
between yield stress and permissible stress on the one hand
and ultimate tensile strength and permissible stress on the other
hand. WELD OX 700
Table 3.4
ml = 700 = 467 N/mm2 SI = 60 N/mm 2
1.5

Zgrade

N/mm2

S 355
W700
Us UB

350 520
700 780
Sf=~
.. U

1.5
1.5
perm
0' perm Us-Uperm UB -Uperm

233
467
117
233
287
320
m2 = 768 N/mm2

m = m2- ml = 301 N/mm2

s= vi 292 + 602 = 66.6

S2 = 29 N/mm 2

W700 700 780 1.75 400 300 380

<I> ( ~~~ ) = <I> (4.52) = 0.956908

It can also be of interest to study the appearance of the curves
of actual yield stress distribution obtained at Svenskt StAI, Oxe-
losund for S 355 and WELDOX 700, e.g. 12-20 mm (values
taken from table 3.3.). The curves are shown in figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5
S 355 (SS 50l WELDOX 700
The probability of failure OB = 1-<1> = 0.0000030, i.e. 3 • 10"
We see that the relationship between the mean value and the
guaranteed value has great significance with regard to the pro-
bability of failure.
Nor do any grounds exist for burdening WELDOX steels with
higher factors of safety when it comes to instability (see chapter
on static strength and buckling of columns and plates).
In conclusion, the above shows that there is no reason to
demand higher factors of safety for WELDOX steels than for
ordinary steels.

350 m=383 N/mm2 700 750 m=]68 N/mm2

It is important to note that steel with a yield strength below

the guaranteed level is never released to customers, but is
scrapped internally. The curves reflect the results at Svenskt
SteWs production unit in Oxelosund.

3:4
 Factors of safety

Table 3.5

Normalized normal distribution <fl ~)

x .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09

.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359
.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753
.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141
.3 .6179 .6217 .6255 .6293 .6331 .6368 .6406 .6443 .6480 .6517
.4 .6554 .6591 .6628 .6664 .6700 .6736 .6772 .6808 .6844 .6879
.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 ' .7703 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
1.0 .8413 .8438 .8461 .8485 .8508 .8531 .8554 .8577 .8599 .8621
1.1 .8643 .8665 .8686 .8708 .8729 .8749 .8770 .8790 .8810 .8830
1.2 .8849 .8869 .8888 .8907 .8924 .8944 .8962 .8980 .8997 .90147
1.3 .90320 .90490 .90658 .90824 .90988 .91149 .91309 .91466 .91621 .91774
1.4 .91924 .92073 .92220 .92364 .92507 .92647 .92785 .92922 .93056 .93189
1.5 .93319 .93448 .93574 .93699 .93822 .93943 .94062 .94179 .94295 .94408
1.6 .94520 .94630 .94738 .94845 .94950 .95053 .95154 .95254 .95352 .95449
1.7 .95543 .95637 .95728 .95918 .95907 .95994 .96080 .96164 .96246 .96327
1.8 .96407 .96485 .96562 .96638 .96712 .96784 .96856 .96926 .96995 .97062 I
1.9 .97128 .97193 .97257 .97320 .97381 .97441 .97500 .97558 .97615 .97670
2.0 .97725 .97778 .97831 .97882 .97932 .97982 .98030 .98077 .98124 .98169
2.1 .98214 .98257 .98300 .98341 .98382 .98422 .98461 .98500 .98537 .98574
2.2 .98610 .98645 .98679 .98713 .98745 .98778 .98809 .98840 .98870 .98899
2.3 .98928 .98956 .98983 .92 0097 .920358 .920613 .920863 .921106 .921344 .921576
2.4 .921802 .9 2 2024 .9 2 2240 .922451 .922651 .922857 .923053 .923244 .923431 .923613
2.5 .9 2 3790 .9 2 3963 .9 2 4132 .9 2 4297 .9 2 4457 .9 2 4614 .9 2 4766 .9 2 4915 .9 2 5060 .9 2 5201
2.6 .9 2 5339 .9 2 5473 .9 2 5604 .9 2 5731 .9 2 5855 .9 2 5975 .9 2 6093 .9 2 6207 .9 2 6319 .9 2 6427
2.7 .9 2 6533 .9 2 6636 .9 2 6736 .9 2 6833 .9 2 6928 .9 2 7020 .9 2 7110 .9 2 7197 .9 2 7282 .9 2 7365
2.8 .9 2 7445 .9 2 7523 .9 27599 .9 2 7673. .9 2 7744 .9 2 7814 .9 2 7882 .9 2 7948 .9 2 8012 .9 2 8074
2.9 .9 2 8134 .9 28193 .9 28250 .928305 .9 28359 .9 2 8411 .9 2 8462 .928511 .9 2 8559 .9 28605
3.0 .9 2 8650 .9 2 8694 .9 2 8736 .9 2 8777 .9 2 8817 .9 2 8856 .9 2 8893 .9 2 8930 .928965 .9 2 8999
3.1 9 30324 ,930646 .9 30957 .9 3 1260 .9 3 1553 .9 3 1836 .93 2112 .9 3 2378 .9 3 2636 .9 3 2886
3.2 .933129 .9 3 3363 .9 3 3590 .93 3810 .93 4024 .93 4230 .93 4429 .9 3 4623 .9 3 4810 .9 3 4991
3.3 93 5166 .9 3 5335 .9 3 5499 .9 3 5658 ,935811 .93 5959 .93 6103 .9 3 6242 .9 3 6376 .9 3 6505
3.4 .93 6631 .93 6752 .9 3 6869 .9 3 6982 .9 3 7091 .93 7197 .9 3 7299 .9 3 7398 .9 3 7493 .9 3 7585
3.5 93 7674 .9 3 7759 .9 3 7842 .93 7922 .9 3 7999 .93 8074 .93 8146 .9 3 8215 .9 3 8282 .9 3 8347
I
3.6 .93 8409 .93 8469 .9 38527 .93 8583 .93 8637 .93 8689 .93 8739 .9 38787 .9 3 8834 .9 3 8879
3.7 .9 3 8922 9 3 8964 .9 4 0039 .9 4 0426 .94 0799 .9 4 1158 .9 4 1504 .94 1838 .94 2159 .94 2468
3.8 .9 4 2765 .9 4 3052 .9 4 3327 .94 3593 .94 3848 .9 4 4094 .9 4 4331 .94 4558 .9 4 4777 .9 4 4988
3.9 .9 4 5190 .9 4 5385 ,945573 .94 5753 .94 5926 .94 6092 .94 6253 .9 4 6406 9 4 6554 .9 4 6696
4.0 .94 6833 .9 4 6964 .94 7090 .94 7211 .947327 .947439 .947546 .9 4 7649 .9 4 7748 .9 4 7843
4.1 .94 7934 ,948022 .94 8106 .94 8186 .948263 .948338 .948409 .94 8477 .9 4 8542 .9 4 8605
4.2 .94 8665 .94 8723 .9 4 8778 .94 8832 .948882 .948931 .948978 .9 5 0226 .9 5 0655 .9 5 1066
4.3 .9 5 1460 .95 1837 .9 5 2199 .95 2545 .952876 .953193 .953497 .9 5 3788 .9 5 4066 .9 5 4332
4.4 .95 4587 .9 5 4831 .9 5 5065 .95 5288 .955502 .955706 .955902 .9 5 6089 .9 5 6268 .9 5 6439
4.5 .95 6602 .9 5 6759 .9 5 6908 .9 5 7051 .95 7187 9 5 7318 .9 5 7442 .9 5 7561 .9 5 7675 9 5 7784
4.6 .9 5 7888 .9 5 7987 .9 58081 .9 5 8172 .9 58258 .9 5 8340 .9 5 8419 .9 58494 .9 5 8566 .9 58634
4.7 .9 58699 .95 8761 .9 58821 .9 6 8877 .9 58931 .9 5 8983 .96 0320 .96 0789 .96 1235 .96 1661
4.8 .96 2067 .96 2453 .96 2822 .96 3173 .96 3508 .96 3827 .96 4131 .9 6 4420 .96 4696 .9 6 4958
4.9 .96 5208 .96 5446 .96 5673 .96 5889 .96 6094 .96 6289 .96 6475 .9 6 6652 .96 6821 .9 6 6981
-----
(Example: <1> (3.57) = .93 8215 = 0.9998215.

3:5
4 Static strength
Load application ................................ 4:2
Lighter can be stiffer .......................... 4: 12
Buckling of columns ........................... 4:14
Buckling of plates .............................. 4:20
4
Torsion ............................................. 4:28
Location and strength of welds ........... 4:39
High-temperature strength .................. 4:47
 4 Static strength

General
WELDOX and HARDOX steels possess high strength and can be For typical values and the scatter of strength values in our
directly utilized to reduce the dead load or to increase the production, see chapter 3.
maximum live load capacity of a structure. High-temperature yield strengths are given in section 4.7.
Material cost in relation to strength (GBP/yield strength) The formulas for stress and strain of classical Materials Science
decreases with increasing strength. If we can exploit the high can be used in designing with WELDOX and HARDOX steels.
strength of the WELDOX and HARDOX steels, it is clearly Permissible stresses have to be determined from case to case
economical to employ these steels. with the aid of chapter 3, which shows that WELDOX and HARDOX
Reduced dead load in most structures is of very great steels do not have to be treated differently from ordinary steels.
importance for the end user. The modulus of elasticity for WELDOX and HARD OX steels is the
For manufacturers who appreciate the marketing advantages same as for ordinary steels (21 . 10' N/mm2). This means that if
of lighter-weight products and structures and take this into the second moment of area (I) is not adjusted in proportion to
account when choosing a material, the WELDOX and HARDOX reduced plate thickness, greater elastic deformation will be
steels present an inspiring challenge to exploit these obtained.
characteristics to full advantage. Elasticity in design can have many advantages, as the word
Table 4.1 presents the guaranteed yield strengths of the most "resilient' implies! .
common steels. When WELDOX and HARDOX steels are used for the first time, a
number of questions naturally arise, especially when plate thick-
Table 4.1 ness is reduced. The following are the most common questions,
with reference to the pertinent section in the manual:
Steel Guaranteed
yield strength - How can load appliction best be arranged? 4.1
minimum plate thickness in mm' ReH (N/mm') - Can stiffness be greater despite the choice
of thinner WELDOX steel? 4.2
- When can WELDOX steel be used in structures
MS: S 235 (BS 40A,St 37-2) 8 220 susceptible to overall buckling? 4.3
HS: S 355 (BS 50, St 52-3) 8 350 - When does local buckling become critical? 4.4
WELDOX 420 8 420 - Twisting of open thin-walled sections gives rise
WELDOX 500 8 500 to large stresses that are added to bending
EHS: WELDOX 600 6 600 stresses. How are these stresses calculated? 4.5
WELDOX 700 4 700 - What is the strength of a welded joint in WELDOX
WELDOX 900 4 900 or HARDOX steel? Which welding electrode is
WELDOX 960 4 960 suitable? 4.6
AR: HARDOX 400 4 900
The sections contain data and calculation methods for evaluat-
• If you wish to have other plate thicknesses, contact us! ing the situation at hand .

4: 1
4.1 Load application Normally·loaded and in-plane-loaded plates
A normally-loaded plate is a flat plate loaded by forces perpen-
dicular to its plane, so that bending moments tend to deflect the
plate out of its plane, see figure 4.1.1.
Page No.
Some fundamental principles ." ......................................... 4:2 Figure 4.1.1
Extreme load - Fatigue load .............................................. 4:4
Examples of load applications ........................................... 4:4
Lugs on panels - Calculation method .. ,............................. 4:5

Displacements caused by small deformations are perpendicular

to the plane of the plate.
The normal stresses in normally-loaded plates are caused by
the bending moment. They vary in the direction perpendicular
to the plane of the plate and can be very large - in most cases
larger than the shear stresses.
An in-plane-loaded plate is the oPPosite of a normally-loaded
plate. The forces act in the plane of the plate, and the moments
tend to rotate the plate in its plane, see figure 4.1.2.

Figure 4.1.2

OM y

Some fundamental principles

A great deal of knowledge and experience is required to apply
loads .correctly in and between structural elements in such a
manner that the result is low local stresses and deformations.
The subject is difficult to treat generally. Few textbooks deal
with it, and the knowledge possessed by designers is usually
based on experience (usually bitter). An understanding of the
principles of load application is essential. As a rule, this is where
the greatest stresses are created.
The purpose of designing with WELDOX and HARDOX steel is
often to reduce plate thickness. The idea is to apply forces in such
a way that local stresses are as small as possible and are channe-
led in a manner that creates small stress concentrations (fatigue!).
On the other hand, we know that stresses at the points of load The normal stresses are constant in the direction perpendi-
application are very high. Since these stresses are often crucial in cular to the plane of the plate and are of the same order of
determining whether or not we will have plastic deformation in the magnitude as the shear stresses. The displacements take place
structure, the WELDOX and HARDOX steels are the natural choice in the plane of the plate.
due to their high yield strength! A flat plate loaded with a general force system is simultane-
If is difficult to cite any general rule for load application, but the ously subjected to both in-plane and normal loads.
following is a broad philosophy of design: Why make this distinction?
The reason is that a plate loaded in its plane is a rigid structural
element than can take heavy loads with small deformations,
Determine function while the opposite applies to a normally-loaded plate (i.e. small
Calculate the size and direction of the forces loads and large deformations).
Channel the forces together largely as tension and compres- When we design a structure - espe~ially a thin-walled one -
sion we must endeavour to make the components function as much
Avoid bending moments! as possible as in-plane-loaded plates and as little as possible
Us~ plate like skin on a load-bearing skeleton. Design intelli- as normally-loaded plates!
gently to simplify production and minimize plate thickness.
Compare:
In a properly designed structure, the final design will reflect the Struts - in-plane-loaded plates
play of forces. This results in a very attractive structure! Beams - normally-loaded plates
 Static strength - load application

Some examples Figure 4.1.5

As an example, we can take a welded I beam acted upon by a
bending moment, see figure 4.l.3. The normal stress at the
lower edge of the flange is almost as great as at its upper edge.
The flange thus acts almost as an in-plane-loaded plate. The
web acts purely as an in-plane-loaded plate.

Figure 4.1.3 I beam

a
This stress configuration is disrupted close to pOints of load
application, such as a pOint force near the outer edge of the
flange, see figure 4.1.4.
At the points of attachment, the stresses in the flanges of the
cross beam are small, so that their curtailment does not have
any great effect.
If, instead of a cross beam, we have a cantilever (see figure
4.1.6a), we cannot use the same technique, since the web will
then act as a normally-loaded plate. Curtailment of the flanges
reduces the load-bearing capacity and lateral stability of the
beam considerably. The technique illustrated in 4.1.6b should
be used instead. The web and flanges then act as in-plane-
loaded plates.
Figure 4.1.6a

Figure 4.1.4 Point load on I beam flange

p

Figure 4.1.6b

B
.. I
Correct design

It is very common for forces from e.g. a hydraulic cylinder,

Here, the flange acts locally as a normally-loaded plate. The
force P produces large deformations and stresses.
The maximum bending stress at the web directly opposite the
force is, according to (27)
omax==0.5
and the deflection at P
struts etc to be applied via a cantilever (lug) in a beam or panel
Figures 4.1.7a, b, c and d (taken in part from (26)) illustrate
how this can be done and how the maximum stress varies
between the different cases. Figure a shows the flanges and
web being used as in-plane-loaded plates. Figure b shows how
the web absorbs the vertical force by membrane action, while
the moment creates a couple perpendicular to the web, so that
the web acts both as an in-plane-loaded plate and a norrnally-
loaded plate with large normal stresses.
Figure c does not give any improvement compared to a.
Finally, in figure d, the lug has been replaced by a tube that
gives slightly lower normal stresses than the lug in figure b.
This is because the load has been spread out over a larger
area and because the round shape of the tube produces a
smaller stress concentration.

AgU",@ I~bv
p
b = 0.05' p·o b2 LIB> 8

where 0 is the plate stiffness defined as

E· t3
o = ---=---=--=--
2
12 (1 _v )
ax = 10 N/mm2 2
0Xmax = 350 N/mm 2
v = 0.3 for steel O max = 30 N/mm2
Zmax
a Zmax -- 410 N/mm
p p

11 I~dv
In other words, the point of load application on the flange
should be moved to a point directly above the web. The web
then functions as an in-plane-loaded plate with respect to load
application.
When a short rigid cross beam is fastened between two
torsionally flexible main beams (see figure 4.1.5), it is virtually
only transverse force (vertical force) which is transferred to the
main beam. This gives rise to in-plane stresses (membrane o Xmax = 5 N/mm2 0Xmax = 150 N/mm2
stresses) in the web. o Zmax = 30 N/mm2 o Zmax = 300 N/mm2
 Static strength - Load application

What is critical, Extreme load or Fatigue load? Figure 4.1.9

There are many excellent analyses that describe how loads
should be applied statically in such a way as to give rise to low a b
stresses. Such methods may also be mistakenly applied to the
design of components, frames etc. that are subjected to fatigue
load.
As explained in the section "Fatigue", welds cause very steep
stress concentrations in conjunction with fatigue, even when /
they are not load-carrying! bulkhead that
A small weld bead laid on the flange of a beam that is simultaneously
subjected to fatigue load reduces its fatigue strength by 50%! serves
From this, it is clear that the optimal design for static loading as backing bar
is not necessarily the optimal design for fatigue loading.
As an example, we can take the lug in figure 4.1. 7a. This
solution is good for static loading. But if the channel beam is
subjected to bending fatigue (M br ), the weld at the lug will
completely determine its fatigue strength. The design shown in
figure 4.1. 7b is then preferable. If the force or, the lug is so
great that the stresses in the web exceed the permissible level,
stiffeners must be welded on, for example as shown in 4.1.8a.
If we are to have the same fatigue strength for the lug's weld
as for the flange when the beam is subjected to bending, C
must be "" OA . H if the flange is sheared or gas-cut. If the
edges of the flange are machined and rounded, C must be "" bulkhead (cannot
0.25' H. be welded in RHS)
An alternative approach may be to put a plate underneath the
lug as shown in figure 4.1.8b.

Figure 4.1.8a
Example of optimal design for both extreme static load and
fatigue load.
Pmax

...-_ ...------- e and f are suitable in cases where many point loads must be
applied.
r::::=~

g
H

Figure 4.1.8b /
Alternative -~
deSignL:::====::::" •••••••• -•••••••• ~ Cast component for application of load
due to two side-mounted hydraulic cylinders.

h
I
--.....,
I
, I
, I
, I
I I
I :
,,
I I

,
I
1. _____ .1
Box beams ~ -----, "'::'
- - t-.-! - -
Box beams made of plate, often bent, or RHS (rectangular hol-
low section) members have been used widely in frames, cranes,
- , .. ___ • .J
-
excavator booms etc. A great deal of attention must be paid to , I
,I
I
load application in all structures incorporating box beams,
especially when the beams consist of moving parts.
,I ,
I

In the case of beams with moving parts, forces from hinge

I
I
•I
joints and hydraulic cylinders must be applied. The same prin-
I
;,,'
'"
ciple still applies, i.e. an endeavour must be made to channel
the forces into the webs, utilizing the webs as in-plane-loaded One way to apply forces due to two side-mounted cylinders
plates. when the forces act at a point where the stress in the boom is
There are many ways to in which this can be done. Some high and the section is of small depth. The point of load appli-
examples are shown in figure 4.1.9. cation is moved by means of this solution.

4:4
 Static strength - load application
Box beams for telescopic members
These telescopic members are used in crane jibs, frames
(variable-length vehicle frames), masts on fork-lift trucks etc.
The bending moment in the extension member must be
transmitted in the form of a couple to the member which the
extension member slides into. This can be done, for example,
by means of rollers or plastic blocks (see figure 4.l.1O), the
dimension L being of great importance.
Figure 4.1.10 Principle of telescopic action
L Figure 4.1.13
/,~
-..: ~
rollers or blocks
The precise shape of the cross-section is of essential
importance.
Where loads are moderate, it is possible to make use of the
very attractive section shown in figure 4.1.11, which consists of
two bent channels. Since the forces from the roller act a slight
distance away from the webs, the flanges will act as normally-
loaded plates and will consequently be bent. The bending pro-
perties of the steel are of the utmost importance in minimizing
the radius at the corners. The larger the radius, the larger the
bending moment on the flange.
figure 4.1.11 Box beam made up of bent channel sections
The welds on the box beam must be located in the webs. If
they are located in the flanges, fatigue cracks will quickly be
initiated from the root of the weld.
The figure also illustrates the theoretical load distribution on
such a beam. It might be assumed during design that the flange
will be subjected to uniformly distributed contact pressure. This
is wrong. In actual fact, the flange will be subjected to much
higher pressures than we have assumed, and unless sufficiently
hard plate is used, such as EHS or AR plate, we will be in trouble.
figure 4.1.12 Alternative to deSign shown in 4.1.11
tt
t
---------
+ +----;
H~D
Another design for a cross-section as described above is
shown in figure 4.1.12. Here, better use is made of the material,
with thick flanges and thin webs. This means that the bending
stresses in the flange caused by the roller are reduced by about
1 and
"2 the def '
ormatlons are reduced by about - -3'1 and at
t t
the same time the webs "support" the flanges better than in the
former case.
Some crane manufacturers have chosen a cross-section as
shown in figure 4.1.13. In this way, the risk of flange buckling is
reduced (the width of the free panel is smaller), and at the
same time the flanges are utilized as in-plane-loaded plates for
load application into the webs. In order to prevent lateral buck-
ling of the webs, a rigid frame is fitted around the outer section
at the point where load application takes place.
Naturally, compromises between the alternative designs are
possible.
Hexagonal beam
outer beam
inner beam (extension
member)
Load application in shells
Forces can be taken up easily and elegantly with !tie aid of shell
structures. Nature learned this prinCiple long ago and applied it
to skulls, bones, ball jOints, egg shells etc. We use shells our-
selves in buildings, ships, motor vehicles, airplanes, pressure
vessels etc.
The stresses in an in-plane-loaded plate are a special case of
the membrane stresses in a shell. A shell is in the membrane
stress state if the stresses are not dependent upon the coordi-
nate in the direction normal to the shell.
A great advantage will be gained if loads can be applied as
membrane stresses.
Example of a cylindrical shell. A force acts on a cylindrical
shell as shown in figure 4.1.14 left. In this case, the shell IS
subjected to flexure, and M = F1 . e.
With a longer lug, as shown in figure 4.1.14 'right, the
bending moment is avoided and the force is applied elegantly
as a membrane stress.
Figure 4.1.14 ~xample of load application in cylindrical shel
Lugs on panels
Demonstration of calculation methods for a large number of
different load application problems would require a special
book. For the purposes of this manual, we have therefore cho-
sen a case, which we know is widespread and can giverise to
problems, namely load application in panels with welded-on
lugs.
Lugs on panels are widely used for such structural elements
as hinge joints, hydraulic cylinders, lifting lugs, coupling devices
~c. .
4:5
 Static strength - Load application

We have already discussed how loads should be applied and b) Beam with transverse lug
how structural elements should be utilized as in-plane-loaded The length of the panel is at least 10 times greater than its
plates. This is sometimes impossible, and the plate must be width.
subjected to normal loads.
In such cases, it is of great importance to know the local Figure 4.1.16
stresses underneath the lug in the plate. The plate often carries
other stresses as well, and these stresses will be added to the Symbols
local stresses created by the load in the lug.
A calculation method is demonstrated below for determining
the maximum local stresses approximately at the ends of the lug
in the case when load is applied to a plate beam via one lug,
both when the longitudinal direction of the lug coincides with
that of the beam and when it is perpendicular to this.

a) Beam with longitudinal lug

The length of the panel is at least 10 times greater than its
width.

Figure 4.1.15

Symbols:
y
If
I
- -1'I
I
I I
I
I ~
B
I
x
I
I
I
T I
I
I I
I
I
- I
I

I· a
-I
(
I-
',>
I ., I
( Calculation method:

y
)
/--------- --------
'- j 1. Divide the force into the components F and P.
2. Superimpose a coordinate system as shown in figure 4.1.16.
3. Calculate c = 112 (a - l)
4. Calculate cIa.
5. Obtain the following values from the graphs in figures
4.1.25-30 for the appropriate values of cIa and y/a:
Calculation method: lOlog S; 1OIog Sy' lOlog S.;' lOlog 5." lOlog Sy"
1. Divide the force into the components F and P. lOlog Sxy"
2. Superimpose a coordinate system as shown in figure 4.1.15. 6. Interpolate if necessary.
3. Determine the value of x for the desired point. 7. Calculate the above logarithms.
4. Calculate x/a. 8. Calculate the stresses for the appropriate value of y as fol-
5. Calculate d/a lows:

6. Obtain the following values from the graphs in figures F· H S' P S ..

4.1.19 -4.1.24 for the appropriate values of xla and d/a. ax=~' x+~' x
a.t t
S'x S'y S'xy S"x S"y S"xy
(S' for forces parallel to the plate surface)
(S" for forces perpendicular to the plate surface)
7. Interpolate if necessary.
8. Calculate the stresses for the appropriate value of x as r XY = -F·H S' P S ..
- 2 - ' xy+--z-' xy
follows: a. t t
F. H
ax= ·S'+_P_· S "
d . t2 x t2 x
Example 4.1.1
F. H
ay = ·S,+-p_· S " A box beam as shown in figure 4.1.17 is to take up the force
d·e y t2 y
from a superstructure, and the designer plans to apply the load
via a lug on one web as per figure 4.1.29. Calculate the
F·H maximum stresses at the lug.
r xy = . S' P Sxy"
xy+~'
d·e t

This calculation method gives the maximum stress in the y

direction, which occurs near the corners, i.e. y = ±d. This
method gives an estimated accuracy of ± 10%. If greater
accuracy is required, FEM programs can be used.

4:6
 Static strength - Load application

figure 4.1.17. "x = 597 N/mm2

= 485 N/mm2
-
ay
t T xy = 43 N/mm2
c R = 50000 N (5 tonnes)
a = 35° Of these, cry is of great interest, since it is added to the bending
H= 100 mm stresses in the beam.
a L t = 12 mm
a = 400 mm Assume that we have chosen S 355 steel with cr s == 350
L == 160 mm N/mm2 and cr perm in the beam:
B= 20 mm
b = 180 mm -350
-- _ 233 NI,mm 2
1.5
b
This stress is assumed to exist in the flange, and the bending
stress at the point x = c == 120 mm is
Gperm=233
160 2
ay bend = 233· 400 = 93 N/mm

Gytot{x =C } = 93 + 485 = 578 N/mm2 > a sl

As we see, it is very easy for high stresses to occur. In order to
guard against plastic deformation, steel with a high yield strength
should therefore be chosen. In this case, BS 50·D is not enough,
WELDOX 700 with O's = 700 N/mm2 is clearly superior.

x
It is evident from the formulas that 0' = +
t
i.e., that if we can just get by with S 355, then for static loads, we
can use WELDOX 700 with a plate thickness of

Solution: Beam with transverse lug V 350 "" 0.7 of the plate thickness for S 355
700
Divide R into the components F and P In the case of fatigue, more information is required before the
F = 50000· cos 35° = 40957 N size of the thickness reduction can be determined.
P = 5000 . sin 35° = 28678 N It is also evident from the graphs (figure 4.1.25-30) that wide

Calculate c = +
Superimpose the coordinate system as shown in figure 4.1.16
(a - U = 120 mm
and elongated lugs reduce the stresses.

Calculate cIa = 120/400 = 0.30

Obtain from graphs 4.1.25-30, for cIa = 0.3 and yla = Example 4.1.2
A hydraulic cylinder that operates the bucket is mounted on the
8~2 = 41~ = 0.025 dipper arm of an excavator. The hydraulic cylinder is attached
to the dipper arm via a lug as shown in figure 4.1.30. Calculate
1OIog Sx' = 0.68 Sx' = 10°·68 = 4.78 the maximum stresses in the dipper arm around the lug for the
extreme loading case when maximum load is lifted and cylinder
10log Sy' = 0.55 Sy' == 10°55 = 3.55 Cl holds the load under maximum pressure, i.e. R = 75000 N
1OIog Sxy' = - 0.33 Sxy '=. 10 - 033 = 0.47 (7.5 tonnes). Maximum bending stress in section A-A = 120
N/mm 2 .
1OIog Sx" = 0.11 Sx" == 10°11 = 1.29
10log Sy" = 0.07 Sy" = 10°°7 = 1.17
1OIog Sxy" == - 1.35 Sxy"= 10-1.35 = 0.05
Figure 4.1.18
The stresses are calculated as follows:

ax=_F_'"H,-. S'+ P . S"

a.t2 x T x

a x = 40957· 100 . 4.78 + 28678.

400· 144 144 1.29
a x = 340 + 257 = 597 N/mm2

F. H P
a Y= - ' S '+--' S"
a-. t-
2 Y t2 Y

a = 40957· 100 . 3.55 28678. 1 17

y 400· 144 + 144 .
ay = 252 + 233 = 485 N/mm2

rxy = F·H
--2-'
S' P Sxy"
xy + -2-'
Section AA
r . t t

r xy = 40957· 100 . 047 + 28678. 005

400· 144 . 144'
rxy = 33 + 10 = 43 N/mm2

4:7
 Static strength - load application

Solution: Beam with longitudinal lug F· H , P

1. Divide the force into F and P
Oy=--" .
d·t~ e
Sy+ - - ' S"
y
F = 73860 N
p = 13023 N ay = 73860 . 60 . 0.82 + 13023. 0.5 =
100. 102 102
2. S~perimpose the coordinate system as in figure 4.1.18. Even
though the lug is not symmetrical, we can place the origin in = 363 + 65 = 428 N/mm2
the middle of the lug. This will give too Iowa value of the
maximum stress due to P, but as P is only 17% of F, the
error in a will be acceptable.
.xv= 0
3. Value of x = 100 i.e. maximum stress in section A - A
4. x/a = 0.5 Ox = 613 N/mm2
ay = 428 + 120 = 548 N/mm 2
5, d/a = 0.5
Le. so high that plastic deformation occurs in the area when
6. The following values are obtained from graphs 4.1.19-24 for S 355 is used, and WELD OX 700 provides good insurance against
x/a;" 0.5 and d/a = 0.5: this.
S'x = 1.06
S' = 0.82.
S.Yxy = 0
S"x = 1.1
S" = 0.5
S"Yxy -- 0
7. Interpolation is not necessary.
8. Calculate the stresses as follows
F· H S' P S'
°x= (l:t2' x+ T' x

a x= 73860· 60 . l.06 + 131~3. 1.1 =

100· l(j- v-

= 470 + 143 = 613 N/mm2

4:8
 Static strength -, load application
figure 4.1.19 Figure 4.1.20

lug parallel, force parallel to plate lug parallel, force parallel to plate
1.12 d/a
1.12
1.04 /0.15
//,020
1.04 /0.25
0.96 /0.30
0.96 ~0.35
0.88 ~0.40
__ 0.10
0.88
080 ~0.45
-............0.05
0.80 0.50
0.72
0.72
0.64
><
In 0.64
>.
0.56 -Ul d/a
0.56 0.50
0.48 0.45
0048 0.40
0.40 0.35
0.30
0040 0.25
0.32 0.20
0.32 0.15
0.24 0.10
0.24 0.05
0.16 0.00
0.16
0.08
0.08
0.00
U) 0 U) 0 U) 0 LO 0 LO 0 U)
0.00
0
0 0 ci
N N et)

ci
ro: '<t
ci
'<t U) U)
If) 0
j I
0 0 0 0 0 ci 0
LO 0
N
LO
N
0
et)
If)
et)
0
'<t
LO
'<t
0
lD
t£l
l!")
x/a 0 ci ci 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
x/a

Figure 4.1.21 Figure 4.1.22

lug parallel, force parallel to plate lug parallel, force perpendicular to piate

1.12 2.8

1.04 2.6
d/a
0.96 2.4 -0.05

0.88 2.2

0.80 2.0 -0.10

0.72 1.8 -0.15

d/a
0.64 {Wrt+\+H- O. 50 1.6 -0.20
~tT+\+H-OA5
\\\+~+t--n 40
x -0.25
1;,
_?;: 0.56 \\H,H+I-t\--() 35 lA -0.30
V>
\\ \ \ Irtttll+--() 30 -0.35
0.48 \\\\\.~r--0.25 1.2 -0040
20 -0.45
0.40 .15 -0.50
1.0
.10
0.32 .05 0.8

0.24 0.6

0.16 004
0.08 0.2
0.00 0.0
LO
0
0
..... LO o lD 0 o LO lD 0 lD 0 If) 0 lD 0 l!") 0 l!")
N N et) lD
ci ci ci ci 0 ci
U)

ci ci
0
0 ci ci
N
ci
N
ci
ro: et)

0
'<t
0
'<t
ci
If)

0
lD
0 ci
x/a x/a

4:9
 Static strength - load application

Figure 4,1,23 Figure 4.1.24

lug parallel, force perpendicular to plate lug paraliel, force perpendicular to plate
2.8 0.28

2.6 0.26

2.4 0.24

2.2 0.22

2.0 d/a 0.20

-0.05
1.8 0.18

,., 1.6 ,.,x 0.16

'",
'in d/a
1.4 0.14
....."..---0.05
'0---''1---0.10
1.2 15 0.12 ~-\--0.15
\+-\-+-0.20
1.0 0.10 -~-I---O. 25
, .......T\-\rI--- 0.30
\.\.\~cTtt-O. 35
0.8 0.08 \Wr't\+\-O .40
~t\m-0.45
0.6 0.06 ~ffit--O. 50

0.4 0.04

0.2 0.02

0.0 0.00
ID 0 ID o ID 0 ID 0 o ID ID 0
..... U'l o U'l o o U'l
0 N N ("f) ("f) o:t ID ID 0 ...... N N ("f) U"l U'l
0 0 0 o o 0 o 0 o 0 0 0 0 o o o o 0
x/a x/a

Figure 4.1.25 Figure 4.1.26

lug transverse, force parallel to plate lug transverse, force parallel to plate
2.0 1.6

1.8 1.4

1.6 1.2
cia
1.4 1.0
~0.45
0.40
1.2 0.8
0.35
0.30
1.0 ~O.25
0.20
0.8 0.15
x
0.10
'", 0.05
Ol) 0.6 0.00 Ol)
0
o
" 0.4 " U"l 0
o:t U'l
o 0
y/a

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0

-1.2

4·10
 Static strength - load application

Figure 4.1.27 Figure 4.1.28

lug transverse, force paralle! to plate Lug transverse, force perpendicular to plate
0.8 0.40

0.7 0.35

0.6 0.30

0.5 0.25

0.4 0.20

0.3 0.15

0.2 0.10

0.1 x
>- 1n 0.05
><
·111
OIl
-00
•
0 o
.q
lCl
.q
0
lCl
lD 0 lD 0
0- M "<l" "<l" If)

-0.1 ci 0 ci ci ci ci ci
y/a y/a
-0.2

-0.3

-0.4 cia -0.20

0.45
·-0.5 0.40 -0.25 cia
0.35
0.30 0.45
-0.6 0.25 -0.30 0.40
0.35

~ 0.25
0.20 0.20

0.15 0.20
0.10 0.15
0.100.050.00
0.05

Figure 4.1.30
Lug transverse, force perpendicular to plate
y/a
o lCl 0 0 lCl 0 lCl 0 lCl o
o 0 N N (Y) (Y) "<l" "<l" lCl

Figure 4.1.29 -0.6 ci ci ci o

I
ci
i
0
I
0
I
ci
I
ci
I
ci, o
I
0.4:;
lug transverse, force perpendicular to plate -0.7
,:;:~~:::~~~~~~~~0.40 -0.35
0.30
0.25
-0.8 0.20
0.15
-0.9 ",,0.10
,,0.05
0.00
-1.0

-1.1

-1.2
>-
,x
<JI -1.3
OIl
0
~ -1.4

-1.5

-1.6

-1.7

-1.8

-1.9

-2.0

';11
4.2 Lighter can be stiffer
Page No.
What is stiffness? ............................................................ 4:12
Different second moments of area can be obtAined
with the same or smaller amount of material...... ......... ..... 4: 12
Two examples ................................................................. 4: 12
The fact that different values of I can be achieved with the
same amount of material stems from the definition of the
second moment of area about an aXIs x, dI x = j.dA, where y is
the distance from the axis x to the area element dA.
in other words, all that is necessary to obtain a large value of
I is to move the material as far as possible outwards from the
x axis.
How far the material can be moved outwards depends upon
how much stress the material can take, which is where WELDOX
and HARDOX steels come in.
The bending stress at the point of attachment in figure 4.2.1
can be written
p. L· emax
ob max = I where emax is the largest distance
from the centroid of the section (the X axis) to the extreme fibre.
This means that the bending stress increases if the magni-
tude oB is constant (= same bending stiffness) but the
material is moved out, i.e. emax increases.
The examples below illustrate the relationships involved and
demonstrate the fact that it is possible to design both lighter and
stiffer structures with WELDOX and HARDOX steels.
Naturally, local buckling must be taken into account when
working with large, thin panels. Experience shows that buckling is
normally not a problem in machine structures, but more about
this in the section entitled 'Buckling of plates'.

Example 4.2.1
Which simple approximate relationships apply to the bending of a
beam when a change is made from milder steels to WElDOX,
loading conditions remaining the same as shown in figure 4.2.2?

It is quite possible to create both lighter and stiffer structures and Figure 4.2.2
fabrications by using WELDOX and HARD OX steels instead of
ordinary steel.
p
L
What is stiffness?
When you try to get someone to use WELDOX steel in a
-- --
--- ----=::: ---~-::::~"':..":.:7
} l"Jo

structure, you often hear to following objection: 'There is no point

in using WELDOX. You get the same or greater elastic deforma- b = constant
tion and a flimsier structure."
The person recalls the formula for the elastic deflection of a
cantilever from his studies of Materials Science (see figure 4.2.1)
If t < < band h, then

Figure 4.2.1 I==b·t·JL

h 2

W=b· t· h
E, I p

6. = PL3
-- -::.]}6.
::. -::. - - ==::: - - _
..........
deflection

3El
Solution:
He also recalls that the modulus of elasticity (E) is roughly the Bending stresses: MS 1 WELDOX 2
same for all steels.
His objection is only valid if the WELDOX beam has the same p. L P. L
overall dimensions and shape and the same or smaller plate
thickness as the ordinary steel beam.
Bending stiffness is the product of E . I, and different
second moments of area (I) can be achieved with the same
or lesser amount of material!
Analogously, torsional stiffness for "ordinary twisting" is the
product of G· Kv , where G is the shear modulus (for steel G
= ~,6 ) and Kv is the section factor with respect to torsional (4.2.1)
stiffness.
 Static strength - lighter can be stiffer

Elastic deflection: Example 4.2.2

Two beams, made of WELDOX 700 and S 355, have the following
dimensions:
3 . E· h/
. o· t 1 · -2- Figure 4.2.3

WELDOX 700 S 355 (SS 50-0)

(4.2.2)
as = 700 N/mm2 a, = 350 N/mm2

Combine equations 4.2.1 and 4.2.2

1 _L
oor :er
a
~
- ---_._-" r-'
0
~
,- - - - - - - -t-'
(4.2.3)

~I. ~r
if we have two given types of steel with different yield stresses
(permissible stresses), 02 > 01> deflection can be changed by

~I.
280

~r-
varying the depth of the beam.
280

The thickness of the flanges is determined by

Beam data:

(4.2.1) Ix = 422· 106 mm 4 Ix = 397· 106 mm4

Wx = 16.2· 105 mm 3 Wx = 19.8' 105 mm3
Will the WElDOX beam be heavier? A = 10528 mm 2 A = 14848 md

The section area A= 2 . b . t (disregarding the thin web)

The WELDOX beam is:

(4.2.4)
422
397 = 1.06 i.e. 6% stiffer

Equation 4.2.3 gives

10528
14548 = 0.70 i.e. 30% lighter

1.5* . 700· 16.2 . 105

1.5* . 350· 19.8' 105 =: 1.64 i.e. 64% larger bending
moment
and substituted in equation 4.2.4 • Sf = 1.5 for both steels.
With beam spans of 3000 mm between two supports, local
buckling is prevented when Sf = 1.5.

If we wish to have the same deflection

01 2
AwElDOX =: ~S' ( -a;-)
e.g. a 1 =: 350 N/mm2 S 355
02 = 700 N/mm2 WElDOX 700

AwELDOX "" 0.26 . AMS

In other words, we can build much lighter beams of WElDOX than

of MS while keeping deflection the same!
Note that deflection is dependent upon both material and
shape!
In other words, for the same section area, different second
moments of area can be obtained!

4:13
4.3 Buckling of columns Examples of imperfections are:
- initial curvature Wo
- initial eccentricity
Page No. - deviation in cross-sectional geometry
- scatter in material properties
Buckling of columns, general 4:14
- residual stresses (from the fabrication process)
Design procedure for column in axial
For a column with wo> 0, a theoretical load deflection curve is
compression with regard to in-plane buckling .................. 4: 16
obtained as shown by the lower curve in figure 4.3.l.
Influence of welding residual stresses .............................. 4: 15
Nk = the critical load is determined from
Example calculation ........................................................ 4: 16
Nk = ak' A (4.3.1 )
Are WELDOX columns economical? .................................... 4: 17
whereak = limit stress with respect to buckling
Simultaneous bending and buckling ................................ 4: 17 (critical stress)
A = section area

Ok is dependent upon the member's slenderness ratio, cross-

sectional shape, steel grade and residual stresses.
The following definitions are first necessary:

Elastic critical stress

("Euler critical stress") °el
Instability phenomena such as column buckling (overall buck-
(4.3.2)
ling), plate buckling (local buckling) and interaction between
the two are becoming increasingly important as the trend goes
towards increasingly high material utilization and advanced
I min = minimum second moment of area of the section (the
structural designs.
column buckles towards the side where it is weakest)
Columns occupy space, and an attempt is therefore made to
make them as slender as possible. Slender columns have a A = section area
smaller stress-absorbing area, and WELDOX steels become E = modulus of elasticity
interesting. L = effective length as per table 4.3.1
In many cases, it is economical to use WELDOX in columns,
see below.
When a column becomes critical with respect to buckling, the Table 4.3.1
cause is to be sought in the following factors: load, cross sec-
tion, column length, restraint, yield strength and modulus of Euler's
elasticity. buckling cases 1 2 3 4
It is difficult to specify general limits when it comes to the risk
of overall buckling. Long and slender columns must be check-
ed. Limits are given below in mathematical form, and the

1
IN ~
examples provide some information. Buckling ~

, -<
t
it'
configuration \
,,
\ I

In~plane buckling, general ; /

-~ nm~
When a straight column (wo = 0) is acted upon by a compres-
sive force N as shown in figure 4.3.1, no buckling wm takes
place until the theoretical load NE has been reached.
The perfectly straight column does not exist. In practice, all
columns are subject to imperfections. L= 2L L 0.7 L 0.5 L

Figure 4.3.1 Table 4.3.2

N Curve ao a b c d

N y 0.125 0.206 0.339 0.489 0.756

Wo = 0

Slenderness parameter a

a= ~=; .+0t- (4.3.3)

where i is the radius of gyration

L-------------------~Wm '- - ~
I -YA
N in some literature, a is calledI

4:14
 Static strength - Buckling of columns

The value of a determines how large a percentage of the yield Residual stresses
stress the critical stress Ok may amount to, see figure 4.3.2.
in figure 4.3.2, which is taken from the recommendations of As is well known, welding gives rise to large residual tensile
the ECCS (European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, stresses in the longitudinal direction of the weld. In order for
ref. 68), there are different curves aa, a, b, c and d, depending the cross-section to be in equilibrium, residual compressive
upon the type of section, plate thickness, residual stresses etc., stresses therefore arise in other parts of the cross section.
see table 4.3.3. These residual compressive stresses are added to the external
The curves in figure 4.3.2 can be expressed in mathematical compressive stresses due to applied load, and Ok is reached
form. earlier than if there had been no welding residual stresses.
The distribution of the residual stresses for corner-welded box
sections is illustrated in figure 4.3.3.
whena':;; 0.2 ~= 1
as
Figure 4.3.3
whena> 0.2 :: = F - J F2 - -;7 (4.3.4)

whereF= 1+1' (a-O 2l+a 2 z (4.3.5)

2'a
I' is dependent upon which curve is to be used, and the value
ofI' for the different curves is given in table 4.3.2.

Figure 4.3.2 a) real

Ok
as . &l

1.0+--_==-------
e b

I;.
T -:;-
I
:1L.J
0.5
b) idealized

With knowledge of the welding parameters, it is possible to

calculate a/as for corner-welded box columns.
o 1.0 2.0
a (X)

In addition to the five different buckling curves, the ECCS also

gives recommendations for utilization of the material's yield
-;-~ = -'v-,'b-' 1-.- 0 - -
-;:-t (4.3.6)
strength. as" is therefore SUbstituted fora s in order to deter- 0.15' U' 1- 1
minea and Ok. see table 4.3.3.
which is taken from ref. (64).
Table 4.3.3 Guidelines for choice of buckling curve and notio-
v = welding rate m/s
nal yield stress as· for EHS shapes I = current A
U = voltage volts
Cross-sectional
shape Curve a 5* Typical welding parameters are given in table 4.3.4.

[$1
.-_1_.
I
~
Rectangular and round tubes
.Bent in flanging machine
and welded
Roll formed and welded
a
Table 4.3.4 Typical welding parameters for submerged-arc
welding, one pass.
---- --- - ._- -- -

f'BUC;i~g;
Welded box section
Joint type a = throat U I V
'-li,'Yy- abou' a
a
0.90 5
0.90 s
thickness volts Amperes m/h

~
High proportion of welding 4 34 800 50
residual stresses 6 34 850 35
0/02> 0,2 b 0.90 5 7 35 875 25
Welded I -section 70°
Buckling about: 6 35 700 35

~
x - x Gas-cut flange a 0.90 5 8 36 850 30
Rolled flange a 0.90 5 ""'.. ./ a 10 36 925 27
y - y Gas-cut flange a 0.90 s
Rolled flange b 0.90 s 5 450 46
35
Stress-relieved box section aa as <pa 6
7
35
35
500
600
42
38
Stress-relieved I-section
Buckling about 8 35 650 35
x -x aa as
y-y a as For manual arc welding, it can be assumed that
Thick-walled sections t ;;::: 40 mm d 0,90 5 U ~ I in formula (4.3.6) = 5· 10- 7mIJ

4:15
 Static strength - Buckling of columns

For box columns made of welded and bent channel sections,

it can be assumed thata;la 5 = 0.1.
Table 4.3.3 shows for welded box sections that, in order that
curve a may be used, it is necessary thata/a 5 < 0.2. 467· lO6
Gel = ;1t2. 21 . 104 -----..,,-
A rule of thumb states that a throat thickness < 6 mm gene- 18048· 30002
rally givesa;los < 0.2 for most corner-welded columns.
It is desirable to minimize the area of the weld, and this can Gel = 5958 N/mm2
easily be done if the columns are only to be acted upon by a
compressive force. The purpose of the weld will then be largely
to hold the plates together.
lf, however, transverse forces act on the column, the area of
the weld must be adjusted to this condition.

Calculation procedure
After all these definitions, it may be useful to outline the calcula-
a -
-J 0.9' 700
5958
tion procedure, the main purpose of which is to calculate what
load the column can take and to compare this with the actual a = 0,323
load.
1. Determine cross section and curve (y) as well as 0 5 * from
tables 4.3.2 and 4.3.3.
Calculate: 4. F = 1 + Y (a - 0.2) + a 2
2. 0 el from (4,3.2). 2a 2

3, a from (4.3,3). F= 1 + 0,339 (0.323 - 0.2) + 0.323 2

4. F from (4.3,5) if a > 0,2. 2· 0,323 2

5, Ok/Os from (4.3.4). F = 5.492

6, Nk (critical load) from (4,3.1),
7, The permissible compressive force is obtained by dividing
Nk oWk by a factor of safety Sf, which can be put equal to
1.5 for steel structures under ordinary load cases, and to 1.3
for exceptional load cases.
For rapid overload of short duration (max. 35), Sf= 1.1.
Otherwise, rely on experience and section 3.

Example 4.3.1
Adesigner has to design a box column of WELDOX 700 (as= 700
N/mm2) and chooses between two fabrication types:
a ) corner-welded box column Nk = 0.9' 700· 0.956' 18048
b) bent and welded box column
Assume the following dimensions:
Nk ::: 1087 . 104 N ::: 1087 tonnes
l = 3000 mm (Euler "2") 0400 mm t = 12 mm.
Bend radius = 3 . t = 36 mm,
Throat thickness of corner welds = 7 mm.
The section area and the second moment of area are as follows:
a) A = 18048 mm 2 b) A = 17511 mm 2
I = 467· 106 mm 4 I = 398· 106 mm 4
Alternative b)

Solution: 1. Curve a ando s * = Os according to table 4.3.3

y = 0.206 according to table 4,3.2
Alternative a
1. Before the curve and 0 s * can be determined, we have to
checkoilo s' According to table 4,3.4, throat thickness = 7 398· Id'
mm (automatic submerged arc welder) gives U = 35 volts, 2. Oel=;r2. 21· Ht· 17511.30002
I = 875 A, v = 25 m/h.
2
o el = 5234 N/mm

~ = ---::-::----:-c~__:_1:::---=-=-=--__ (4.3,6)
_1700
as 25· 400· 12· 700
3600· 0,15' 35· 875
3. a = y-523'4
a = 0.366
~= 0,25> 0.2
Os

i,e. curve b and a 5 * = 0.9 Os according to table 4.3.3

y = 0,339 according to table 4.3.2

4, lE)
 Static strength - Buckling of columns

1 + 0.209 (0366 - 0.2) + 0.366 2 There is an area in the lower part of the graphs in which the
4. F= wall thickness for WELDOX is less than 4 mm. According to ECCS
2· 0.3662
E.R.. the cross section has been given such a shape that the
F = 4.362 condition

~:;;; 1.52 / E 1/2

t V0k'aJ
is satisfied. The columns are assumed to have the same overall
dimensions.

Figure 4.3.4 As welded

6. Nk = 690· 0.962' 17511
M~ Nk /
S 355 (curve b)os= 0.94·o s
iWELDOX700 (curvea)os= 0.90'0 5
6
.. ' Alternative b should be chosen. Because bending is employ-
ed instead of welding. it is usually the cheapest alternative. 5

Example 4.3,2 3

If the column according to alternative a) in example 4.3.1 is 2

stress-relieved, how large a buckling load can it take then?

Solution: O~__~__. -__.-~~-.__- .__- .__- .__- .__-.~L

According to table 4.3.3. a stress-relieved box section gives 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 fTl
curve aa. as * = as and y = 0.125 according to table 4.3.2.
Figure 4.3.5 Stress-relieved
_(700
3) a = V 5958 = 0.340 MN Nk
7.0
1 + 0.125 (0.340 - 0.2) + 0.3402 WELDOX 700
4) F == 49
2· 0.3402 = . 6.0 S355 (curvea)os' =0 5

5) ok/as = 4.9 _ 1492 _ 1 = 0.979 5.0

V 0.3402
4.0
6) Nk = 690 . 0.979' 18048 == 1220· 104N == 1220 tonnes
3.0
Compared with 1071 tonnes

.. ' Residual stresses play a large role. Therefore. use the least 2.0
possible weld metal area.
1.0
L
O~--r--'---r--.---'---.---r--'---.---r---
Are WElDOX columns economical? 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 fTl

It is difficult to lay down set limits for the economic use WELDOX
steel in columns, since a large number of factors are involved.
Naturally, one important parameter is the price ratio between
WELDOX and competing materials. It is important to take all Example 4.3.3
functional requirements into account when making economic The price ratio for welded box columns made of WELD OX 700 in
assessments. relation to S 355 is about 1.50. The column length is 4 m af)d Nk
When it comes to buckling, the high strength of WELDOX steel = 3 MN. Is WELDOX 700 economical, despite its higher steel
is applied to best advantage in columns with a low value of the price?
slenderness parameter «, i.e. in stiff columns.
In the case of slender columns, load-bearing capacity is prima-
rily determined by the modulus of elasticity, which is independent
of steel grade. Solution:
Figures 4.3.4 (welded) and 4:3.5 (stress-relieved) present in Use figure 4.3.4.
graphical form the results of a technical and economic study of The point 3 MN, 4 m clearly lies to the left of the curve for 1.50.
welded square box columns made of WELDOX 700 and S 355
(BS 50 D). The study is based on the 1978 ECCS recommen- .. ' It is very economical to use WELDOX 700.
dations. The price is given per kg of finished box column.

The figures are used as follows: Simultaneous compression and bending

Given: Nk, L and price WELDOX/price S 355 finished box
column.
Problem: Is it economical to use WELDOX?
Solution: WELDOX is economically advantageous if the point
(N k, L) lies to the left of the curve for the given price ratio.
The stress situation under simultaneous compression and ben-
ding is more complicated than under axial compression owing.
among other things. to second order effects. out-of-plane buck-
ling and transverse load.

4:17
 Static strength - Buckling of columns

If bending only occurs in one plane and the beam is braced Example 4.3.4
so that lateral torsional buckling cannot occur, the following
relationships hold true: An automatically welded box column of square cross section is
made of WELDOX 700 (as'" 700 N/mm2). The column is pin-
{3 . M + M + N . e*
p. jointed at both ends and is acted upon by an axial force
a + --' 0 oE;a s (4.3.7) N = 3 MN, see figure 4.3.6.
p. -1 W Afterwards it is stipulated that the column should also resist a
M uniformly distributed transverse load q kN/m.
a+ W oE; as (as a check) (4.3.8) How large a value of q can be permitted?

l
where: Figur4.3.6

N N· 3 MN
a= -
A

p. =ael (4.3.9)
a

ael=jf . E
2
7I/A (4.3.2) Vq

(4.3.10)
E
o.....
/'
-- 15

MJ/M 2 = ratio of bending moments at beam ends! Ml! ~! M2! '15

M= M2 ....
Mo = largest bending moment due to transverse load. In deter-
mining Mo, the member is regarded as being simply sup-
ported. If Mo and M2 have opposite signs and if
! Mo! ~ ! 2M2! ' Mo = 0 is sUbstituted.
I- 0300
-I
W = section modulus
A = cross-sectional area
I = second moment of area IN = 3 MN
5°
(4.3.11)

For the general case (bending in two planes), see ECCS recom-
mendations 1978.

Solution: a = jf2 . 21. 104 . 232.1· 106 :: 281 N/mm2

First, a/a s has to be calculated in order that the appropriate el 17100. 1OO~
buckling curve may be determined.
a =
./630
V 28f = 1.497
From table 4.3.4, we obtain the value for a fillet weld of throat
thickness 7 mm and multiply the welding rate v by 2 (half fillet
weld). F= 1 + y (a - 0.2) +a2
2. a 2

F = 1 + 0.206 (1.497 - 0.2) + 1.4972

u= 35 volts I = 875 A v = 2· 25 mlh
2· 1.4972
_a_i = _-:--1...,.-_ F = 0.783
v·b·t·a s _ 1
~0'""";'.1-;:-5-.-:-:U-·7--1

!i= 1 012< 02
as -=2-'-:2=-=5-'-:3:'::0-=-0-'-=-1-:::5-'-=7:=00=- = . .
3600· 0.15' 35· 875 -1

'.' curve a anda s*= 0.9a s according to table 4.3.3

ak/as = 0.375
y = 0.206 according to table 4.3.2 ak = 0.375 • 630 = 236 N/mm2
as = 0.9' 700 = 630 N/mm2
I = (3004 - 2704 )112 = 232.1' 106 mm4 e*'= (.!l -1 ). (1-~)~ (4.3.11)
ak a~ A
W = 232.1' = 1.548· 1061150 106 mm3
A = 3002 - 27~ = 17100 mm2 e* = (630 _ 1 ) . (1 _ 236 ). 1.548· 106
236 281 17100
a el = jf2. E. 11 A
(4.3.2)
7 e* = 24,2 mm

4:18
 Static strength - Buckling of columns

N 3· 106 2 175.4 + 21.5q + 129.;;;621

0= -= 17100 = 175.4 NJmm
A
q = 14.7 N/mm = 14.7 kN/m
fl = °el =~ = 1.6 Equivalent value of q if the column had been made of S 355
a 175.4 (crs= 350 N/mm2)
M = 0 since the end moments are zero ..
qss 50 D = 5.05 kN/m

Mo = ~8 L2 (uniformly distributed load) i.e. considerably less.

- - ' f3'M+M 0 +N·e*

0 +fl ';;;0s 4.3.7
fl -1 W

q. 190002 + 3. 106 . 25
1.6
175.4 + -----~~-- .;;;621
1.6 -1 1.548. 106
 - When the buckling stress is exceeded, a considerable reduc-
4,4 Buckling of plates tion of the stiffness of the panel also takes place. This is of
importance in cases where the panel forms part of other
structural elements such as columns and beams etc.
Page No.
- Conventional calculation methods for estimating load-bearing
Buckling due to normal stress ......................................... 4:20 capacity are generally related to the critical buckling stress.
Buckling due to shear stress ........................................... 4:21 In the following, instructions are first given for determining the
Simultaneous shear stress and normal stress 4:21 critical stress for plates (panels) for some common cases, after
which methods for determining load-bearing capacity are
When must the influence of local buckling discussed.
be taken into account? .................................................... 4:21
Stiffeners ........................................................................ 4:22
Postcritical region .... ...... ...... ..... ..... .......... ........ .... ....... .... 4:22
Buckling due to normal stress
The critical buckling stressoel is calculated as follows:
Examples ........................................................................ 4:22
o el = k" . 0.905 E (Vb)2
Interaction between local buckling and
overall buckling ............................................................... 4:27
where k" = the buckling coefficient, which is dependent upon
the stress distr.ibution, conditions of support and
the geometry of the plate. See table 4.4.1
The buckling of a plate is fundamentally different from the
buckling of a column. In this manual, a differentiation is made E = modulus of elasticity
between local buckling (i.e. plate buckling) and overall buckling t = plate thickness
(column buckling). b = plate width
Figure 4.4.1 schematically illustrates the relationship between
load (N) and deformation (ll) for a column Cl and for a panel b
Table 4.4.1 The buckling coefficient ka for some common
supported along its edges so that these remain straight during cases. *)
loading.
The graphs in figure 4.4.1 show that the panel can support a
load considerably in excess of the bifurcation load Ncr , unlike Load
the column, which cannot withstand higher loads than NE' a
The dashed curves show what happens in actual practice. I~ ~I
Figure 4.4.1a r -,
I
N
N I
I
I
I I
r-t:. L _________ J
I
I
I a/b > 1; - 1 ~ 1/1 ~1
I
I NE :::..-=--:-,.-_-",~
N
I L err--,. ideal column k" = 4 + 2 (1 -l/d + 2(l-l/Jl
I/~
I
I l/J =1~ka=4
\ l/J = -1 ~ ka = 24
\ I actual column
\
\ I
I
a
al
N
ideal r 1
Figure 4.4.1b panel I I
I I b
."

;
; I I
..- ..- I
Free edge
I
J
" I

/
".f \actual panel V'a) 1
--<l/J~ 1
'Pal
3
ka= 1 +43tp [(b/a}2 + 0.426]

a
!pal
l- -I
..,
1/'a)

r
I I
I I
The extent of this postcriticalload-bearing capacity is chiefly I
dependent upon the panel's slenderness, material properties I
I
Free edge
and imperfections such as initial buckles and residual stresses. j 1
It may therefore appear to be relatively uninteresting to deter- a) 0)
mine the buckling stress associated with the bifurcation load - 3<l/J~1
(NE in figure 4.4.1). But this is not the case, as is evident from
the following points. ka = _4_ [(b/a)2 + 0.426]
3+1/1
- The buckling stress is important in cases where freedom from
buckling is a requirement, since the amplitude of the buckles
grows considerably when the buckling stress is exceeded. *) For other cases, see ref. No. (71) and (72).
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

The above expressions are based on the assumption that the where
plate is simply supported. When the panel is incorporated in
section walls in beams and columns, there is generally some
a eh l' el '" the buckling stress for the panel when acted upon
only by normal stress (a el) or shear stress (reil.
restraint in adjacent panels. This means that the above table
4.4.1 usually gives values on the safe side in cases where there
is some form of restraint.
OJ = V a/ + 31'2
s* = coefficient that expresses the combined influence of the
Buckling due to shear stress normal and shear stresses on the buckling load. See
figure 4.4.4.
The critical shear stress rei is calculated as follows:
rei = kr . 0.905 E(tlb)2 Figure 4.4.4 Diagram for determining the coefficient s* under
(4.4.2)
combined loading.

to' i
where
s· °1
°1
~ = the buckling coefficient under shear stress. 1,1
See figure 4.4.2
~ = 5.34 +
b/a::;:; 1
4 (b/a)2 (4.4.3)
1,0 1
'Pal
I
I
-- - -- - -
I
I
tjJ0l

Figure 4.4.2 Buckling due to shear stress 0,9

r

When must the influence of local buckling be

I. a pi taken into account?
Generally, the greater the width-thickness ratio bit, the greater
The expression for ~ given in equation 4.4.2 applies for a
simply supported panel. If the panel is clamped at all edges, the risk of local buckling. In order to determine whether local
then buckling should be taken into account, the value of the slender-
ness parameter a must be studied.
~ = 8.98 + 5.6 (b/at (4.4.4)
In the case of buckling due to normal stress
(b/a)::;:; 1
(4.4.7)
Simultaneous shear stress and normal stress
In general, this problem is very complicated. Approximate solu- where
tions have, however, been derived for certain less complicated
cases. Here, the treatment of this problem is restricted to a as = yield stress of the material
single case: Shear stress and linearly varying normal stress. See ael = critical buckling stress as per equation 4.4.1
fig. 4.4.3. In the case of buckling due to shear stress

Figure 4.4.3 Simultaneous shear stresses and normal stresses. a = - rr;:-

Vr;- (4.4.8)

I~
a
-~I
where

r "l 1's = a sf'V3

I
I
I
I
t rei = critical buckling stress as per equation 4.4.2

I I In the case of simultaneous normal stresses and shear

b
I I t stresses
I I
L .....J
I
t (4.4.9)

whereajel = critical equivalent stress as per equation (4.4.5) or

In the treatment, it is assumed that the loading is proportio- (4.4.6).
nal, i.e. thala and r increase to the same degree.
The approach in treating this case is to calculate a "critical If the panel were free of imperfections, buckling would not
equivalent stress" = ajel' This is done in the following manner: have any influence on load-bearing capacity when a ::;:; 1. In
view of the residual stresses and initial buckles that are present
ajel = ael ~ s· when <:l.. ~ ;:, 1 (4.4.5)
in actual practice, however, the limiting value a 0 (when a ::;:; a 0
it is assumed that buckling does not have any influence) must
al r ~
be put::;:; 1. Depending upon the extent of existing imperfec-
tions, a 0 can be estimated to lie in the interval 0.6::;:; a 0::;:; 0.8.
(4.4.6) In the current Swedish Regulations for Steel Structures
StBK-Nl,a o is around 0.7 -0.8.

4:21
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

What do we do when a > a o? - A box section can, instead of one 90' bend, have two 45°
bends spaced close together. This reduces the flat surface on
As in the case of overall (column) buckling, the conventional both the web plate and the flange plate.
method for taking into account the influence of local buckling t 2
on strength is to reduce the design value of strength with refe- - Rememberoel - (b)
rence to a buckling curve. The postcriticalload-bearing capacity
which is a characteristic of slender panels is thereby taken into
account to only a small extent.
Postcritical region
This design method is simple to use, but leads in the case of A detailed analysis of the behaviour of plates in the postcritical
slender panels to an underestimate of load-bearing capacity. A region is highly complicated and is therefore avoided in practi-
model that better describes the behaviour of the panel in the cal design work. For this reason, simplified models have been
postcritical region is described further on. developed based on the concept of effective width in panels
Table 4.4.2 contains design values - fundamentally the same subject to normal stress and tension field theories for panels
as in StBK-N 1 - for normal, shear and equivalent stress in the subject to shear stress. These concepts were originally develo-
case of a plate supported on all four sides. ped in aeronautical engineering during the 1920s and 19305
and have since been applied within other fields as well.
Table 4.4.2 Design values of O,! and OJ with respect to local Here, we will deal only with panels subject to normal stress
buckling of plate supported along all four edges. when l/! = 1 (i.e. uniformly distributed over the width of the
plate).
In the postcritical region, the panel does not have a uniformly
a od/Os !d/Us Ojd/Os distributed normal stress over its width, even if the externally
applied stress is uniformly distributed.
0~a~0.67 1 0.577 1.1 The stress is greatest at the boundaries, and a common
0.67<a~0.80 1 0.577 1.557-O.696a failure criterion is when the stress along the edges is equal
0.80<a~ l.49 1.557 -O.696a 0.9-0.403 a 1.557-O.696a to the yield stress. The maximum load-bearing capacity Nmax of
a> 1.49 1.154/a 2 0.666/a 2 1. 154/a 2 the panel in figure 4.4.1 can be written:
Nmax = 0mB . b· t
wherea = y 0s/Oel or~' Y Us/Ojel umB. which is the mean ultimate stress, can be expressed with
according 10 equations 4.4.7 - 9 the aid of Winter's formula, which can be approximated as
Table 4.4.3 applies for panels with a free edge. follows:
0.78
0mB ~ Os (44.10)
Table 4.4.3 Design values of 0 with respect to local buckling of 3~
plate with free edge.
wherea = V Us/Oel
a = V 0s/Oel Od/Os t 2
Uel = 4· 0.905' E (I))
o
~a ~ 0.70 1 Note that 0 mB is proportional to as213!
0.70 < a ~ l.36 1.53 - 0.75a
a> 1.36 0.938/a 2 If a mB/Os according to (4.4.10) is compared with a diu s accor-
ding to table 4.4.2 for different values of a, table 4.4.4 is
obtained.

Table 4.4.4
Stiffeners
When we encounter limitations due to local buckling or when a 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
we wish to stiffen up our structure, we can make use of
stiffeners.
Here, we have a great deal to learn from sheet metal desig- amB/a s 0.905 0.780 0.691 0.623 0.570 0.527 0.491
ners and others.
Od/as 1 0.861 0.722 0.583 0.451 0.356 0.289
Hints:
Study household appliances, car bodies, ship hulls (30 m
wide plates of 20 mm thickness are actually sheet metal struc- The table demonstrates what was mentioned earlier, namely
tures), airplanes, steel buildings etc. that use of table 4.4.2 underestimates the load-bearing capacity
of slender panels.
Some examples: On the other hand, table 4.4.2 gives higher ultimate values at
- Bend the free edge of e.g. flanges. a < 1.3.
Equation 4.4.10 should provide a better estimate of the load-
- Longitudinal stiffeners on beam webs are often adequate and bearing capacity of a panel subjected to uniformly distributed
more economical than transverse ones. compression.
- Holes in the web of a beam can be strengthened with longitu- If there are initial stresses in the plate, the value of 0 m8 is
dinal stiffeners or transverse stiffeners, or with both (longitu- reduced. The following expression - based on results from,
dinal on one side and transverse on the other side of the among others, Dwight (69) and Little (70) - can be used to
web). estimate the panel's load-bearing capacity:

- The holes can also be strengthened with a cover plate so that
the panel is made thicker locally around the holes.
- The load-bearing capacity of a beam web with holes is parti-
cularly important if the transverse force is large. The influen-
ce of holes on the bending moment is relatively small.
- Eccentric location of holes in the vertical direction increases
the load-bearing capacity of the web under transverse force.
- The holes should not be spaced more closely than 1110 of
the web depth and should not be larger than 3/4 of the web
depth.
- Care should be taken when applying loads near holes!
amB = os' 0.78' (1-0.8' o;los)/~
where aj = initial compressive stress (cf. figure 4.4.3).
The expression fOrOmB also includes the yield stress of the
a
plate and mB - Os213.
Example 4.4.1
A simply supported beam with a span of 7 m is made of WELDOX
700 (cr s = 700 N/mm2). The beam is acted upon by a point load
(P d) at midspan. Determine Pd with respect to local buckling.
The beam is provided with stiffeners at the supports and the
load is applied in the middle of the beam.
The beam has the dimensions shown in figure 4.4.5.

4:22
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

figure 4.4.5

r ,I d
Pd = 0.966' 106 N with respect to flange buckling.

Web buckling:

i 3500
.I.
ltf
L-I

=
3500

12
The web is acted upon by both normal stresses and shear
stresses, and is considered to be freely supported.

a1 = -
M
I
(H/2 - tf)

1750 Pd (500/2 -12)= 669.3' 10-0· Pd

I t -- :-- tL = 6 622.3' 106

~--+-
T Pd
0 T"" - - = ----"----
0 2Aweb 2· (H - 2 . tf )· tL 2· (500 - 2· 12)' 6
I.C)

11
-
::I: I

Owing to a symmetrical linearly varying bending stress, tp =

I
- 1, which gives ka = 24 according to table 4.4.1
kr according to equation (4.4.3)
I
I· B = 360 kr = 5.34 + 4 (+ ) 2 = 5.34 + 4 (3~060 )2 = 5.41

Section I -I
~. ~ = 669.3' 10-0 . 5.41 = 0.862 (4.4.5)
T I<u 175· 10-0 24

Solution:
Figure 4.4.4 for tp = - 1 gives s* = 0.76

Critical section at midspan under the load Pd' when ~. ~ < 1 willajel be according to equation (4.4.6)
T I<u
a·
Bending moment M=~ = Pd' 7000 = 1750 Pd a Je1= T eI' ..::::.L.
at s'
4 4

Shear force T= -f
P
= 0.5 P

Flange buckling: The top flange is acted upon by a uniformly

distributed load, therefore tp = 1, and according to table 4.4.1,
T el = kr . 0.905' E· t )2
(T
ka = 4

t )2
(T
Gel= ka' 0.905· E· T el = 5.41 . 0.905· 21 . 104 (4~6 Y= 163 N/mm2

Gel = 4 . 0.905 . 21 . 104 • ( 360 ~22 . 6 Y= 903 N/mm2 =

ajel = 163· 734.7· 10-6· Pd . 0.76 = 520 N/mm2
175 . 10-6· Pd

a = yI as = yl700 = 0.880
ael 903
a = yI as ajel
= yl700
520
= 1.16

According to table 4.4.2 when a = 0.880

adlaS = l.557 - 0.696 . a according to table 4.4.2

ad = 700 (1.557 - 0.696· 0.874) = 663 N/mm2

The mean stress over the flange
ajd = 700· 1.557 - 0.696' 1.16 = 525 N/mm2
M
a=- . (H/2 - t f /2)
I
aj = ajd give 734.7· 10-6· Pd = 525 N/mm2
3 3
I = 360· 500 - 348· 476 = 6223· 106 mm 4
12 12 . Pd = 0.714' 106 N with respect to flange buckling

663 = 1750· Pd (500/2 _ 12/2) . .' web buckling is crucial and max.
622.3' 106 Pd =0.714· 10' N =72 tonnes

4:23
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

Example 4.4.2 Figure 4.4.6

The main members of a vehicle frame consist of box beams

made of 8 mm S 355. It is desired to reduce the dead load of the
2 tonnes ~ 6 tonnes ~ 2 tonnes ~
frame by using 6 mm EHS steel grade WELDOX 700. The same
overall dimensions are retained in order to obtain as high rigidity
as possible. ~~~~~~.~1~OO~o___*~I.__~20~O~O___'4!_ti~lO~O~c~J
Is it possible to use WELDOX 700 in view of the risk of buckling
when the frame members are loaded as shown in the figure? 4.57 tonnes 5.43 tonnes
Stiffeners are provided at the points of load application. The
maximum forces are 2.5 times the static forces.
t:: 8

! = 54.6' 106 mm4

W = 390· 103 mm 3
A = 5.76· 103 mm 2
H = 280

l/R;=3' t
-rJ- t :: (; WElDOX 700 (cr s = 700 N/mm2)

B = 120 I = 43.4· 106 mm 4

W = 310· laJ mm3
A = 4.44· 103 mm 2

Solution:
Critical section directly underneath the force of 6 tonnes. Flange buckling:
The mean stress over the flange is calculated from
M= 2.5' 48.6' 106 N mm
M
T = 2.5' 3.43 tonnes = 2.5' 34.3' 103 N al = -1- (H/2-t/2)

S 355 (BS 50) WElDOX 700

- 2.5' 48.6' 106 . (280/2 _ 8/2) al= 2.5' 48.6' 106 . (280/2 _ 6/2)
al - 54.6' 106 43.4· 106
a 1 = 302.5 N/mm2

ko = 4 according to table 4.4.1ljl =1

ael = 4·0.905·21· 104. ( 8

120-16-48
)2 ael = 4· 0.905' 21· 104. ( 120- ~2-36 )2

ael = 15514 N/mm 2 ael = 5279 N/mm2

a=

a = vi 350
15514
= 0.15 < 0.8 a= vi 700
5279 = 0.36 < 0.8

i.e. no risk of flange buckling

Web buckling:
The web is acted upon by both normal and shear stresses
M
a1= - (H/2 - t - Ri) (only the flat surface)
I

4:24
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

S 355 (BS 50) WELDOX 700

2.5' 48.6' 1<f (280 -8 -24 ) 2.5 . 48.6' 106 (280 _ 6 _ 18 )

2 2
6
54.6' 10 43.4' 106
al = 324 N/mm

T
r==~-=--
2· Aweb

2.5' 34.3' 103 2.5 . 34.3' 103

r= 2.b.8 r
2·b·6
b = 280 - 2·8 - 2· 24 = 216 b = 280 - 2 . 6 - 2 . 18 = 232
r = 24.8 N/mm2 r = 30.8 N/mm2

Symmetrical linearly varying bending stress 1/1 = - 1 gives ko = 24 according to table 4.4.1.

kr = 5.34+ 4' (+ y
kr = 534 + 4·
. (~)2
1000 kr = 5.34 + 4 ( :;~ y
kr = 5.52 kT = 5.55

= 2.80 .!:!....~ = 383 . 5.55 = 2.88

r ko 30.8 24

Figure 4.4.4 for 1/1 = - 1 gives s*

s* = 0.94 s* = 0.94

aj . S*
a·leI = a. eI' --'-
al

ael = 24.0.905. 21· 10 4. ( 8 )2 ael = 24 ,0.905, 21· 104 . (2~2 )2

216

ael = 6256 N/mm2 ael = 3050 N/mm2

aj = V 3832 + 3 . 30.82 = 387 NI mm 2

306 387 2
ajel = 6256· 302.5 . 0.94 = 5746 NI mm2 ajel = 3050· 383 . 0.94 = 2896 N/mm

a--[Ci;
, V 0;-

a =
.1350
V 5746 = 0.25 < 0.67 a
.fTciO
=V 2s96 = 0.49 < 0.67

No risk of buckling and WELDOX 700 can be exploited to the

full. The frame members are
2· (5100' (5.76-4.4)'103· 7800'10-9 )=
108 kg lighter/vehicle

4:25
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

Example 4.4.3 b =500 Os = 700 N/mm2 Nd =2.46.10 6 N

A stiffened 5 x 2 m panel consists of a number of smaller 500 which gives t = 10,3 mm, Le. t = 12 mm
x 1000 mm "free panels" of 14 mm SS 50 D steel. The panel
is subjected to a compressive load in its own plane and in the The entire panel will be (14 -12)·8· 10 = 160 kg lighter
longitudinal direction. The entire panel weighs 1.5 tonnes, of (8 kglm2 • mm)
which the plate (14 mm) weighs 1.12 tonnes. Dead load is a or"" 11% reduction
great problem.
Is it possible to reduce the dead load by using WELDOX 700 How much of the yield strength of WELDOX 700 is exploited?
without reducing the load-bearing capacity?
Gel = 4·0.905· 21· 104 (5~ Y= 437 N/mm2
Solution: a = ~
-
oo =
437
1.264
WELDOX 700 permits the use of thinner plate. Will buckling be
the limiting factor? Analysis of original free panel: adlas = 1.557 - 0.696' 1.264 = 0.687
Figure 4.4.7 Le. about 70%
a = 1000 Thus, WELDOX gives a lighter structure, despite the fact that its
yield strength cannot be fully exploited.

b = 500
Example 4.4.4
A panel made of S 355 in a structure subjected to a uniformly
- -__4 -____________________~__~_
- distributed compressive load will be subjected to severe over-
load.
Is it possible to sustain the overload better by switching to
WELDOX, despite the fact thatlthere is already a risk of buckling
with" S 355?
S 355 t = 14 mm The panel has the following dimensions:

ael = k,,' 0.905' E· (+ Y Figure 4.4.8

a = 1600

ka = 4 according to table 4.4.11/1 = 1 . .

a
ael = 4·0.905· 21· 104 (~)2 = 595 N/mm2 b = 980 •
t = 10

a = . ra; = -)350 = 0.766 .

Va; 595

according to table 4.4.2, a dla s = 1 when a. < 0.8.

We can therefore fully exploit the yield strength of SS 50 D. The Solution:
total load-bearing capacity of the panel is then
Nd = ad' t· b = 350· 14· 500 = 2.46· 106 N First calculate a for S 355

WELDOX 700
In order to be able to use WELDOX 700 (os = 700 N/mm2), we ka = 4 according to table 4.4.1 (1/1 = 1)
must make the panel more slender, i.e. a > 0.8.
Assume 0.8 < a 0::; 1.49, then adlas = 1.557 - 0.696' a.
according to table 4.4.2.
Gel =4' 0.905·21· 104 (91~0 Y= 79.1 N/mm2
a. = . r;;; = -) 350
Va; 79
= 2.1 (Le. fairly slender panel).

The failure stress in the postcritical region G mB according to

(4.4.10) is
This is then substituted in the equation from table 4.4.2 0.78
GmB = Gs'
3y;;2
2
Nd =1.557-0.696'.j- G S 'b 42
t'b'a s 4·0.905·21·1O·t GmB = 350 0.78 = 166 N/mm2
3v2.i:2
_1_ ~ + 0.696' b - / as 4 = 1.557
t (b'a s ) V 4·0.905·21·10 Nmax = amB . b· t = 166·980· 10 = 1.63· 106 N

4:26
 Static strength - Buckling of plates

Assume that we choose WELDOX 900 (as'" 900 N/mm2) as a If a comparison is made between corner-welded and bent box
suitable WELDOX steel. columns with a slenderness parameter of aab "'" 0.6, the bent
columns have an approximately 10% higher load-bearing capa-
city than corner-welded columns of the same plate thickness
a =
_/900
V 79.f = 3.37
and overall dimensions.

Example 4.4.5
A column of WELDOX 700 (as = 700 N/mm') is to have a length
L =: 3000 mm and overall dimensions of 0400 mm t = 12 mm.

Bending radius R = 36 mm A = 17511 mm 2 .

Nmax = 312·980· 10 = 3.07 . looN i.e. 88% greater load!
Calculate the maximum load with respect to local buckling l

Solution:
Interaction between !ocal buckling and overall
buckling alb= 0.5259' ~[ ~ -(2-\12)· (~-+ 1)]
The interaction between local buckling and overall buckling is
relatively complicated.
When a column fabricated from welded plates undergoes
alb= 0.5259- V -700
- - [400
21· 104
- ~ (3+ 1) ]
--(2-v2)·
12
overall buckling, we suspect that the "buckling failure" must
start locally. Overall buckling is initiated by local buckling. alb = 0.94
The buckling of e.g. a box column is a typical case of the
interaction between local buckling and overall buckling. a/as = 0.1 bent corners t = 12 mm
A simple calculation method for box columns based on
Ingvarsson's studies (63) of welded and bent columns of
aob= v'6. A ~~
WELDOX 700 (as = 700 N/mm') is given below. II V T
w
The calculation procedure is as follows:
1. Calculatealb Ib = local buckling. aob = -;;-'
v'6 V 700
21· 10 4
3000
400
2. Calculate or estimate the influence of welding residual
stresses a/a s. aob = 0.34
3. Calculate aob ob == overall buckling. Figure 4.4.10 givesokios = 0.78
4. Use one of the diagrams in figures 4.4.10 -11 in order to
determine Ok/as'
0s* = as
These diagrams are taken from (63) and apply for the EHS Ok = 700· 0.78 N/mm2
steel WELDOX 700 (as'" 700 N/mm').
Nk = 700 . 0.78' 17511 = 9.55 . looN
5. Max. column load Nk = Ok' A, where A = the cross-sectio-
nal area.
Figure 4.4.10
Local buckiingalb is calculated from the formulas in figure
4.4.9 for the relevant section. Ok/as

Figure 4.4.9
1.0
- r- -.,
~ \
0 1 I
I 0.1
I
r-
as -
r- ....... "
0.5
1,'/
-"
r- -. -......:: f:S ::....
"(j ~ ~ ~ "
'--- Euler
~ ::--.. f::: ~ ~,
O':f; L "" ~ §::: ::::-- ~ ~ ....r::::
/R
u,o ~ 0.5259' y?j.!i
E
alb = <
o.~~
0.8 -
1.0~
l.\~
f f-1.4// "'=: ::::::: ~
i - f-1.~1
-
"'"
-
t
0.9 1.2 l.8

I~ " ~ I: 0.0
w w 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
·1 Cl ob

Figure 4.4.11

The influence of welding residual stresses can be calculated as

described in the section "Buckling of columns" or estimated as -
r- -.,
r-. ~
r- t-..
\
,,
\ a:
-=0.2
as
I I
-
-
foHows:
For box columns with bent corners t max = 12 mm, a/as"'" 0.1
For box columns with welded corners with a maximum
-r- ~ ::---. '
r- r-- ~ :::-...'
-.....;
/'
Euler

throat thickness of 6 mm welded in one pass t max = 16 mm,

0.5 .... -..; F:: s: ~ ~ .
a/as ~ 0.2
aob for a square box column is calculated from:
alb = < g:l~ ~
l.qZ ~ -l.4/,/
i""~ ~ r---; ~ ~
f:: :::::: b- ""-
-. ....
0.8 r-- LV r-- -1.~/
aob= v'6.
II
V as
E
.~
W 0.0
0.9 l.2 l.8

0.0 0.5 l.0 1.5 2.0

where L = critical length aob

4:27
 The warping u is heavily dependent upon the cross-sectional
4.5 Torsion shape of the beam - cL figure 4.5.1. In this connection, it is
common to speak of
Page No. - warpfree cross-sections that consist of radially symmetriC
shapes
General discussion of torsion ........................................... 4:28
- quasi-warpfree cross-sections, including solid box, T-
Formulas and diagrams for calculation ............................ 4:28 and L-beams
Calculation examples 4:31 - warping cross-sections, including 1-, channel, C-, Z- and
Torsionally stiff - torsion ally flexible structures ...... ...... ..... 4:34 hat sections.
If free warping of the end cross-sections of the beam in figure
4.5.1 b) is prevented by means of some device such as an end
plate, this will give rise to normal stresses a w along the beam. In
the case of thin-walled sections, the warping normal stresso w is
calculated as follows:
0w = 0w (x,y,z) = EqJ "(x)w (y,z) (4.51)
where
E = Modulus of elasticity
w = the warping function, which in this case is equal to
the sectorial coordinate (more about this below)

"Ordinary torsion" (Saint-Venant torsion) is well known to most The external torque MT is generally taken up as Saint-Venant
shea~ stress~s 'tv and as Vlasov shear stresses two The corres-
designers and does not normally cause any problems in design.
What are almost completely unknown to most designers are ponding. portions of t~e torque MT are designated Mv and Mw,
the secondary stresses that arise in connection with torsion respectively. If both kinds are present at the same time this is
especially in open sections, at holes in closed sections etc. ' called mixed torsion. '
These secondary stresses are often very high and frequently The shear stresses 'tv and 'tw behave in fundamentally different
crucial in determining the strength of e.g. a welded jOint in the ways, tv forming closed shear stress trajectories and 'tw open
corner of a frame. ones - cf. figure 4.5.2
These high stresses call for the use of WElDOX steel in
order that plastic deformations in the structure may be Figure 4.5.2
prevented.
'Csv
This may seem at first glance to be a somewhat murky and
difficult subject, but with the aid of an analogy with 'ordinary"
beam bending, we have tried to simplify the analysis as much as
possible.

General discussion of torsion

y----
If a beam is loaded with a twisting moment (torque), a rotation
Ijl = Ijl (x) of the cross-section of the beam occurs, see figure
4.5.1.a. In addition to this torsion, a displacement also takes Msv
place perpendicular to the cross-section of the beam (except in
the case of radially symmetric cross-sections). This phenomenon
i~ called warping and is designated here by u = U (v,y,z), see
figure 4.5.l.b.

Figure 4.5.1 Shear stresses in connection with

a. Saint-Venant torsion
a) b. Vlasov torsion
Cl' (xl
The following relationships apply for the partial torques Msv and
Mw:
, MSY= GKyqJ' (4.5.2)
Mw = - (EKwp")' (4.5.3)
where
G· = Shear modulus = E12Cl + v)
E = Modulus of elasticity
b) Kv = Section factor with respect to torsional stiffness
~;:::::==~--------------7~ (see table 3.1)
Kw = Section factor with respect to warping stiffness
(see table 3.2.)
qJ = Angle of twist
qJ', qJ ", qJ '" ':" dp/dx, etc.

The following relationship applies for mixed torsion:

MT = Mv + Mw = GKvqJ' - (EKwqJ")' (4.5.4)
In special cases, either My or Mw is almost completely dominant.
In such cases, the analysis can be performed on the basis of
equation (4.5.2) if Mv is dominant and equation (4.5.3) if Mwis
a) Radially symmetric closed cross-section - no warping (Saint-
dominant.
Venantl. Beams with a solid or closed thin-walled cross-section can be
b) Open thin-walled cross-section - considerable warping assumed to undergo only Saint-Venant torsion, which means
(Vlasov). that the analysis can be based on equation (4.5.2).

4:28
 Static strength - Torsion

The value of the following parameter is studied for beams VI<l50\l torsion:
with open thin-walled cross-sections:
Equation (4.5.3) gives the following equilibrium relationship -
(4.5.5) cf. equation (4.5.6):
(EKwcp ")" = mT (4.5.10)
Akesson (67) recommends the following limits for application
of the simpler relationships (4.5.2) and (4.5.3t The symbol B = bimoment is used for the quantity - EKwlf'''.
Equation (4.5.2) - only Saint-Venant torsion - can be assu-
med to apply when {J vL;;;. 15. The following relationship applies between Mw and B:
Equation (4.5.3) - only Vlasov torsion - can be assumed to
apply when fl yL < 0.7 Mw = B' (4.511)
When 0.7 < {J v L < 15, mixed torsion is assumed to exist and
equation (4.5.4) is used. Equation (4.5.10) is the same type of relationship that applies
In figure 4.5.3, the ratio Mw/Mwfl v L = 0 is given as func- for bent beams:
tions of {J v L, which can also be characterized by different cross- (EIW")" =q (4.512)
section types.

An analogy exists between

Figure 4.5.3 Vlasov torsion and Analogue "bent" beam

Warping with Warping without Angle of twist w Deflection

Mw If'
warping restraint warping restraint B Bimoment M Bending moment
MwllvL=O (Vlasov) (Saint-Venant)
Mw Torque T Transverse force
1.0
....... EKw Warping stiffness El Bending stiffness
~
0.8 Uniform distributed torque q Uniform distributed load
0.6 "" , mo
mT
Mo Concentrated torque P Point load
I'\.
04 ti£.fff.f..&:.
0.2
o.1 0.2 0.4 0.8

Shape C [
0.6
2

I
--
4 6 810 20 4060 100

o
80
Mixed torsion
In this case also, an analogous structure in the form of a bent
beam under tension with a tensile force = GK v, bending stiff-
ness =
EKw and transverse load = mr can be studied. For a
closer analysiS of this case, see Akesson (67). See also example
The torque ratio Mw/Mwflv L = 0 as a function of{Jv L accor-
4.5.3.
ding to Kollbrunner, Basler 1969 (72).

Example 4.5.1
A C-beam is fixed at one end and has a clevis joint at the other
end. The beam is acted upon by a concentrated torque Mo at
midspan. Determine the maximum rotationcp if Mo = 100 kNIT!
Solution of the equations
Certain analogies with bent beams can be used to solve the Figure 4.5.4
above equations.

Saint-Venant torsion: A
My = GKvCP' (4.5.2)
1=4000
If the beam is acted upon by a distributed torque mT =
D1T(x), the following equilibrium relationship applies:

(4.5.6) Solution
First determine whether a simplified analysis according to
which, together with .(4.5.2), gives equation (4.5.3) can be performed. In order for this to be
possible,fiv L~ 0.7.
m1 =- (GKvcp'), (4.5.7)
flv L = L V GK/EK w
At constant torsional stiffness GK v, equation (4.5.7) can be
written t 3 10 3
Ky =-
3 l II = -[2000
3 + 300)+ 400] =
(4.5.8)
= 4· 105 mm4
The following equilibrium relationship applies for a bent beam:
Kw is determined with the aid of figure 4.5.20
M" =-q (4.5.9)
~ = 100 = 0.25
The equations (4.5.8) and (4.5.9) are analogous, and for the a 400
same boundary conditions, the angle of twist <p and the torque My
can be obtained as the bending moment M and the shear force T ~= 300 = 0.75
in an analogous bent beam acted upon by a notional load q = a 400
mT/GKv and q = mT, respectively. The concentrated torque Mo is
=
replaced by notional point loads <p' MoIGKy and P = Mo, From the figure, we obtain
respectively.
This analogy means that tables and diagrams for bent beams ~5
= 0.085
given in handbooks can be used in the analysis. ta
 Static strength - Torsion

Kw = 0.085' 10· 4005 = 8.7· 1012 mm6 VI .. so\, torsion for thin-walled open cross-section
G = E/2(1 + v) = E/2(1 + 0.3) = E/2.6 Both shear stresses Twand normal stresses a w arise in connec-
tion with Vlasov torsion as a result of the torque Mw and the
bimoment B = - EKwcp ", respectively.
flv L = Lv'GKy/EK w =
In general, the following applies:
= 4000 V4· 105 /2.6' 8.7· 1012 = 0.53
B(x)
a w (x,s) = -K- W (s) (4.5.14)
When {:J v L < 0.7, the beam undergoes virtually only Vlasov w
torsion, and a calculation can be based on equation (4.5.3). where
Mw = - EKw qJ '" (EK w = Constant) a w = the warping normal stress (assumed to be constant over
the wall thickness t (s) )
The following boundary conditions apply: x = longitudinal coordinate of the beam
qJ (0) = 0 qJ (l) = 0 s = curvilinear coordinate of the cross section
• qJ' (0) =0 qJ" (l) = 0 B = - EKwqJ "= the bimoment

The beam analogy is used to solve the problem. The boundary Kw = section factor with respect to warping stiffness
conditions for the analogous beam are: w = standardized sectorial coordinate of the cross section
w (0)= 0 w (l) =0
w' (0)= 0 w" (l) = 0 The largest warping normal stress
which, expressed in verbal terms, means a beam which is
rigidly clamped at one end and simply supported at the other.
a \!]ax is calculated from:
The maximum angle of twist is now obtained as the deflection max
wmax of the beam with El = EKw which is loaded with a point Ow (4.5.15)
load P = Mo at midspan.
where

Ww = Kw~ w I max (4.516)

Figure 4.5.5

! P=M o
Values of Ww are given for some different cross sections in table
4.5.2.
8
~ EI=EKw 715};- The warping shear stresses Tw caused by the torque Mw can be
calculated from:

I~ L
./ TW(X,S)= - (4.5.17)
real beam analogous beam
where
Tw = the warping shear stress (assumed to be constant over
From a handbook we obtain: the wall thickness t (5) )

PL3 Sw = the sectorial static moment.

w max = 107E I -> qJ max =
The sign convention for Tw is that Tw (s) is considered to be
positive when it is in the direction of the positive curvilinear
Substituted numerical values give: coordinate.
100· 106 . 40003 Expressions for the calculation of extreme values of Sw are
qJ max = given in table 4.5.2. The directions of TW are also given in the
107· 2.1' 105 . 8.7· 1012
diagrams in table 4.5.2.

= 0.033 fad = 1.9°

Mixed torsion
Tv • T wand 0 ware calculated after M v' Mw and B have been
determined.

Calculation of stresses caused by a torque

Saint-Venant torsion
The maximum shear stress T ~ax occurs somewhere along the
boundary of the cross-section and is calculated from:
Summary of calculation procedure for beam
T M
max = _v_ torsion
v Wv
- Determine the type of loading and the end conditions
(boundary conditions).
Mv = torque
- Determine the type of torsion involved - Saint-Venant, Vlasov
Wv = elastic section modulus in torsion of the cross- or mixed torsion.
section - Determine the section forces (My, Mw etc) and deformation
(rp ).
Table 4.5.1 gives values of Wy and the position ofT~ax for
some common cross-sections. - Determine the stresses (r y. Tw,Owl.

4:30
 Static strength - Torsion

Example 4,5.2 Sw31 = 0.25(0.163 + 0.456)/2 = 0.0774

Determine the maximum shear stressT~ax and the maximum la
warping normal stressa~ax for the beam in example 45.1.

SW32 = 0.0774 + [(0.75 -0.425)/2]0.163 = 0.1039

la
Solution:
The beam analogy gives the following torque and bimoment
distributions (Mw corresponds to the shear force T in the analo- SW33 = 0.1039 - 0.425· 0.213/2 = 0.0586
gous beam and B corresponds to the bending moment M). la

The following is obtained from a handbook:

SW4 = 0.213 _ 0.0586 = _ 0.0054
ta 3 4
Figure 4.5.6
Equation (4.5.17) now gives

t
r=M o

L
1-------=-----<--1
tEl.",
Largest torque
T max =
w
11
1:6. 100· 106 . 0.1039' 10· 400=
8.7 . 10 12 . 10
= 53 N/mm2
Mw (T)
11
11
16' Mo Equations (4.5.15) and (4.5.16) give
Mo
16

3
a ~ax = ill = 16". 100· 10 6
. 4000 = 629 N/mm2
Ww 119· 106
B (M)

.l.. MoL 3
16 I B Imax = 16 Mo' L
Example 4.5.3
Rectangular hollow section, with opening in wall, acted upon
by a twisting moment.

Figure 4.5.8
5
32 Mol

The following is obtained from table 4.5.2, case 4, and figure

4.5.19 (a = h):
-- Mo
~ = 0.425 e = 0.425· 400 = 170
a

Figure 4.5.7 I .. •I
b=300 Section A-A

,------
I"
a

e = 170 ~~
I. b .. I
The part of the section that contains the opening can be
regarded as a beam of open cross section which is prevented
~ = 0.425 = 0.213 from warping at the point of transition to the parts of the beam
i 2 with a closed cross section. This is a simplified approach. since
adjacent parts of the beam are not completely rigid in practice
(0.75-0.425) =0.163 and therefore permit some warping. This simplified approach
2 causes the warping normal stresses to be overestimated while
the rotation is underestimated.
In applying the beam analogy, the case is equivalent to a
Wia = 0.163 + 0.25 (0.75 + 0.425) = 0.456 beam rigidly restrained at both ends, at one of the supports of
which there is settlement.

4:31
 Static strength - Torsion

Figure 4.5.9
~ Mo
In the case in question, N = GKv

J ~2
EI=EKw

.... __ , 2
A better value OfqJ2 is now obtained from

1
1+

which, after substitution in the above expression for the

bimoment B, gives
If,By L ~ 0.7 (cf. example 4.5.1), the case can be treated as
one of pure Vlasov torsion.

Owing to symmetry, the following is obtained directly:

Figure 4.5.10 For the stated limit,Bv l = 0.7, the above expression becomes

B = 0961 Mo' 11
. 2
B
i.e. the bimoment is overestimated in this case by 4 % if pure
Vlasov torsion is assumed.
The following applies for the torque:

Mw 11 I 11 I lfJ I I I 11 I SinceqJ' = 0 at the support, we therefore have a situation where

M~ax = Mo

If mixed torsion is assumed to be involved, i.e. 0.7 <,Bv L < 15,

the case can be analyzed using the beam-column analogy, see M v reaches a maximum at midspan
Akesson (67). In the beam-column analogy, the analogous
beam is also acted upon by an axial tensile force = GK y, and
changes in the geometry of the system are taken into account (a
problem of the second order). An approximate variant of this qJ '3 can be determined from the relationship
analogy will be shown below.
The left half of the beam is studied. qJ'3=8 1 +8 2

Figure 4.5.11 The following applies approximately:

81+8 2 "" B (1/2) + B (1/2) = ~= Mo 121

3EKw 6EKw 4EKw 8EKw
which gives

After B, Mw and Mv have been determined, the stresses can be

An equilibrium equation that takes into account the changes in calculated in the same way as illustrated in example 4.5.2.
the geometry of the system gives A numerical example of 'Cl case with a hole in the beam wall
B = Moll!2 -GK vqJ2!2 (see example 4.5.4) is given below.

In order for the bimoment B to be determined, qJ 2 must be

known.
If the axial load GK y is not taken into account, the following
relationship applies:
I1 3
qJz _ Mo (-2-) _ Mo 113
2- 3EKw -->qJ2- 12EKw

Owing to the axial tensile force GK v , however, the displacement

qJz is reduced. The following relationship can be used here:

which applies approximately to beams acted upon simultaneous-

ly by axial and transverse load. Wo is the deflection due to
transverse load alone, N is the normal force and NE is the
buckling load.

4:32
 Static strength - Torsion

Example 4.5.4 When we have pure Vlasov torsion, example 4.5.3 shows
The frame of an off-road haulage vehicle consists of a closed B = Mo' Ll
tube of dimensions given below. 2
A crane is mounted on the front of the frame and the axle
suspension on the rear.
The crane gives rise to a moment (15 tonne-metres) in the
frame, which is to be transmitted to the ground via the frame
and the axle suspension. The crane also causes a shear force of The warping shear stress is
two tonnes and the load 10 tonnes.
A hole has been made in the frame as shown in figure 4.5.12 Mw . SWmax
in order to provide access to equipment located inside the r max
frame tube. w Kw' t
Calculate the stresses at the edge of the hole!

The warping normal stress is

Figure 4.5.12 a max _ I BI

W
- WWmin

First calculate Sw max from table 4.5.2, case 4, and figure 4.5.19
(a = h).

E = ela = 0.490
y = cia = 0.125
P= bla = 1.0

FtJO~m:~. From table 4.5.2, case 4 (a = h):

I.. b .1
~ = 0.490 = 0.245
a = 400 mm 2 i 2
b = 400 mm
c = 50 mm
1.0 - 0.49 = 0.255
2
Solution
Which type of torsion dominates? W3 = w2 + y (P + E) i

Investigate the parameterpy' L = L1 · V GK y

EKw
Wia = 0.255 + 0.125(1.0 + 0.49) = 0.441

f 83 y . a' t
Kv = 3"" . I li = ""3 (50 + 400 + 400 + 400 + 50) =
2
= 2.219' 105 mm 4

Kw is obtained from figure 4.5.21

-+
s.u
ta
0.125
= - - (0.255
2
+ 0.441) = 0.0435

cia = ~ = 0.125 bla = 1.0 s.u2 = ~ 1+ [ (f3 -E) a . tl2] . W 2

400

~2 1.0-0.49
~5
= 0.092 - = 0.0435
ta 3
+ (
2
) . 0.255 = 0.109
ta

Kw = 0.092' 8· 4005 = 7.536' 10 12 mm6

E s.u = 0.109 -
~
0.49
- - . 0.245 = 0.0490
G = 2.6 for steel ta 2

2.219' 105
Pv' L = 400· -2.-6-'-7-.5-36-'-1-0"12;- = 0.042 < 0.7

~4 0.245
.: Pure Vlasov torsion.
-= - - -0.0490 = 0.0123
ta 3 4

433
 Static strength - Torsion

-~- = 0.109 is greatest and occurs in the middle of the Ix""

t . a3
---r2+ 2· b· t
a2
4+ 2
[t. c3
12+ t· c·
t· a3 horizontal parts, see figure table 4.5.2, case 4

== 3.233' 108 mm 4
Mv' ~umax
T max
w Kw' t
WXA2 = ~ = 2.155' 106 mm3

T max
15· 107 • 0.109'8.4003
= 138 N/mm2 T- c
w
7.536' 10 12 • 8
M
abA2= ~ = 38,6 N/mm2
Sw 1 applies at points A 1 and A2 WXA2

TwAI, A2 = 138,
0.0435
0.109 == 55 N/mm
2 atotA2 = 38.6 + 281 = 319 N/mm2

We see that the torsion makes the greatest contribution

a max = _I_BI_ tOOtotA2'
w Wwmin
°
If we had not included w, we would have made a large
underestimate ofa at point A2!
_ Kw _ ~= 7.536'10 12 Hint: do not locate any welds in sections through Al and A2.
Wwmin - w max - W3 0.441· 400" Do as shown in figure 4.5.14, for example.

Figure 4.5.14

max =
ow 15' 107 . 400 = 281 N/mm2
1.068· 108 . 2

W3 applies at the point AI, A2

/
Large radii
.,' the following applies for the points Al and A2

o max = 281 N/mm2

w

The frame is simultaneously subjected to bending, and the

normal stresses can be added.
Our warping normal stresses will therefore be added to the
bending normal stresses! ,
Calculate the bending moment Mb in the section through Al
and A2 No transverse joints within this region
.\
Figure 4.5.13
5000
2200
.. 1000
. Torsionally stiff - torsionally flexible

2 ton
. 1500 "1400 300
10 tonnes
Careful thought and planning is important when connecting or
anchoring beams subjected to torsion,
i ! The example in figure 4,5.15 is taken from reI. (65).

t 3.28 tonnes
!
I I
I
8.72 tonnes t Figure 4.5.15
Front wheels Al A2 Bogie centre

.,' The bending moment is greatest in the section through A2.

Calculate ob at the point A2

I x (section through A2)

4,3;1
 Static strength - Torsion

Design a) appears natural, since the flanges are "available". If torsionally stiff elements are to be used, the transitions
This design results in a beam that is alternately open and closed must be gradual and the stresses must be checked.
with very high warping stressesa w at the points marked x. A transition between an open and a closed section should be
This often results in fatigue cracks as shown in figure b. The made as shown below.
design has relatively high torsional stiffness.
Design c) permits warping and does not give at all the same
G w as design al.
Design c) is extremely torsionally flexible. Figure 4.5.18
The designer should give careful thought to which solution is
best from a functional point of view, the torsional!y stiff or the
torsionally flexible alternative.

The designer can choose between stiff and flexible alternatives

at points of attachment as well, as illustrated in the case below,
taken from ref. (66).

Figure 4.5.16

x
h
Figure 4.5.19
C - section of constant wall thickness

I. I
=t
b ..

In other words, welded all around.

In the alternative shown below, only the web and the wedges
have been welded to the end plate and the flanges have been
cut at an angle to permit warping.
a +-.-----
Figure 4.5.17
23.5
~I
1 . 5 , . - - - - - , - - - - - y - - - - , - - - - , - - - - , b/a
0.0524 rad
l _ _--,2.5

e
a

L_----12.0

I. 1.0-l----+~..:::::;.-+---_+--__!r_-__I

lx .. - 1 _ - - - ; 1. 5

_~--"""Il. 0
.9
0.5-+----b~.:::::::::=-b___ c::::::::::+-=-_F=====l .8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
The case with the flanges free gives approx. 50% lower 0.0;-----11----+----1----+------1
a max and an approx. 40% more torsionally flexible beam + 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 c 0.5
attachment. a

4:35
 Static strength - Torsion
Figure 4.5.20 figure 4.5.21
C - section of constant wall thickness C - section of constant wall thickness

5.00
4.00
3.00 Kw
Tii5
.0 50 -t-~t_-<...c....,-+",c-+_-?"'I---lf_7"'-t--+:rL_-t---;
2.00
.040+---;;~~-/~~~-~~--_+~-t--+-~

1.50 .030+---~~r-~--;;~",c-+_--~-+---r~T-~

. 500+--+--::7'-F--+-:::".-qr--;jo~
4 OOI-F'--+_--lr""'-t--::o'f£--t-:7'''4- ,-J:,--t---;;>F--:;:j

.300-F'--+--b"""-t---l".-q-t-:ri--

.050+----""'-t---t£--t-''''----r--'''''t---+-'''---t--+'''--t--;
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 c O.S
a

. OOOS'i--'--t--I-"---l---t---t---t--+--t---lr--l
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 04 c O.S
11

4:36
 Static strength - TO;SIon

Table 4.5.1
I
KVI Wv and Zv for beam cross sections Excerpt from reference 67. I
Symbols

Kv = section factor of Saint-Venant torsional stiffness GK, Oength4 ) d<p1dx = M/GKy I

W, '" elastic section modulus in torsion (length 3 ) 'max = M/W,
lv = plastic section modulus in torsion (Iengtth Mf = W,Ts
f max '" maximum shear stress according to elastic theory (iorce/length 2 ) Mp = l,.s
t's = shear stress at yield
M = Saint-Venant twisting section moment (force' length)
Mr '" twisting section moment at incipient yield
Mp = yield moment for elastic - ideally - plastic material

Cross-section with the position of K, W, Z,

T rnax marked and description of
position ofT max

nd4 132 =.n:f 12 .n:d3 116 =.n:~ 12 ;rd 3 1l2 = m~ 13

1 Solid circle

d = 2r
0h=2,j Along the entire circumference

2 Solid rectangle cl hf c2 hi' (hi' 12)(1 - tl3h)

In the middle of the long sides

Oi
\-!-l
hit

Cl
c2
c3
0.141
0.208
1.000
1 1,5
0.196
0.231
0.858
2
0.229
0.246
0.796
4
0.281
0.282
0.745
0.307
0.307
0.743
8 20
0.323
0.323
0.743
'"
0.333
0.333
0.743

3 Open cross section composed of
arbitrary number of thin-walled
parts, each of constant wail thick-
ness t
cjlh j ti3 13 K,/t max c2lhi t,2 12
The factor cl corrects for the con- Stress concentration in concave
c2 = 1,0 - 1,2
ditions at the connection between corners at the connections between
parts of the cross-section. If the parts of the cross-section has been

:,~~
parts of the cross-section are rec- ignored. Along the boundary on the
tangular and more than two in num- thickest part.
ber, the following is obtained for steel-
beams of normal wall thickness:

I, ~ \l1.J
Cl = 1.05 -1.15. For L-sections,
cl"'" LOO, for U-sections Cl "" 1.12
and for H-sections Cl "" 1.30

4 Thin-walled circular ring of con-

stant wall thickness t ;rd3 tl4 = 2n~ t .n:d2 tJ2 = 2nr2 t = W,

.~
Along the entire wall.

5 Thin-walled rectangle of constant

wall thickness t 2a2b2 tI(a + b) 2abt = W,
Stress concentration at the inside

~3
I-L...l
corners has been ignored. Along the
entire wall.

6 Thin-walled ring of arbitrary

shape, of varying wall thickness t Bredl's second formula: Bredt's first formula: = W,
4A2 1<1> (l/tlds

~
A is the area within the dashed mid- 2Atmin
At the thinnest part of the wall

.,:;"
line

7 Thin-walled rectangle of varying

g13
wall thickness 4ib2 2abt min = W,
!(blt 1 + alt 2 + blt3 + a/(4)
Stress concentration at the inside
I1

I...-LlJ
corners has been ignored. Along the
entire thinnest wall. I
I

8 Symmetrical two-celled thin-wai-

led cross section with wall in
plane of symmetry
S~m
The cross section behaves in torsion as if the midwall did not exist. Use the formulas for cross sections 4,6 and 7.

DOl
4:37
 Static strength - Torsion

Table 4.5.2

Kw, WW1 Zw, (jJ (s) and Sw (5) for open thin-walled beam cross sections Excerpt from ref. 67
Three end views of a positive cross-sectional surface are shown below for
each type of cross section. The geometry of the cross section is defined in
Symbols
the first; thew (s) diagram is shown in the second and the Sw (5) diagram
= section factor with respect to warping stiffness (length 5 ) is shown in the third. A positive bimoment B gives tensile stressesow (5)
= elastic warping resistance (length 4 ) where the w (5) diagram has been marked with plus signs and compressive
= plastic warping resistance (length 4 ) stresses where the diagram has been marked with minus signs. A positive
w '" standardized sectorial coordinate (length 2) Vlasov twisting moment Mw gives shear stresses r w (s) which on the
Sw = sectorial static moment Oength4) positive cross-sectional surface are directed as shown by the arrows in the
TP = centroid 5", d iagra m.
VC = centre of torsion The diagrams are drawn for the case where the given algebraic expres-
sions for the ordinatesw; and 5",;. i = 1.2 ... give a result with a positive
sign. The formulas for Kw apply even il these expressions give a result
with a negative sign.

Bisymmetric I-section
Kw = b3 h2t b 124

l
bh~:,aIbOla
_~,htbfl6 = I, (h/2t
Ww = b2 htb/6 = W2 h/2
_ w(s) _ Sw~s) Zw = b2htb 14 = Z, h/2
, bh/4
b,ht./16

2 Unisymmetric I-section
Kw =Ioh~+Iuhu2

~~o J: :,:r~:~la = tu b u3 112

_ b 2,hoto/B 10 = to ba 112 hu = h - ha
t'l~:vvcc-
Y-; TIP hu h W(S) Sw(s)
ha =[lu/(Ia+1u)Jh

tu h Ww = minimum of 2Kw Iba ha and 2Kv/b u hu

, buhu/2 b'uhutu/B Zw = minimum of hb/ tu f4 and hb u2 tu 14

~
3 Symmetrical channel section of constant wall thickness in each part
Kw = b2 h2tb (2b-3e)/12 Ww = K.,Iw2
patrabOlaS.. 1
Wl + 5",2 e = 3b2 tb 1(6btb + hth )
+ e - W2 t e--
Zw = hb2 tb 12 and e p = 0 for 4bt h .;; hth
W(S) S.. (S): S",2
Zw = ep h2 t h /4+ !htb/21[ep2+ (b-epfjand
+ r)2 S,,,2
S",1 ep = (4btb - hth) 18tb for 4bt b > hth
wl = eh/2 5",1 = (b - er htb 14
w2 =\b-e)h/2 5",2 = (b - 2e) bhtb 14

4 Symmetrical channel section with turned-in edge stiffeners and constant wall thickness (C-section)

E '
Parabola
Kw = (htl3)[(1 + 2,) Wj 2 + 2 ({3 + l' -dw22
C=:~h '" + 21'w3 (W2 + (3)]
t V + TP h ",(S) e =.8[21'(3-41'2)+ 3.81 f[l + 21'(41'2-61' + 3)+ 6{3]
Y l 12
- (1'1 Ww = Kw1w3
~I
e=. b=/I h
5",1 = (1'htl2) (W2 + (3)

wl = fh2 12 5",2 = 5",1+ [(.8 -Elhtl2] w2

W2 = (.8 -e) h2 /2 5",3 = 5",2 - (ehtl2)w 1
W3 = W2 + l' (.8 + El h2 5",4 = (htl4)Wl-~3

5 Polar-symmetric Z-section with turned-in edge stiffeners and constant wall thickness
Kw =(htl3[(3+2~)wI2+2!.8+1'-~)wl
+ 21'w 3 (W2 +(3)]
~ =.8[.8 + 21'(1 +1')]/[1 + 2(.8 +l'~
= ~h Ww =Kw 1w 3
WI = ~h2/2 5",1 = (1'htl2)(W2 + (3)
W2 = (.8 -~ lh2 12 5",2 = 5",1 + [(.8 -~)ht 12Jw 2
w3 =wz+1'.8h 2 5",3 = 5",2 - (~ht 12)w 1

6 Polar-symmetric Z-section 01 constant wall thickness in each part

Kw = b2 h2 tb .(2b - 31) 112 Ww = K.,Iw2
= b2 tI(2bt b + hth)
~~ Zw =hb2 tb 12 and Ip.= 0 for 2btb ';;ht h
Y-VC=TPr:
t~h!2\ Zw = Iph 2 t h/2+ !htb/21[fp2+ (b-fptl and

I'b I b I If'2
Ip = (2bt b - hthl 14tb lor 2bt b > hth

wl = Ih 12 5", I = (b - It htb 14
W2 = (b-flh/2 5",2 = (b - 21) bhtb 14

4:38
 Splicing of beams with different web depths
4.6 Location and strength
Figure 4.6.3
of welds
Page No.
General discussion of weld location and weld design ....... 4:39
Static strength of welds ....................................... :........... 4:40
Calculation of stresses in welds ... .................................... 4:40
Soft zones ...................... .............. ............................ ....... 4:41
Filler material for WELDOX and HARDOX steels................... 4:42
Tensile test results with different welded joints, filler
materials, heat inputs and plate thicknesses for
WELDOX and HARDOX steels...................... .............. 4:43
Formulas for different types of welded joints .................... 4:45
Predominantly Dynamic normal load
static normal load

Design and location of welds

What is said below is applicable to all weldable structural steels,
but jf WELDOX and HARDOX steels are to be utilized to the
greatest advantage, even more thought must be given to weld Predominantly static moment
location and weld design than in the case of ordinary steels. This
is mainly because of the problem of fatigue at welds, the possibili-
ty of using welding electrodes intended for softer steels (under-
matching) and the fact that location of welds in areas with lower
stresses reduces the danger associated with weld defects.
The structure should be designed with smooth, gradual tran-
sitions for the flow of forces, and the welds should be located in
regions of low stress and designed to give a low notch effect.
The structure should be designed so that it is easy to deter-
mine the pathways for the flow of forces, which often results in an
attractive appearance and also facilitates calculations.
Access must be provided for both welding and the inspection
of welds during the service life of the structure in order to permit
the early detection of fatigue cracks. Dynamic moment
Some examples of the above:

Figure 4.6.1

Figure 4.6.4
-,--- r

Welding defects resulting from welding in inaccessible positions.

/\
Better weld design Ordinary weld design

Figure 4.6.2

Example of favourable welding conditions

 Static strength - location and strength of welds

If excessive deflection is a problem, this qm be counteracted by
cambering, for example by means of a suitable welding sequen-
ce. Good information on welding sequences and weld deforma-
tions is provided in (23).
Figure 4.6.5 unloaded
There are many reasons for this:
- The designer has succeeded in locating the welds in regions
of low stress.
- Softer filler materials are less susceptible la cracking during
welding and do not require preheating to the same extent.
- Filler materials with lower yield strengths are cheaper per kg

p
of weld metal, and the assortment is wider, especially for

~
submerged-arc welding.
- Welding shops are familiar with electrodes for ordinary steels,
and their assortment of electrodes in stock does not have to
~Ioaded be broadened just because they start to use WELDOX and
HARDOX steels.

t
When quenched and tempered or hardened steels are welded,

15 a certain zone adjacent to the weld will be tempered (softened)

by the heat of welding. Many designers have therefore asked
whether it is really possible to utilize the high strength of the
parent metal in the welded joint. These questions are dealt with
in this chapter.
Figure 4.6.6

Weld close to the neutral layer on beams in flexure. See the

chapter on load application and the chapter on fatigue Calculation of stresses in welds in general
(examples 5.5.5,5.3.7,5.112). Stresses in welds can be calculated in two principal ways:
a) For butt welds and complete penetration fillet welds see

) figure 4.6.8.
b) For fiUet welds, see figure 4.6.9.

Figure 4.6.8

Figure 4.6.7

Note that welds that do not transmit any appreciable force can
nevertheless cause fatigue failure for example in the beam on
which they are placed.
Figure 4.6.9

Fatigue cracks

a = throat thickness

-'--_ _ _ _-+_--':: G,

Static strength of welds

A load is' considered to be static in accordance with most
standards and codes when the number of load cycles is less
than 103 - 104 . Information on the static strength values of
welds is therefore needed.
The yield strength of the mixed weld metal obtained when
welding C and CMn steels is often around 500 N/mm 2 .
This makes it easy to meet the requirement of many stan-
dards that "The weld metal shall have a strength at least equal
to that of the parent metal", since the yield stresses of the Figure 4.6.10
standardized structural steels are < 500 N/mm 2 •
The situation is different when WELDOX and HARDOX steels
are welded, since these steels can readily be welded with filler
material intended for C, CMn and grain-refined steels as well as
with electrodes that give a yield strength of 700 N/mm2 and, in
som cases, higher.
Basic rule: Don't choose a filler material with a higher
strength than is absolutely necessary.

4:40
 Static strength - Location and strength of welds

Thus, according to a) the stress in joints with complete weld Figure 4.6.13 WELDOX 700, 20 mm
penetration which are in tension is equal to the nomiilal stress Submerged arc NiCrMo 2.5, {3 4 mm OK 10.61
in a structural cross section.
In the case of fillet welds, the stress components have to be h
added together according to some formula to arrive at an equi-
valent stress or similar.
crj
2 _.?
=Ou<+0J..--ou·0J.. + 3TH
2
+ 3TJ..
2
ref8
CA:l1 1.7 kJ/mm
4 passes

the stipulation being that 350~------~--------~------------

0i :::; a perm and, at the same time, no individual stress compo-

nents may exceed a perm'
Formulas for stress calculation for the most common types of
welded joints are presented in table 4.6.1, which is taken from
(65).
When it comes to the welding of WELDOX and HARDOX steels, OB = 880 N/rnrn2
and when it is absolutely necessary to have the same strength 10 mm (weld reinforcement left on)
in the weld as in the parent metal, filler material can be selected
with the aid of figure 4.6.15, which is taken from our welding
brochure.
Since a certain relationship exists between hardness (HB)
Soft zones and ultimate tensile strength
As was mentioned above, it is possible in many cases to use
filler metal of lower strength than the parent metal (under-
matching). These undermatched weld metals, together with the
heat-affected zone created by the welding process, form soft
zones in the welded joint, which bring to mind the concept of the hardness curve (HVlO) also reflects the strength.
the "weakest link". What strength do we get when we weld Tensile tests with the weld reinforcement left on gave OB =
hardened and quenched-and-tempered steels, and what 880 N/mm2, which well covers the guaranteed value for
strength is it possible to achieve with undermatching weld metal WELDOX 700 (780 N/mm2).
in WELDOX and HARDOX steels? The strength requirement is met even at a higher heat input of
A soft zone can be compared to a piece of rubber glued be- 2.5 kJ/mm, as is evident from figure 4.6.14. At higher heat in-
tween two pieces of steel, as shown in figure 4.6.11 a. Under a puts, the toughness of the welded joint is lower (see also section
tensile load, the piece of rubber assumes a shape as shown in entitled "Toughness-brittleness"). As was mentioned above, there
4.6.11 b. It has basically the same shape in cross section as well. can be certain advantages to using undermatched filler material.
As has also been shown, smaller plate thicknesses give softer
Figure 4.6.11 and wider heat-affected zones.

Figure 4.6.14 WELDOX 700

Submerged arc NiCrMo 2.5, {3 4 mm OK 10.61

h
~t
~' ~~L
2.5kJ/mm

____ _ _ _ _-
__-_-P
LO-J
We can see that the state of stress is triaxial, and sense
instinctively that the pieces of steel help to prevent excessive
constriction of the piece of rubber.
We also understand that if the soft zone is narrow in relation
to the plate thickness, the joint can sustain a greater load than if
it is wide.
Thus, many factors are involved in determining the strength of OB = 805 N/mm2
the soft zone. These factors are enumerated in figure 4.6.12. lOmm (weld reinforcement left on)

Figure 4.6.12 OL-----------------------------------

Approximately 400 tensile tests have been carried out with
varying plate thickness, filler metal, heat input and joint type on
WELDOX 700 and HARDOX 400 (no preheating) to provide a body
of data to serve as a basis for design work.

- The ultimate tensile strength of the parent metal a Bp'

- The ratio of the ultimate tensile strength of the soft zone to
that of the parent metal, a Bsla Bp'
- The size of the soft zone in relation to the other dimensions,
hit and h/w.
- The capacity of the soft zone to undergo strain hardening
a- Efl.

The strength and size of the heat-affected zone is influenced by

the plate thickness and the heat input (kJ/mm).
The thinner the plate, the wider and softer the zone. Figure
4.6.13 shows that the heat-affected zone is about 3 mm wide for
the submerged-arc welding of 20 mm WELDOX 700, at a rate of
1. 7 kJ/mm, In 4 passes.
 Static strength - location and strength of welds

Figure 4.6.15 Figure 4.6.1501

GAS METAL MC WElD!NG Wire electrode! (MiG-MAGl
Filler materials for
WELDOX and
.,
~~~ ... ... 500 ...
Approximate yield atrenqth (MPa)
100 ...
EA12(JS..X
HARDOX. Mmnuteetul1H'
ER70$.X ERaOS-X
ERIOS-X
EA100s !:A110S·X

Note! Only when filler BOHlEA EMK8 2.5Ni-!G NiCrMo2,5-\G

NiMo1·!G X70-!G X90-IG
material and parent EtGA ElgamaliC 100 EJgaml!llie130 E1oamatk: 135
metal must be of
ESAB OK Autrod 12.51 OK Autrod 13.00 OKAutrod 13.13 OKAlrtrod 13.29
same strength. OK Autrod 12.64 OK Autrod 13.12
FILARC Fit.re PZ eooo-S FlIare PZ 6042
FH.re PZ eooo
MVAEX Soslrand aWl Bostrand 20 Bo-strsnd41
~tr.ndLWl BoS1rand42
LINCOLN' LNM-25 lNM·12
SMITWELO lNM-28 LNM-H!1
OEAUKON C.rbofll 100 CarbolifMo Carbofi! NiMo-1 CllrbofilNIMoCr

SAF NK: 70S NlC 701.. N!C .. N!C"

Figure 4.6.1Sb

..
GAS METAL ARC WELDING Flux cored electrodes (fCAW)

~:el... .. A..
Enr-x
5..
EaXT·X
ApptOJl!m.ta yield Ilrengih IMP.)

E1oxr-x
7..
E11XT·X
...
E12XT-X
ManufaeluRr E9XT-X
eOHLEA TI52:·FD
ElGA DWA55E DWA55L
ESAB OK Tubrod 15.00 OK Tubrod 15.17 OK Tubrod 15.27
OK Tubrod 15.14 OK Tubrod 15.11
OKTubrod 15.25 OK Tubrod 15.26
FILA~C Filarc PZ 6125 Fil.rc PZ 6138 Filarc PZ 6147 Fllare PZ6148 FnarePZ8149
Filan: PZ 6130 Fitere PZ 6145
MUREX Coroflt955 Corofil NO 1
CCfOftt R56 Corof!! B65
LINCOLN! Outershield 71 C-H 0ut9f$hl9ld 81 N11-H
SMITWElD OutershleJd T55-H Oul9rshi~ld 91 K2-H
lrtn~/ekJ NR 203 Nil
OERUKON Fluxofll30 Flu){QflI40 Fluxofil41 Fluxofl142 FJuxofll4S
AUJl.ofil:31 Flu){ofil20
SAF S8.ldulll 1tSA Safdua1128
Saldual100
Satdual121

Figure 4.6.1Sc

..
GAS METAL ARC WELDING Metal powder cored electrodes (MCW)

~~S.
cl...

Manufacturer
...
ERXT·X £IXT-X
E9XT·X
...
Approximate yteld llrength (MP.)

EHIXT-X
7..
E11XT·)(
...
£12XT·)(

:8~~~=
HL 5O-FO
Hl52·FO
ElGA MXA100 MXA55T
ESAB OK Tubrod 1•. 00 OK Tubrod 1-4.02 OK Tubrod 14.03
OK Tubrod 14.12
FILARC Filarc PI 6102
Fiflrc PZ6103
MUREX COl'Omlg57 Coromlg NI 2,5 Coromig Mo 0,5 CoromlgN1Mo
LINCOLN! OI1l&rshield MC-.7t().H
SM!TWElO
OERLlKON AurofllM10 FluxofllM42
SAF Seldu!l! 206 Safdua12S5 Safdua1270

figure 4.6.1Sd

..
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SAW)

~~
cia.. .. ... F7A(s4)-EM12
500
FIA{s4)-EXXX.X
Approximate yield strength. (MP.)

Fl0A( s4-)EXXX.X
100
F11A(s4)-EXXX·X
...
F12A(s4rEXXX.X
"enu'.etur"r F9A(s5)-EXXX·X
SOHlEA B825!EMS2 BB25INi2-UP BB25!3NICrMo2.5-UP
ESAB OK Flul( 10.711 OK Aux 10.B2I OKAux 10.62/ OK Flux 10.621
OK Aulrod 12.20 OK Autrod 12.24 OK Aulrod 13.40 OK Autrod 13.43
OK Autrod 12.22 OK Autrod 12.34
MUREX S3tinare BX3001 Satll'l3rc 8X4OO1 SaUnare BX400l
8os!umdWeQ Bo!Ilrand S3Mo BostTand S4Mo

LlNCOLNI lNS 129-P230 LNS 140A-P230 LNS 164·P240 lNS 166-P230

SM!TWELD L 61-Uncoln Weld 960 LA 9O-P240 LA 100-P240
OERLlKON OP41 TTfRuxocord 31 OP121TT/Oe·S2Mo OP41TIIFIUXOCOfd 41 OP41nfFtuxocord 42 OP41TIIFtuxocord 45
OP121IOE-SD3 OP41TT/Fluxoooni 40 OP121TTfOe-S3N1Mo1 Of'121TTfFluxocoro 42 OP121TIlAuxOCQfd 45
SAF ASS89IAS 36- AS 5891AS40 AS sag/AS 81 AS S891SAFCORE 6501

Figure 4.6.15e
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDiNG (MMA)

i~~~
Approximate yield etrength (MPa)
el••a
390- ,90- 4so.S50 530-820 800-890 740--130
E7G1S E'TtI28 EIOt8 Etot8-M E10018-M E1201l-M
Manufacturer E7016 EP01. E11018-M
BOHlER FOX EV SO FOX HL 180 Kb FOXEV60 FOX EV 70 FOXEV75
FOX ev 55 FOX EV 63 FQXEV85
ELGA Ne Max~!.21 P48K P70 P110MR
P62MA Maxel.22 Mave1a 110
ES~B OK 48.00 OK Femu: 38.48 OK~.68 OK 74".78 OK 75_75 OK 75.76
OK48.08 OK Femax 38.85 OK 76.92
FILAAC Filare 35 FHerc C6 Fllarc75S F\larc98 Fitarc 108
Filare 36S Fi!arcS1H Filllre98 FlIarc 118
FilllfC SSS FilarcCSH Fllerc B8S Flb,.-e 108MP
FHarc 765 FHare C6HH Fllllrc 27P
MUAEX Fortr8X 7019 Fttrromax Fortrel( 8018C1 Fortrs" 9018 Fortrel( N02
Ferex 7016 FortrexNQ1
LINCOLN' Conare 49C ConareV 180 K')'03 Conarc 600 C011are 80 Conatc 85
SMITWELO Baso 100 C011tl1'C 70 G e 120 13·M
E 100 18-M
E11018-1;(
OeALIKON Extra Fabaclto 160S Tenacllo 10 Ten,elloeS Tenacllo7S Tenaefto 100
T4!'naclto Tenacllo 708 Tenaelto90
SAF Safer N 48 Safer NF 52 SalerMD 56 SIl'erND65 Safer NO eo SalerNO 100
Safer NF 510A SaferNF 59
Sa!er NF 58
Safer NF 59A

4:42
 Static strength - Location and strength of welds

Butt welds For example, Ph C6 in 16 mm WELDOX 700 in a double-V butt

Only ultimate tensile strengths are given, and it may be assumed joint gave CJ = 765 N/mm2, and the same filler material in
that the yield strength is about 0.95 of the ultimate strength. HARDOX 400 (single-V butt joint) gave 797 N/mm2!
As can be seen, it is advisable not to exceed 1.0 kJ/mm for 8 Figure 4.6.16 shows clearly that it is often possible to produce
mm WELDOX 700 if the guaranteed values of the parent metal satisfactory joints with filler material of lower strength.
are to be maintained.
2.4 kJ/mm can be permitted for 16 mm WELDOX 700.
It is perhaps surprising that undermatched filler materials such
as PhC6 and OK 12.51, which are intended for much softer
steels, have such high strength in welded joints with WELDOX
700 and HARDOX 400.

-I
~
Figure 4.6.16
Butt weld with weld reinforcement left on

Steel t B Electrode Number of Joint HI uB(Rm) uB(Rm)

mm mm passes kJ/mm Parent mtrl
N/mm2 N/mm2

WELDOX 700 8 50 Ph 118 (EllO 18-M) 6x 3.25 V 0.8 812 827

8 50 Ph 118 (E110 18-M) 1x 3.25+ 2 x 4 V 1.6 760 827
8 50 Ph C6 (E7028) 5x 3.25 V 0.9 763 827
8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 2x 1.0 V 1.3 598 BOl
WELDOX 700 16 100 Ph 118 (E110l8-M) 2x 3.25 + 5 x 4 V 1.7 835 828
16 100 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 4x 3.25 + 2 x 4 X· 1.4 829 828
16 100 Ph 118 (EH018-M) 2x 3.25 + 3 x 4 V 2.3 789 817
16 100 Ph 118 (EH018-M) 2x 3.25 + 3 x 5 V 2.4 778 817
16 100 Ph 98 (E9018-M) 2x 3.25 + 5 x 4 V 1.7 795 828
16 100 Ph 98 (E9018-M) 4x 3.25 + 2 x 4 X 1.5 822 828
16 100 Ph C6 (E7028) 2x 3.25 + 2 x 4 X 1.5 765 828
16 100 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 3x 1.2 V 2.6 643 817

HARDOX400 8 50 Ph 118 (EH018-M) 6x 3.25 V 0.8 856 1324

8 50 Ph 118 (El1018-M) 2x 3.25 + 2 x 4 V 1.2 777 1308
8 50 Ph 118 (Ell018-M) 2x 3.25 + 1 x 5 V 1.4 766 1308
8 50 Ph C6 (E7028) 5x 3.25 V 0.9 797 1324
8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6)+ SK 203 3x 1.0 V 1.2 828 1324

HARDOX400 16 100 Ph 118 (Ell018-M) 2 x 3.25 + 3 x 4 V 2.3 850 1276

16 100 Ph 118 (El1018-M) 2 x 3.25 + 3 x 5 V 2.5 854 1276
16 100 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 3 x 1.2 V 2.5 694 1276

• X = double -V butt joint

Non-load-carrying fillet weld

i.e. a bar welded across the test rod with two fillet welds, figure
4.6.17. With this type of joint, the filler material makes no diffe-
rence. only the heat input is important. In this case also, 'some
caution should be observed, and the heat input for 8 mm
WELDOX 700 should be max. 1.3 kJ/mm if the guaranteed values
are to be met. With 16 mm WELDOX 700, 3.4 kJ/mm may be
used without adverse effects.

Figure 4.6.17
Non-load-carrying fillet weld across the test rod (bar left in place) ~CI====~~====::::JI---
Il
Steel t B Electrode Number of throat HI u.2 (Rel) u.2 uB (Rm) uB
mm mm passes l ) thickness kJ/mm Parent mtrl Parent mlrl
mm N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2

WELDOX 700 8 50 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 4 x 4.0 5 1.3 715 770 803 B01
8 50 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 2 x 5.0 5 2.0 664 770 791 B01
8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 2 x 1.2 5 1.7 727 770 813 B01
WELDOX 700 16 100 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 12 x 4.0 10 1.2 786 775 825 817
16 100 Ph 118 (E110l8-M 4x 5.0 10 3.4 795 775 832 817
16 100 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 4 x 1.2 10 2.4 766 775 832 817
HARDOX400 8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 4 x 1.2 5 0.9 853 972 987 1308
8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 2 x 1.2 5 1.7 790 972 936 1308
HARDOX400 16 100 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 12 x 1.2 10 1.0 - 1096 1284 1276
16 100 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 4 x 1.2 10 2.4 1053 1096 1203 1276

') Two fillet welds.

4:4
 Static strength - Location and strength of welds

Non-load-carrying fillet weld along the test rod

This is where heat input is of the greatest significance, 8 mm
WELDOX 700 and HARDOX 400 being most affected.
The test rods here are relatively narrow, and with wider joints,
the soft zone is naturally of less importance. Plate thickness
above 16 mm causes no problems up to 2.5 kJ/mm.
Cf. figure 4.6.18

Figure 4.6.18
Non-load-carrying fillet weld along the test rod (bar left in place)

Steel t B Electrode Number of Throat HI a.22 )(ReU 0'.2 aB (RmY) aB

mm mm passes!) thick- kJ/mm Parent mtrl. Parent mtrl.
ness mm N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2

WELDOX 700 8 50 Ph 118 (Ell0l8-M) 4 x 4.0 5 1.2 578 776 760 803
8 50 Ph 118 (Ell018-M) 2 x 5.0 5 2.5 560 776 741 803
8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 2 x 1.2 5 2.1 590 776 746 803
WELDOX 700 16 90 Ph 118 (E110l8-M) 12 x 4.0 10 1.1 703 767 839 805
16 90 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 4 x 5.0 10 2.5 721 767 808 805
16 90 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 4 x 1.2 10 2.5 703 767 796 805
HARDOX400 8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 4 x 1.2 5 1.1 716 937 839 1315
8 50 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 2 x 1.2 5 2.3 571 937 749 1315
HARDOX400 16 70 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 12 x 1.2 10 1.3 918 972 1059 1274
16 70 OK 12.51 (E70S6) + SK 203 4 x 1.2 10 2.6 787 972 897 1274

1) Two fillet welds 2) Stress = force

area
(Le. bending is not included). The actual maximum stress will be considerably higher.

Load-carrying fillet weld But even this has a marginal effect if the throat thickness ""
Figure 4.6.19 shows that for a throat thickness"" 0.7 . tin 0.7' t.
WELDOX 700, there is no need for filler material and parent metal A heat input of up to 2.1 kJ/mm is quite permissible for 8 mm
to be of the same strength. The load-carrying capacity of the wel- WELDOX 700. .
ded joint is determined by the throat thickness and the The corresponding, data for HARDOX 400 are presented in
strength of the weld metal. figure 4.6.20.
I.e., the softer the filler material, the greater the throat thick-
ness must be.

Figure 4.6.19
Load-carrying fillet weld - OX 812

Steel t B Electrode Number of Throat HI 0'.2 (Rel) 0'.2 aB (Rm)

mm mm passes l ) thick kJ/mm Parent
ness mtrl
mm N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2

WELDOX 700 8 100 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 12x3.25 6 1.2 737 766

8 100 Ph 118 (E110l8-M) 4x4.0 6 2.1 784 800
8 100 Ph PZ 6132 (Ell018-M) 4x 1.6 6 1.8 775 798
..

8 100 Ph PZ 6130 (E70 T-5) 4x 1.6 6 1.8 781 797

8 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 4x4.0 6 2.1 756 768
8 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 12x4.0 9 2.0 765 788

WELDOX 700 12 100 Ph 118 (ll018-M) 24x3.25 , 8.5 1.2 813 843
12 100 Ph 118 01018-M) 12x5.0 8.5 2.0 815 846
12 100 Ph PZ 6132 12x 1.6 8:5 1.9 823 850

12 100 Ph PZ 6130 (E70 T-5) i2x 1.6 8.5 1.9 810 837
12 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 12x4.0 8.5 1.75 811 844
12 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 12x4.0 12 2.2 818 848

WELDOX 700 16 100 Ph 118 (Ell018-M) 24x5.0 11.5 1.8 772 780 812
16 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 12x4.0 11.5 2.1 744
16 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 40x4.0 18 2.1 807

1) Four fillet welds

4:44
 Static strength - Location and strength of welds

Figure 4.6.20
Load-carrying fillet weld - HARDOX 400
Steel t B Electrode Number of Throat HI Os (Rm)
mm mm passes ll thickness N/mm2
mm

HARDOX400 8 100 Ph 118 (Ell018-M) 12x3.25 6 1.2 1070

8 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 4x4.0 6 2.1 849
8 100 Ph PZ 6130 (E70 T-5) 4x 1.6 6 1.8 752
8 100 Ph PZ 6130 (E70 T-5) 12x 1.6 9 2.0 1036

HARDOX400 12 100 Ph 118 (EH018-M) 24x3.25 8.5 1.2 1100

12 100 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 12x5.0 8.5 2.0 920
12 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 12x4.0 8.5 1.75 777
12 100 Ph PZ 6130 (E70 T-5) 12x 1.6 8.5 1.8 893
12 100 Ph PZ 6130 (E70T-5) 12x 1.6 12 2.0 928

HARDOX400 16 100 Ph 118 (E11018-M) 24x5.0 11.5 1.8 1023

16 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 12x4.0 11.5 2.1 812
16 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 40x4.0 18 2.1 1053
16 100 Ph C6H (E7028) 24x5.0 18 2.4 988

1) Total number of passes for four fillet welds

In summary:
- Filler material of the same strength as the parent material is
only needed in butt welds where the guaranteed values of the
parent material must be met.
- Be careful with heat input at smaller plate thicknesses.
- It is best to use tried-and-tested filler materials for softer
steels. They give the best production economy.

TabeI4.6.1

Formulas for different types of welded joints.

Excerpt from reference 65.

a...c:,........ TenSion. S...., Benchna Torsion Notes

compression
f Q M" M.. M,

Loadonidia&<am a - f- r - !!. 0b- Mbo;'X DII·~ f.- -

M,
A
• " "
W,

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

r
;'
L/t=¥ ~ M.
q
My

a -F-
A"
r--
f,
A"
flQ-~
6'M ba
all- 6a~~~
~ ,?\
2 ~ I' a -f- r ... ~
F-c- ~ ~fr-F .,1 ."1

~
~ I~
X
tFq Yj

3 a_ f
f-
f, Ob- MbI'Xlor~ Ob-~or~
iI,· ill

+ 12'1'2 a,'11 + az'l'z 1.. 1.& 1.. looy 1',< I> 1'1
M ill' 1',

,--
r~2 aZ
r-X
/iy f
r.~
Incomplete weld
penelr ahon akW8
enllte ItOilh
a,· i2

.E~'7tJ)·
4 a-- -
2· ,-I' 2'0'1" 1',- 1'2- I'

,--
,X ~

5
F-f- § ,f-F a----
ta, +
f
i2)' 1
r.~
(a,+ a2)-1
Ob-~
(al + '2'- 1
o.~
• I ..
Incomplele .eld
,-- §§
;:
.I'
Xy
pentllahon

,,+a2- 1
f _
a __
6
== 2, 1 a·
(1-~
2·,·1
ab - 3,·.~r (1t1- ~L
I ..

r-- t Iy
Fq
1 a-- .,1
f r _ !a.-
.' I
(1b- ;~1' (1.,- 6a~~r "1" il2 - a - l

4:45
 Static strength - Location and strength of welds

Bas.it rcrmull} TenSiOn, She;y Bending Torsion Not",

compres~"
C Q M.. M", M,

loading dIagram 0'" !..... r'" !S. Ob"" Mbx' X Ub""~ t"l"'- !i
A A I, 1, W,

1 2 3 4 5 5 7 8

8 Structural OIE~_ t"" !a.. 0t."" 6t.~J~ Ob'" 5;.,?11t

{IO!>!; !-eCtion I-I '-I

o ... ~ _ r"'~
9
My a· 1 ,- 1 (1b '" 62·.~r ",2 ~
a -,
Single fdlet
. .Id
!--
10
1- ~M
o•
, ,. f, Ob'" M'.l~· )(1., MI;n" KZ c,~
6·M!1x
L IFq'IY'" (al -+ "l+ a3+ a~l'l (a,+ a2 + 1'3'" c.!I1 1 1. I. la! + 32+ "3+ i!4)'1:!

~F
!--
,.---'~
F Ob'" Mtp:·X,.Me.·Xz 6·M!?l
11 c- cb' <lJ"" 34
(31+ 32+ 2 a)l 1 (a,+3]+2'a]) 1 1. 1. 11'11+"2+ 2 -<13) l'
!-- g.
12 t,
FQY
tI Iy v. _ _ ' __
2· la, + .121 I
1'''~
2 la! + all· I
Ob" MbJ;' X
I.
", . 3·
~-+;-<\7
~'c. al ,..,
"1 ..
<li
1!~

!--

~4
13 o ...-~- r .. ~ ab- ~~. MI,a" X? 0, • ~ a~ '" ]J~ '" 0
lal + al)- I {al -+ a.. 1 1 I. 1. {IJ\ + .121- l~
-
14
0 ___' __

2- a\, 1
r .. ~
2- "I 1
c· 3 Mtl."H!+2'311
1·1a1'+3·itl~
c, • :3. Mbr
l'
a] ,.. 3;
= 3'~
:= 0

- " " 11)

15
a4 c. _ _ ' __ r.~ 0,'
3· M!»'tl
Ob"'~ 011"" dZ = G
2· al' I 2· a)· 1 " - I·fal + 3· tll-a}J 33' ]L i'l]'" a2

16 Structural
cross section
O"'~
1 I)
f .. .£.L
1",
qb"'~
'I -1
Oh"" 61·'~Y' " . iN,M,
FQ, My
', __M_,_
~~'
ob'
II .---'--
2-a(H+Bl
0, - 3· MM' (H + 2, a)
a'Hj'a3oB+3'~
3'M!!t:'{S+2-a)
a'S 3 +a J 'H-+3 a-B-1B+ar 2· Am' a
B- H

~F
!--

xi yl
18
Fqy a I " - ~
2· B' a
',' M,
2' a· tH+al-tB-+al

-
rDEbJ~ c, _
19
-IS\- f-!i-l 0 _ _' _

4· a H
f""~
0,-
3· M.' (8 -+ 2· ~l
a· H3 + a'· H + 3· a· H· (H -+ a-f
3· M!?I· (B -+ 2· a)
,s. H3+ a)' 8 + 3'3' B· tB-+ af ','
M,
B""H
2· H· a 2· A,.,., - a
Connecbon
cross se<:!;on

20 c._'- T.~
S-H
o~- ~'.~~ 0,' ~~'1 1','"" !i
W,
S-H
B- "
Structural
!-- cross sedan , ,.4- 6'H~b;1
21 !7"'-W Qb"'" Qb'S ~
H
r"O_~'Hj e~H

fI?l ~x
My

--~F 1', ... 2L-

2 - Am -.

~~
22 0"-- 1'''''~ 0,'
16· Mm: (0+ 2· a)
Ob'
16'Mpz'(O+2'4) ',m __2_-",,_ _
O,lt" Cl O'lI"' Cl tro({D+ 2 oaf_oi J rr"{{D+ 2· )l_OJl) ro+a~·a·1f

D'

Connection

23
cross section

Structural
cross section
.,
° '" or;- f - iT:- (J1l- 32· MbJ,
O)'n
o!) ...
32" Mby
~ ft" It?·.~t

Beam Tension. compressiOn Shear stress due to Equivalent stres~

2' under bendmg transverse forces

a
Mbl · YI .. Mbo ' Yz
25 0, - 1, I,

ILl

rr
-

~m i()
1 YI
o~"'''s,2+ 2-r Z "OdM Slatic l02d

26 xli. hH 0, "
Me.' y'! .. Meo" y'2
I, I,
T"~"'~
1~' 2· a 11 " 2· a
(u::. )~+ (k-)2~ 1.1 Dynamic load
Y2 y~ w

!--
P--I ab'" Mbi:" y'\ .. MI)I:" Y2 t,..~
o~- "0/ + 2f2"'Ol!~W Static !Q3O
27
(~)'+
1. l~ ,- h
a.!,n
(!...}'
r,,. .. 11 Dynamic IMd

4:46

4.7 High-temperature strength
Page No.
Strength data at high temperatures ................................. 4:47
Creep data ..................................................................... 4:47
WELDOX and HARDOX steels are not intended for use at tempera-
tures above 400°C. They can, however, be used to advantage at
temperatures up to 400°C, owing to their high yield strengths.
Note that at temperatures above 350°C, creep must be taken
into account.
The yield strength of a steel decreases with increasing tempe-
rature, and at a limiting temperature Tg that is = 0.4' the melting
temperature (oK), a viscous deformation also takes place, which
is of considerable importance ab~ve Tg.
During this viscous deformation, the steel deforms continuo~
usly under a constant state of stress. The steel is said to creep.
The region above Tg is called the creep region, and in this
region there is no lower limit of the stress state below which
creep does not occur.
Of our WELDOX and HARDOX steels, the WELDOX steels are
delivered in the quenched (hardened) and tempered state with
tempering temperature = 600°C, while the HARDOX steels are
delivered in either the hardened or the quenched and tempered
state. We know through testing that creep first appears at about
350-400°C for these steels, which does not entail any additional
tempering for WELDOX steels, but bear in mind that HARDOX
steels lose both in hardness and in yield strength at these tem-
peratures. Contact us in special cases for HARDOX steels.
WELDOX and HARDOX steels are not heat-resistant in the
normal sense but can well be used at temperatures up to Tg,
owing to their high yield strength. See table 4.7.1, which shows
yield strength at high temperatures (design values).
In the case of hot forming or in other special cases, it can be
useful to know yield strengths at even higher temperatures.
These typical values are shown in table 4.7.2. Note that creep
must be taken into account at temperatures above 350°C.
Table 4.7.1
°0.2 Design values N/mm2
Steel 20"C 50 75 100 125
Creep can be described and classified in accordance with
figure 4.7.l.
If a steel e)(hibits a pronounced secondary period when the
creep rate £ is constant (a = constant), the steel is said to be
stabie with regard to creep. This secondary period is of the
greatest interest, since it can have a duration of several years.
Data of interest in this respect are the creep modulus and the
creep rupture limit. The creep modulus a c7 (N/mm') is defi-
ned as the stress that gives rise to a creep rate of E = 10-7
l/hour, i.e. the stress that gives rise to 1% creep in 100.000
hours. Similarly, 0c6 is the stress that gives rise to 1% strain in
10.000 hours. The exponent n in Norton's creep law is also of
interest. Some values are given in table 4.7.3.
°
The creep rupture limit cB m (N/mm') is the stress per
original area that gives rise to rupture after creep for 10'" hours
at a given temperature. Values for WELD OX steels are given in
table 4.7.3. This table shows that WELDOX 700 t>45 mm is the
steel that has the best creep properties.
WELDOX and HARDOX steels have found their widest use at
high temperatures below Tg, by virtue of their high hardness
and yield strength, in applications such as flue gas fans,
cyclone cleaners and pipelines where highly abrasive particles
occur in combination with temperatures below Tg.
E strain
Figure 4.7.1 rupture
secondary tertiary
time
150 175 200 250 300 350 400

OX 520 P 355 350 343 338 329 319 309 299 289 270 240 216 196 Data sheei
WELDOX 700 690 643 620 600 595 590 585 580 570 560 550 540 Ref44

Table 4.7.2
Typical 0.2% proof stress a 0.2 at temperatures> 400°C. Creep must be taken into account.

Steel 450"C 500"C 550"C 600"C

WELDOX 700 t> 45 620 580 530 410

WELDOX 700 550 470 350 230

Table 4.7.3
Creep data for Extra High Strength (EHS) steels

Steel t temp 3477 5

O~B
4 nl )
mm °C °cB o cB o cB °c6 °cl

WELDOX 700 6-20 400 640 610 450 400

450 330 300 205 128 4.9
500 205 180
21-45 400 640 615 555 445 395
450 450 410 375 320 220 6.1
500 300 250 220 180 80 2.8
46-75 400 645 615 600 404
450 520 485 460 263 242
500 365 315 275 132 90

1) Estimated values

4:47
5 Dynamic strength 5
Fatigue. general ................................. 5:2 Something about crack
Practical design propagation ....................................... 5:31
against fatigue failure ......................... 5: 15 Design of panels against
Examples - Fatigue ............................ 5:24 impact ............................................... 5:37
 5 Dynamic strength
The sections in this chapter can be used independently of each
other with the exception of "Examples - fatigue" which must be
used together with "Practical design against fatigue failure."
Section 5.1 "Fatigue, general" has been included to provide
explanations of this complex phenomenon - fatigue - and
thereby, hopefully, fill a knowledge gap.
This section is recommended as it gives the user a better
understanding of the factors, which are of importance for fatigue
strength, especially of welded joints.
Section 5.4 "Something about crack propagation" provides a
simplified presentation of a method by means of which the
propagation of cracks can be calculated so that the life of
structures containing cracks or flaws (e.g. root defects) can be
estimated.
Section 5.5. "Design of panels against impact" presents a
simple design method and data to permit the design of panels
against impact effects due to pieces of rock being dropped on
them from a height, etc.
51
 b. The subject is very complex and interdisciplinary (covers the
5.1 Fatigue, general entire chain of design - manufacture - use).
c. It can be difficult for a designer to know enough about the
Page No. service loads on the structure.
Why is it so important to understand fatigue? 5:2 d. Weld defects and stress-raisers of various types cause the
Initiation - propagation .................................................. .. 5:3 most problems, and the welder is not aware of this.

Welds - a problem of geometry ...................................... . 5:4
Fatigue - WELD OX and HARDOX steels .......................... . 5:5
Influence of welding residual stresses ............................. . 5:6
Notch effect, tables etc. .. ............................................... . 5:7
Advantages of WELDOX and HARDOX steels ..................... . 5:8
Importance of the load spectrum ..................................... 5:8
Methods of improvement ....... ................ ............ ............. 5: 11
Some special cases: ....................................................... 5:12
Axial misalignment, Angular errors, Stress relieving, Throat
thickness In fillet welds, Influence of plate thickness, Gas-
cut edges, Practical conversions, Multiaxial state of stress
strain cycle fatigue ' and production parameters (current, feed, flow etc.)
By fatigue failure we mean a type of fracture (rupture) that
can occur far below the static ultimate tensile strength of the
material if the loading consists of repeated applications of a
stress a sufficient number of times.
Example: You wish to cut a piece of wire, but you have no
wire clippers. If you bend the wire back and forth, a crack will
form, and after a sufficient number of bendings, the wire will
break. This is a fatigue failure.
It is known that machines and other kinds of structures are
subjected to fatigue loads and that 80-90% of all fractures that
occur are fatigue fractures.
However, it is easy to understand why this happens, since
the structure is usually designed against plastic deformation
(yielding) and not against fatigue!
There are several reasons for this:
a. Instruction concerning the design of welded structures to
withstand fatigue is often inadequate in engineering schools.
What is special about fatigue failure is that the phenomenon is
very local. A fatigue crack can form at a single point! It is
therefore necessary to know which point or points will be critical
for a given load case. Before this can be answered, it is neces-
sary to have a drawing of the part in question.
Furthermore, design against fatigue extends to all stages in
the design and production of the product:
a. Selection and purchase of the "right material"
b. Correct structural design (e.g. location of welds)
c. Acceptable analytical model
d. Correct information to workshop
e. Choice of shop methods (welding method, filler material etc.)
f. The individual operator (the welder)!
g. Surface treatment (not just for the sake of appearances l )
h. Inspection and quality control
Inspection routines and design drawings are all well and
good, but strength control is not complete until the person
who has carried out the fatigue calculation has inspected and
approved the part!
What is said above demonstrates that everyone who partici-
pates in the development and production of a product has a
direct influence on the fatigue strength of the product.
Designing against fatigue - is it science or engineering art?
The precise fatigue diagrams and load data that are needed
are almost never available, and it is almost always necessary to
extrapolate or interpolate a bit. Extrapolating or interpolating
correctly is an engineering art!
This demonstrates once again that we are dealing with a
complex process and that it is extremely important that desig-
ners and engineers should be able to visualise the stresses in
their structures.

Figure 5.1.1
iinite life infinite life

==========~>
----".
C ----v'
1 m s=<
~
u
100 mm to be detected
'"
U
o by N.D.T.
U
10mm
'"E starting from defect ~efect does not grow

~~~~~:~~
1 mm

\\)S\o~ - - - ---} non- -- }

-'" .~(,
u 100mm propagating
\\O~\
~
u s\l}\\\(\'&

-- t ---- cracks

-
0
U 10mm
E \'1>c,'<-
-;;;in sizes

,<-0<;
,::;\ ~
1 mm
o'/~'
~S
c 1000 A \\0
. ,,'l,
0
~~
~ c}.'1>
~
u
:J
100 A --------
C
no crack nucleation
10 A ----------
atomic distance
1A
20 40 60 80 100%
- percentage fatigue life

52
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Fatigue general There are different ways of depicting the results of a fatigue
test graphically, but for welded joints (which are of greatest
The total number of cycles to failure can be written interest to us), the S-N diagram is the most suitable.
When the crack has been initiated and the stress amplitude
N = Ni + Np and stress concentration factor are sufficiently large, all that
remains is propagation until the crack is large enough for the
= number of cycles to initiate a crack component to break.
= number of cycles for the crack to propagate (grow) until it
reaches critical size, at which the final failure occurs.

We know that crack initiation occurs readily in the local stress Figure 5.1.3 WELDOX 7008 mm Blast-cleaned and primed
concentrations found on surfaces, such as scratches, pores, amin = 30 N/mm2 x = fracture
radii, welds etc., but surface defects also arise in very pure and Or N/mm2 x/= survivor
smooth materials as a result of microstructural dislocations 1000
(movements of lattice defects) after a certain number of load
alternations. 700
NOTE! The prerequisite for crack initiation: Surface defect! (in- r--..
:>.
cluding internal surfaces, pores, etc.) 500 I""
~

In the vast majority of cases, we will initiate a crack. How the

400
crack will propagate and possibly lead to fatigue failure is illu-
strated by figure 5.l.1, taken from (5). 300

Figure 5.l.1 shows the different starting points of a microcrack,

and demonstrates that the crack can result in either finite or 200
infinite life.

Whether life will be finite or infinite depends upon the stress

concentration factor Kt
100
(K = local stress ) 103 10 5 10 6 107
t nominal stress Number of load cycles
and the stress amplitude a , figure 5.1.2 (6).
The manner in which propagation takes place is illustrated by
figure 5.1.4. Each time the crack opens up, it propagates a bit,
Figure 5.1.2 and when the stress at the tip of the crack is high, a plasticiza-
tion also takes place, resulting in a rounding of the crack tip.

a
Figure 5.1.4 - - a- - I
~I
1
1

All cracks propagate to complete fracture

::::> I

Q)
-0
:2 -01
:=j
1!1
0.
E
oil
III
~
(/)
gl
'" :31
u

I
Critical alternati ng
stress amplitude required to
propagate a crack
===b I
I
~
Q.
tl

~~
I
I
1 I
I When the crack closes. the crack front folds and we obtain a
I very sharp notch. The crack has then propagated a small dis-
I tance Ll a for one load cycle. The figure shows how the charac-
I terisitic striations arise. These striations can only be seen in an
I Ktcrit
electron microscope. The striations that are often seen with the
I naked eye on a fracture surface are called "oystershell" or
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 "beach" markings and are formed when the stress amplitude
changes. A fatigue fracture at constant amplitude exhibits a
Kt
completely smooth surface.
I.e, we can "live with" fatigue cracks as long as Kt and/or The size of the final fracture in relation to the entire cross-
a a < a p are sufficiently low (a). sectional area shows whether the load at the time of the fracture
The phenomenon of infinite and finite life is also illustrated by was high or low. (Large final fracture = high load.)
an S-N curve from a fatigue test, figure 5.l.3. The endurance
limit is usually plotted in the graph horizontally at the level A fatigue crack always grows perpendicular to the direction of
where none of the speCimens go to failure. The sloping part of the largest principal stress.
the curve is the one that shows finite life (fatigue strength) and It is possible to observe how the crack is oriented at a fatigue
represents the "mean fracture curve", i.e. 50% probability of fracture and to compare this with computations and assump-
fracture. tions. .

5:3
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Fatigue fractures are not desirable in any way, but when they
do occur, we should try to learn from them - they do provide a
sort of test record, and give us a chance to learn from our
mistakes!
As always, progress often proceeds by trial and error, and,
unfortunately, nothing teaches us as much as our failures.

Figure 5.1.7

i ----'~-
Welds - a problem of geometry
It took a relatively long time before it was established that the
geometry of the weld at the transition between the parent metal
and the weld metal (the weld toe) is the primary factor that
determines the fatigue strength of the weld.
-I'------,---<.\JLF--r--
As late as the mid-1960s, it was assumed that fatigue in
Figure 5.1.8
welded joints was primarily a metallurgical phenomenon.
When a weld is examined under a microscope, the weld toe
can been seen to contain microcracks originating from cold
flows or hydrogen. Non-metallic inclusions may also be present
just below the surface, see figure 5.l.5.

Figure 5.1.5 Figure 5.1.9

Figure 5.1.10

These inclusions are slag particles that have not had time to
float up to the surface of the weld pool during the welding
procedure before being "frozen fast" due to rapid heat dissipa-
tion through the plates.
The inclusions have a size of 10-200 microns and are loca-
ted at a depth of about 200 microns below the undercut.
These slags are created in most welding methods, since the
Figure 5.1.11
impurities originate from the parent material.
Naturally. a welded joint does not exhibit this apperance
along the entire length of the weld, but the presence of such
stress raisers cannot be completely disregarded.
It has been clearly proven that the microgeometric stress
raiser at the transition between weld metal and parent metal
constitutes the crack initiation. The interaction between micro-
geometric and macrogeometric stress raisers will ultimately
determine the fatigue strength of the welded joint. This in turn
demonstrates who has the greatest influence on the result: the
welder! Figure 5.1.12

The welder or production engineer is usually unaware of this!

It is therefore not so strange that "bad welds" account for the
majority of fatigue failures. as was mentioned above.
The welds are often poorly executed from the viewpoint of Figure 5.1.13
fatigue because the welding personnel lack training.
A great deal would be gained ifthe welder could be taught to
understand fig. 5.1.5. It is important to understand why and
how the fatigue strength of welded joints can be improved.
This improvement can be brought about by welding in a
manner that produces smaller undercuts or by using the
improvement methods that are available, e.g. TIG dressing or
grinding. In addition, it is of the utmost importance to choose
suitable places for electrode changes or welding stops.
At corners (external and internal), transitions etc., for
(
example, it is advisable to weld the most difficult part without
stopping and to make the stop further on. Figure 5.1.14
Figures 5.1.6-14 show the positions of the critical points with
respect to fatigue fracture for different welded joints. Note that
welds that are not load-carrying are nevertheless just as criti-
cal for fatigue fracture in the component on which they are
located if this component is load-carrying. (Figures 5.1.8-12.)
Instruction of welding personnel in these matters does pay, as
shown by experience from numerous companies.

5:4
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

The macrogeometric notch effect is dependent upon the shape Some important definitions
of the weld reinforcement and the type of welded joint. This is
shown by fig. 5.1.15, which applies to a butt weld. The higher
the reinforcement, the poorer the fatigue strength of the weld. Figure 5.1.16
It is thus the interaction of microgeometric and macro- o
geometric stress raisers that determines the fatigue strength of
the welded jOint.
We can therefore conclude that crack initiation in welded
joints is already predetermined. The life of the joint therefore
consists solely of propagation to critical size.
This is why in-service inspection is so important.

Figure 5.1.15 Fatigue strength at 2· 106 cycles

N/mm2
time

G r = G max -0' min stress range

Gm = mean stress
0' a = stress amplitude

R= 0' min stress ratio

G max
In order to be able to define the stress situation in connection
with fatigue, we need to define the stress variation and the
absolute stress leve\.
This can be done in a number of ways. Here are the most
common ones:
G max and G min
a r andO'min
50 O'r and R (and sometimesam1nl
amaxand R
aa anda m
0~--------+--------4---- ____~________~ We will usea p R
lOO' 120' 140' 160' e 180'

Figure 5.1.17 The importance of different values of R R = a mm

O'max
+0
Why is knowledge of fatigue so important in connection
with WElDOX and HARDOX steels? 3~--------------------------------,,~~
2~--------------~~n-~",~---+rH~~
There are three reasons:
1. Fatigue cracks propagate at roughly the same rate in all steels,
and since the life of welded joints is dependent upon crack 0~----~~--+H~--4+~~~~~--------~
propagation, welded WELDOX and HARDOX steels exhibit the _l~~~~UL~~---Y~~~ ____________~
same fatigue strength at around 2 . 106 load cycles as ordinary
welded steels. -2~WW~------------------------------4

2. The reason for choosing WELDOX instead of HS steels is to -3~~~------------------------------~

reduce plate thickness. When this is done, the stresses in the
steel - both static and fatigue stresses - will naturally increase
for a given load case. This means that design against fatigue is
more important when WELDOX steel is used in welded struc-
tures, since fatigue strength does not increase at the same
rate as static strength.
3. WELDOX and HARDOX steels are often used in structures
subjected to high fatigue loads.
The above may give the impression that WELDOX and HARDOX
steels are not at all suitable for use in structures subject to
fatigue loads, but this is not the case!
We need only look around at the applications in which WELDOX
and HARDOX steels are used to find that these are indeed subject
to high fatigue load and that they are clearly functioning satis-
factorily!
R=3
-0
Observation on the use of 0 r instead of a max
R = - 1 and a max is the "worst case".
When it comes toa r = 0max - amino the worst case occurs
when a, has the greatest effect on crack propagation. 0 r has the
greatest effect when there is no compressive stress during the
cycle, i.e. when the load consists of pulsating tension. The
crack does not propagate under compression.
Figure 5.1.18
R= -1 R= 0

Why?
The answer to this question will be given later, but first we have
to introduce certain concepts and show the importance of the Ifa q = 0"2' thena'2 (R = 0) is worse from the viewpoint of
welding residual stresses. fatigue than a,) (R = -1 1

5:5
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Influence of welding residual stresses in
connection with fatigue
Consider a welded I -beam. After welding, the residual stresses
are on a level with the yield strength of the weld metal (which is
often on a level with that of the parent metal).
The stress in the two welds will vary from the yield stress
downwards byo 1, i.e. the only load variation felt by the welds is
°
a 1, and this stress variation is called the stress range r'
As is evident from the earlier line of reasoning, fatigue cracks
can very well be initiated in welds on the "compression side",
which often seems surprising, but is quite natural owing to the

r~s
welding residual stresses.
This means that it is the stress range or that is the signifi-
s cant variable in conjunction with the fatigue of welded struc-
tures!
The ° r philosophy has been verified by the testing of beams
(about 2000 as of this time) and has been generally accepted
internationally. with a few exceptions.
Assume that the parent metal and the weld metal have the This represents a considerable simplification in design, inso-
following tensile test curve. °
far as knowledge of r is sufficient when it comes to welded
non-stress-relieved structures.
o

U'L
As far as small specimens or short welded joints are concer-
ned, the residual stresses are often small, with some influence
of the mean stress, i.e. the stress ratio R.
This can be illustrated by means of a Haig diagram, which
applies for a certain number of load cycles and shows the stress
amplitude as a function of the mean stress.
f

Assume further that the beam is loaded in flexure with a fatigue Figure 5.1.19
load that gives the following stress distribution.
Amplitude
kvww N/mm2

-y-
p 0. Fillet welds small specimens
2· 106 load cycles
-01
160

b=~==========:::;r:d+0 1--A-
+ 01
120

External and internal stresses can be added. This has the follo- 80
wing consequences:
.....
Top flange Bottom flange I
40 11
0::
The weld against the top The weld against the bottom
flange will be unloaded flange will be overloaded and
will yield slightly Mean
R,=_+_l_ _...-_ _- r_ _---._ _ _-r-_ stress
O+-_ _ _
(°5+°1=°5)
see tensile test curve o 40 80 120 160 200 am N/mm2

At 1st loading
(I
Figures 5.1.19 and 5.1.20 are taken from (7) and figure
(1, -rio.,---------- 11, r+-....- - - - - - 5.1.19 shows a dependence on R for small specimens, while
figure 5.1.20, which applies for beams, does not show any
(),
dependence on R.
'" Usingo r consistently means working on the safe side. With
good knowledge of the mean stress (external + internal
stresses), higher stresses can be allowed.
At unloading

Figure 5.1.20

Amplitude
OaN/mm 2 Fillet welds beams
2.10 6 load cycles
160
At 2nd loading

120

80

and after unloading

.....
40 I \)
11 qj
0::
Mean
R= +1 stress
40 80 120 160 200 am N/mm2

5:6
 Dynamic strengtll - Fatigue, general
Figure 5.1.21, taken from ref. (8), gives an idea of how much
the stresses can be increased. The figure shows a factor kR that
is multiplied by a (perm' This is assuming that the stress ratio R
(external + internal stresses) has been clearly established and
determined. The result is better material utilization for compo-
nents subjected to external stress ratios < 0 and low residual
stresses e.g. "short welds", rolled beams, stress-relieved struc-
tural elements etc.
Figure 5.1.21
1.3
I--'
I--' i-'
1.2 V V
V the weld means a great deal for the fatigue strength of the jOint.
V Now comes the difficult part; classification of a finished weld.
/'
V tion systems and even more applied in the internal standards of
1.1
/
/ tions for Welded Steel Structures (8).
1.0
V Table
o -0.5 -1.0 -l.~
R
Representation of notch effect
Geometric stress raisers (notches) give rise to stress concentra-
tions. Such a stress raiser is defined by a stress concentration
factor Kt.
K _ local stress
t- nominal stress
Kt is based on elastic theory, often obtained through calculation,
photostress analysis and experimental verification. Good and
practical tables are provided in references (3) and (10).
Note that Kt is determined only by geometry and that material
properties have no bearing. Welded jOints can be classified with
respect to their notch effect, and figures 5.1.6 - 14 show where
this is greatest.
A traditional method of specifying the reduction of fatigue
strength due to the notch effect is by means of a fatigue factor
K f (also known as the fatigue-strength reduction factor or the
factor of stress concentration in fatigue), which is defined as the
ratio of the fatigue strength of a plain, unnotched specimen to
the fatigue strength of a specimen containing a stress concent-
ration at a given number of load cycles.
However, it is difficult to determine fatigue strength if Kt is
used. A value of Kf would be needed for a given material, R-
value, a r' number of load cycles and stress raiser! .
This would make it difficult and complicated to design against
fatigue.
It would be very difficult to find any particular case in refer-
ence tables. Approximate methods would have to be resorted to
(1)
Considerable simplifications are possible when working with
welded jOints.
In practice, it is quite adequate to proceed on the basis of a
single steel.
The R-value (stress ratio a mm ) can be disregarded owing to
°max
the welding residual stresses, and fatigue cracks propagate at a
largely equal rate in all types of steel.
When the R-value is known, we can multiply the permissible
stresses by the factor kR in accordance with the above line of
reasoning.
Kx-value
It has been found convenient to classify the notch effect of
welds by means of a material-independent joint factor Kx.
referred to in (8) and defined as Kx = 315 (N/mm:l
OrB' (2,10)
whereo lJ3 , (2' 106 ) is the median stress range for fatigue failure
at 2· 10 load cycles and R = O.
Ref. {8l sets out a number of classes for K x, see table 5.1. I.
Table 5.1.1
Kx: 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0, 2.3, 2.6,3.0, 3.5,4.0 and 5.0
e.g. mill scale Kx = 1.3, butt weld =
2.3, fillet weld"" 4.0. See
table 5.2.3.
°
In table 5.2.3, r is the nominal stress range and is calculated
in a section without the influence of stress concentration
(approx. 0.2 . plate thickness from the weld reinforcement).
The weld causes diHerent stress concentrations in relation to
the stress direction over the weld, Kx -L perpendicular to the
weld and Kx 11 when the stress runs parallel to the direction of
the weld.
With figure 5.1.5 in mind, we understand that the quality of
There are a number of different international weld classifica-
diHerent manufacturers.
We feel that it would be wrong to use the internal standard of
a given company, so we base our approach on StBK-N2 Regula-
See table 5.1.2.
5.1.2 Quality requirements for weld classes in accor-
-2.0 dance with StBK-N2.
Weld Requirement concerning surface, shape and hornogeneity.
class
SvO The surface of the weld shall not contain cavities which
render cleaning, painting or galvanization difficult.
Svl The surface of the weld shall be free from cavities. surface
pores, intrusions and overlaps. In Construction Class 2,
large weld reinforcernent. root defects, penetration beads or
sharp discontinuities shall not occur.
The homogeneity of the weld shall substantially satisfy the
requirements applicable to radiographic grading
No 3 (green" l.
SvOT The weld shaH be fluidtight. In other respects, requlrernents
SvlT for SvO and Svl respectively shall apply. In the case of SvO,
there is the additional requirement that the surface shall be
free from surface cavities.
Sv2 Fillet and T-butt welds shall preferably Ilave a concave or
flat surface. A slightly convex surface Will however be
approved.
A butt weld shall have a flat or convex surface at both the
top and the root. The height of the weld reinforcernent shall
not exceed 15% of the width. The height of the penetration
bead shall not exceed 30% of the width of the penetration
bead, but shall not in any case exceed 2 mm.
The transition between weld and parent material shall be
smooth and free from sharp discontinuities such as under-
cuts. Craters shall be filled and irregularities removed.
Apart from these requirements, the appropriate parts of the
requirements for Svl, concerning surface finish and shape,
shall apply.
The homogeneity of the weld shall substantially satisfy the
requirements applicable to radiographic grading No 4
(blue"). However, subsurface pores and non-contiguous
slag entrapments corresponding to radiographic grading
No 3 (green") will be approved.
Sv3 Fillet and T-butt welds shall have a concave or flat surface.
The transition between weld and parent material at fillet
and T-butt welds shall be dressed to a smooth and rounded
shape.
In the case of butt welds, the top and bottom reinforcernent
shall be dressed flush.
Apart from these requirements, the appropriate parts of
the requirements for Svl and Sv2, concerning surface
finish and shape, shall apply.
The homogeneity of the weld shall satisfy the requirements
for radiographic grading No 4 (blue").
a See Collection of Reference Radiographs of Welds in Steel,
published by the IIW.
5:7
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

One possibility is, of course, to determine Kx for a weld by Figure 5.1.23 is an S-N diagram for three different steels with
means of fatigue testing and to use the definition of Kx. blast-cleaned and primed surfaces.
It should also be borne in mind that most test results that are
available come from different laboratories where the weld has
been made in the most favourable position under favourable 2. High stress levels
conditions (no piecework system, good working premises etc.).
There are many structures where the load consists of a high
The welding position, for example, is especially important.
static load and a smaller fatigue load, for example stands, cer-
Table 5.2.3 contains Kx factors, and more detailed design
tain frames, bridges, penstocks etc. Here, it is easy to exceed
instructions are provided in section 5.2 "Practical design against
fatigue failure". the permissible static stresses or the yield strength of ordinary
steels.
WELDOX and HARDOX steels can therefore be utilized to great
advantage and we can permit the same 0" r at maximum
WElDOX and HARDOX steels in structures subjected to high stress levels as at low ones, which has been proved by
fatigue loading
the O"r - philosophy for welds and experimentally for WELDOX and
HARDOX steels (11, 12)
Despite everything that has been said previously, there are five
areas where WELDOX and HARD OX steels can be used with
success in structures subjected to fatigue loading: 3. low load cycle numbers
1. Parent material unaffected by weld
2. High stress levels The region for the permissible stress range is limited by the S-N
3. Low load cycle numbers curve and by the yield stress (or permissible static stress) of the
4. Suitable load spectra steel.
5. When it is possible and desirable to increase the fatigue In other words, WELDOX and HARDOX steels are advantageous
strength of the welds. when the number of load cycles is less than 10', there is a full
load spectrum (constant amplitude) and R = O.
l. Parent material unaffected by weld (sharp notches) This is illustrated by figure 5.1.24 (13.14J, which applies for
butt welds.
If the designer has succeeded in locating welds in areas of low
stress in the structure., the fatigue conditions for the parent
material and for the welds are somewhat different. Here, the Figure 5.1.24
crack initiation phase must be dealt with first, which results in
Or N/mm' Butt weld
an increase of the fatigue strength of the structure.
The fatigue strength of the parent metal is proportional 1000
to the ultimate tensile strength of the steel. This is valid for a
polished test specimen. 700 WELDOX 7
a rB = k· aB k = OA - 0.6, see figure 5.1.22, which applies for .....
mill scale. 500
Figure 5.1.22 Fatigue strength at 2· 106 cycles, R =0 400 S 355
Or Mill scale
N/mm' 300

600 S 275·
200

450

300 100
102 10' 10' 10' 10·

150 The diagram shows that below a certain load cycle number
Ng, it is only the yield stress (static permissible stress) which
imposes a limitation.
For R = - 1, Ng decreases buta r is doubled.
150 300 450 600 750
800 950 N/mm2
Ultimate tensile strength
Mill scale is a very vague definition of a surface, which is why 4. Suitable load spectra
we prefer to test blast-cleaned and primed surfaces, since they
This area is perhaps the most important one.
are more precisely defined and because this is the mostcom-
The actual fatigue load on a structure is usually not of
man service condition of the plate surface.
constant amplitude. For example, the work cycle of a haulage
Cv0" vehicle consists of: loading - off -road driving with load - on-
Figure 5.1.23 I)).' •
fir N/mm' Blast-cleaned affd primed surface R=O p= 1 road driving with load - dumping - off-road driving without
load - on-road driving without load - off-road driving without
1000
load - loading etc.
If a fatigue test is carried out for a butt weld first with constant
700 load amplitude (ka) and then with a load spectrum (spJ, e.g.
p = 112 (more about this later), we will get two different S-N
500 ""- curves. The S-N curve for the load spectrum is displaced to-
~
~,
400 " WELDOX ]00
wards a load cycle' number which is more than an order of
magnitude higher! See figures 5.1.25, 26 and 27, which are
S ~52. (BS 50) - taken from (14).
// --300
~ In other words, it is absolutely wrong to design with constant
S 275 (BS 40) -
amplitude data if the load is of variable amplitude.
200 Describing load spectra is a science in itself. Trying here to
penetrate more deeply into the subject would only complicate
matters unnecessarily.
This section may be regarded as an introduction to design
100 against fatigue using load spectra instead of constant load
10' 10' 10' 107 10· amplitude. Some simplifications are therefore necessary.

5:8
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Figure 5.1.25 Point 3 will give us something called the spectrum parameter p.
Or N/mm' Mill scale R=O A histogram is then plotted with declining values of a,la rref
1000 along a base of values of log N.
A straight line can now be drawn from (a r/a rr f = 1, N t = 100),
700 r- - ~LQOJ<; TQO ca r WELDO~ ~~O sp in such a way that it is tangential to the tops of the histogram,
and the spectrum parameter can be read off at the right of the
l'ol III diagram, see figure 5.1.28.
III
500
'"
400 ;:..:: / " ~S 355 sp Figure 5.1.28

300
- S 355 ca - l~~~~~~::::============~~~P=l 5/6
200

ca p 1 Or

sp p 1/2 Or rei 1/2

100
10' 105 10· 107 10' 1/3
Figure 5.1.26
Or N/mm 2 Butt weld R=O 1/6
1000 O~ ______________________________ ~O

log N 1
700 WELDOX 700 sp log Nt
WELDOX 700 ca ...... The choice of straight lines is practical. and it is also found that
500
most of the load spectra of interest to us are close to being
400 -- I-
- ~ S 355 sp straight lines.
Some standard regulations, for example Swedish bridge regu-
300 lations and crane regulations (74), give us values of p for diffe-
rent service classes. The standardized stress spectra in the
crane regulations are not linear, but follow a gaussian normal
200 S 355 ca distribution, see figure 5.1.29. These spectra are based on the
German crane standard DIN 15018, which is in turn based on
ca p 1 experiences from LBF (Laboratorium fur Betriebsfestigkeit in
sp p 1/2 Darmstadt, Germany), where it was believed in the 1950s that
crane spectra closely followed a gaussian distribution.
100 i'TO-()"_m
10' ID· 107 10'
Figure 5.1.29 bo-am
Figure 5.1.27 i"""iO::::==:::::c:::--,---,---rc--,----,3/3
° r N/mm2 Fillet weld R=O S3
1000

700
WELDOX 700 sp
III
III
500
"'--, III
400 - en
S 355 sp
300 1

I
200
WELDOX 700 ca ~ 9'o 19'0
I;; 'I;;

S 355 ca ca p - 1
sp p 1/2
100
III
III i!
10' 10" 107 10· ~_-..l. _ _-L-_-:---L-_ _L -__--L_----lI 0/3 ~
For example: - Disregard the mean stress; it is primarily the o 1/6 2/6 3/6 4/6 5/6 6/6 I!
welds that are of interest. IgN _ _ ____._ l
- Use the Palmgren - Miner cumulative damage Ig N
rule. Despite more than 100 years of fatigue testing, most design
J
- Pay no attention to the sequence of the loads. data derive from constant amplitude testing, while our structu-
res are subjected to variable amplitude (spectrum) loads. I
In order to describe in a simple manner how "heavy" (the
heavier, the closer to constant amplitude) our load spectrum is,
This has its rools both in inadequate testing equipment - it is
considerably more expensive to carry out a spectrum test - and
1
we choose the same method as that used in the Swedish in the fact that investigators have often contented themselves
Regulations for Welded Steel Structures (8). with comparative testing, therefore considering constant ampli-
tude to be adequate. Furthermore, uncertainty has prevailed
It is then necessary to know: with regard to the testing procedure (i.e. how actual load spect-
ra should be simulated, actual spectra being in turn difficult to
1. The largest stress range in the spectrum, a rref' measure).
2. The total number of load cycles Nt . What is therefore needed is a theory that makes possible the
3. The way the different stress ranges a r are distributed among use of the results of constant amplitude test for estimation of the
different load cycle numbers. life of a structure under variable amplitude load.

5:9
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Such a theory is the linear cumulative damage rule originally
proposed by Palmgren in 1924 and restated by Miner, usually
known as the Palmgren - Miner cumulative damage rule. It is
the simplest and least data-demanding cumulative damage rule
and is no less accurate than the others.
If we assume that one stress cycle with 0 ri is independent
of the changes in the material caused by the preceding load
cycles, then it causes a partial damage of
6.D=_l_
Ni
where Ni = expected life at constant amplitude foro w
If a structure is subjected during a service time To to a mixture
of stress cycles of varying size:
nl cycles ofo q , which at constant amplitude gave NI'
n2 cycles of 0 r2' which at constant amplitude gave N2.
ni cycles of 0 ri' which at constant amplitude gave Ni'
then the total life of the structure
j ni
D = I6.D = I -
i = 1 Ni
will be expended during the time To.
There are now two ways to proceed:
a. Start with the load spectrum and use the Palmgren - Miner
cumulative damage rule for each case, using permissible
stress ranges at constant amplitude.
b. Compute new SoN curves for permissible stress ranges for
each Kx and p-value with the aid of the Palmgren - Miner
cumulative damage rule. The latter is the most convenient
method, but if it is difficult to obtain a load spectrum suffi-
ciently accurate to carry out a cumulative damage calcula-
tion, we will have to settle for making an estimate of the
spectrum parameter p.
Method b is used in section 5.2 "Practical design against
fatigue failure".
Something about the shortcomings of the Palmgren - Miner
cumUlative damage rule
Figure 5.1.31 (1) shows what happens to crack propagation
when the stress range changes. When the change is "Low ~
High", crack growth increases immediately, whereas when the
change is "High ~ Low", crack growth stops suddenly, only to
start up again after a certain delay at a rate corresponding to the
new stress range!
Figure 5.1.31
Crack length

The life of the structure is then exhausted when

D= I ~ reaches unity.

To
The estimated life will be T = I ~
N

See also figure 5.1.30.

Time

Figure 5.1.30 Crack length

"r

Time
Or

Time
(Number of load cycles)

The sequence in which the different levels come is therefore

10gN of the utmost importance.
The reason why a crack retardation occurs in the High ~
Low case is that when the crack is propagating (growing). 0 s is
always reached in the crack tip and in a small region in front of
Table 5.1.3
Fatigue life in 103 cycles 0 max overload = 0 min + 1.67· 0 r
Number of cycles between overloads 6. N
Or Constant One over-
N/mm2 amplitude load 105 104 1~ 1~ 10
144 1676 10000* 10000* 7800* 4215 3260 850
144 1020 10000 - 10000* 1126 1586 1332
144 3780 10000 - 6200* 1673 1130 980
177 727 1294 4692 1333 1339 590 391
177 1062 719 919 5049 1367 410 260
177 640 616 1962 1418 1741 685 422
220 223 670 1604 718 623 238 150
220 441 1050 1014 799 326 503 142
220 325 410 435 685 628 251 163

*Survivor

5:10
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

this. When the load is removed, this region will contain com- We have two basic options:
pressive stresses. Both the size of the region and the magnitude
a. Improve the design of the joint so that we get larger radii and
of the compressive stresses depend on the size of the preceding
stress range. smoother transitions between the weld and the parent mate-
Strain hardening also occurs in this region. This means that if rial (undercut).
a smaller stress range is then imposed, its influence on crack b. Introduce compressive stresses in the critical region (a crack
propagation will decrease by the compressive stress caused by can only propagate under tensile stresses).
the preceding higher stress range. The duration of this effect
will depend upon the size of the compressive stress region. There are a number of methods where these mechanisms are
From this it follows that even occasional high a r have a favoura- involved either singly or in combination. Among these, three
ble effect. stand out as being the most practical:
If, on the other hand, an external compressive stress is impo- Peening, grinding and TIG dressing.
sed, the effect is reduced sharply.
The same effects have also been found with regard to crack Peening is a cold working process in which a pneumatic tool
initiation in notches with radii of between 1 and 5 mm (16). (slag hammer) with a rounded tip is used to work harden the
The effect of the delay for welded jOints (non-load-carrying transition between the weld and the parent material. In this
cruciform weld) under overload is described in (17) and applies manner, compressive stresses are introduced and crack initia-
for R "" O. Table 5.1.3 shows the results. tion is delayed. This works excellently until the welded joint is
As can be seen, if the number of cycles between overloads is overloaded, whereupon the compressive stress state is eliminated.
~ Hi, there is a reduction of fatigue life, while for> Hj cycles The results of the peening process are nearly impossible to
there is a clear increase. check and considerable environmental problems are associated
Fora r = 144 N/mm2 and L\N > 103 , none of the speCimens with peening (noise).
failed.
Thus, the Palmgren - Miner cumulative damage rule does
not take into consideration High ~ Low or Low ~ High and the Figure 5.1.32 As - welded
distance between these events.
Load cycles that are smaller than the endurance limit (ar5 in
figure 5.1.30) make no contribution to I n/N, since according to
the definition N ~ 00. In practice, these small a r also shorten
the fatigue life of the structure by accelerating the growth of
previously formed cracks.
This situation can be rectified by modifying the S-N curves
either by disregarding the endurance limit and extrapolating the
S-N curve downwards or by introducing a new level of the
endurance limit that corresponds to a threshold value (L\ Kth ) at
which a certain .size of the crack does not propagate.
It is also possible to give the S-N curve another slope below
the endurance limit (k' = 2k - 1).
Stress ranges with Iowa min (compressive stresses) are more
damaging than what corresponds to ~. This unfavourable
Ni
effect will be greater if such events occur periodically
throughout the entire service time.
Figure 5.1.33 Ground
It would seem as if the Palmgren - Miner cumulative damage
rule is a good approximation and gives values on the "safe side"
for R ~ 0, but can give highly uncertain results if R <0, i.e.
cycles with compressive stress.
The best way to check a component is to record an actual
load spectrum in service and then mount the component in a
rig and feed the testing equipment with the spectrum in ques-
tion. This is known as service simulation testing.
The reader who wishes to find out more about load spectra is
referred to (1).
The practical part of the calculation work will be dealt with in
the section "Practical design against fatigue failure".

5. When it is possible and desirable to increase the fatigue

strength of welds
When it has been found that technical/economic advantages can
be gained by using WELDOX and HARDOX steel plate in a struc-
ture, it is often discovered during design that a few welded joints Figure 5.1.34 TIG-dressed
are completely critical with respect to fatigue in determining
whether or not WELDOX and HARDOX steel plate can be used.
In such cases, it can be well worthwhile to increase the fatigue
strength of such critical welded jOints in some way.
The section "Fatigue, general" clearly shows that the problem
~f fatigue in welded joints is a problem of geometry, and from
figure 5.1.5 we can see that we must in some way prevent or
prolong the initiation phase and "suppress" crack propa-
gation ~n ord~r to be able to increase the fatigue strength of the
welded JOint; In other words we must increase the influence of the
term Ni in
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Grinding is the most widely used method at present, but it is Table 5.1.4
often used at the wrong place.
Correct grinding involves grinding of the transition between Quality requirements for cutting classes as per StBK-N2
the weld and the parent material (the weld toe) so that micro- Cutting Application Quality requirement Dressing of
cracks and slag inclusions are removed. At the same time, a class
Surface Dressing
surface
smoother transition with a large radius is created. roughness of free
Important! The undercut must be ground down to about 0.5 mm edge
mm below the surface of the plate in order to make sure that all

~I
stress raisers have been removed, see figure 5.1.5! Care should

•
also be taken in grinding to make sure that the score marks
caused by the grinding process are not oriented across the flow
of stress. If they are, they will act as new stress raisers. \
In prattice, grinding imposes high demands on the operator.
Bringing about a measurable improvement in fillet welds with SkO Structural The surface shall be
only a grinding disc is very difficult. It is often necessary to use a element dressed so that the
not designed for necessary corrosion
burr. transmission of protection can be
Grinding of the top or root weld reinforcements is meaning- force (non·load· applied (see StBK·N4)
less and only arouses suspicions as to the quality of the weld. carrying)
See figures 5.1.32 and 5.1.33.
Ski Construction a.; 1.0 Stag and spatter As for SkO
class I in struc· shall be removed
tures subjected from edges
TIG dressing is a relatively new method that is rapidly gaining to small number
of load cycles
more and more adherents. or load cycles of
A TIG torch is used to re melt the weld metal in the weld toe small magnitude
without the use of filler material. A TIG torch consists of a
tungsten electrode surrounded by argon shielding gas.
Sk2 Construction a..;; 0.3 Edges shall be Cutting defects. surface
In this manner, a very smooth and fine transition between the classes 1 and 2 deburred cracks and other surface
weld metal and the parent metal is obtained, and at the same , defects shall be removed
time the entrapped slag inclusions are released and can float up by grinding. In construc·
tion class 1. a surface
to the surface. See figure 5.1.34. defect may be repaired by
Properly executed weld dressing using the above methods welding and subsequently
ground. Apart from these
greatly extends fatigue life at approx. 1()6 load cycles, for ex- requirements. the specifi·
ample by a factor of 2 - 3 for butt welds of types Sv 2 and 3 and cations given for SkO
by a factor of 3 - 4 for fillet welds of type Sv 2; alternatively, a r shall apply
can be increased by about 20 and 40%, respectively.
TIG dressing is the preferable method of the two with respect Sk3 Construction a..;; 0.2 Edges shall As for Sk2
classes 1 and 2 be chamfered
to environmental hygiene and ease of execution and inspection. tos;!< 2mm
The environmental advantages of TIG welding over grinding
are obvious.
Accessibility is very good! In principle, TIG dressing can be
Influence of some defects of geometry
performed everywhere it has been possible to weld. Its degree
of difficulty is equivalent to that of ordinary gas welding. 1. Axial misalignment in butt welds has been studied in (19)
The results are very easy to check by means of visual inspec- with pulsating tension and bending, see table 5.1. 5.
tion. The evaluation method is the same as for welds. Expe-

- - - - - - ~---t+-
rience shows that TIG dressing is the method that gives the
most reliable results. TIG dressing is about 3 times faster than
grinding. ~ +,

Important! The stress concentration factor for a butt weld with axial
Note that only those parts of the welded joint that are critical for misalignment and under pulsating tension can be approximated
fatigue failure should be dressed. Figures. 5.1.6 - 14, and above as follows:
all practical experience, should serve as a guide.
Kt = 1 + 3 -
e
For design I(urposes, an Sv 2 class weld can be counted as t
an Sv 3 class weld, provided that dressing has been carried out
as described above, see table 5.2.3. The improvement can Table 5.1. 5 Pulsating tension
sometimes be considerably greater, but a thorough analysis is
necessary in order to be sure of this.
If the risk of fatigue is reduced in this manner at one point, elt 25 50 75 100%
this means that there will be an increase of the fatigue risk at Reduction of a r at
another place. The way in which a possible failure situation is le! cycles 38 46 65 72%
altered must, of course, be carefully analyzed.
Grinding does not have much effect
elt 25 50 75 100%
increase ofa r at 106 10 11 13 28%
Some special cases and results from expe-
Deposition of additional filler material in order to improve the
rience geometry of the weld does not bring about any appreciable
Gas-cut free edges can be dealt with in the same manner as improvement.
welds (a r) with Kx = 1. 5 for the best cutting class Sk3 as per In pulsating bending, axial misalignment has very little
StBK-N2 (8) and Kx = 1.7 for Sk2, see table 5.1.4. . negative effect.
It is very important that the transition between the as-rolled
surface and the gas-cut surface along the edge be chamfered, 2. Axial misalignment in load-carrying fillet welds
since the gas-cut surface is critical, and experience shows that Kockums has investigated this in (20) and found that axial
crack initiation often occurs in this transition. Cutting defects misalignments of 5 mm in incomplete penetration jOints did not
reduce fatigue life by 50% and should be ground off with very lead to any reduction of fatigue strength at 106 load cycles (t =
smooth transitions. All chamfering and grinding shall be done 35 mm). Axial misalignments of 10 mm and greater caused a
in such a way that the score marks are aligned along the edge. marked reduction. This could be compensated for to some ex-
See also ref. 18. tent by increasing the root gap!

5:12
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

it was also shown - and this has also been found by other Figure 5.1,36 B
investigators - that the same fatigue strength can be achieved H/Tp Tp
for a fillet-welded joint as for a complete penetration joint if the
1.4-.-----~--,.----._--._-__,
throat thickness is correct. See below, optimum throat thick-
ness.
50
Angular misalignm~nt in butt welds
Figure 5.1.35 shows what a great influence an angular 1.2
25
misalignment has on the stress range.
19

Figure 5.1.35 1.0 12.5

8
L = 350 mm 6.25
= 20mm
Or = 200 N/mm2 0.8

0.6
Fracture in A

0.4

ar

Simply supported h (mm) 1 3 5 8
a (0) .16 .5 .8 1.3
Increase afar ('Ye) 14 43 72 116
Stress relieving of the welded joint for the purpose of increasing
its fatigue strength is only worthwhile for those welded joints that
are subjected to an external a r which includes compressive
stress (i.e. R < O!) some time during the stress cycle. The
increase in a r corresponds to kR in fig. 5.l.21 and is verified by
(21 and 22). The increase is greatest when N > 106 load
cycles. Up to 25 % increase in allowable stress range is possible.
Influence of test load (overload) has been dealt with in the
section on spectrum load and has been shown to have a
favourable effect.
a. Angular misalignments are straightened out
b. Crack tips are rounded
c. After unloading, compressive stress is obtained around the
cracks that have been subjected to tensile stress.
Optimum throat thickness in load-carrying fillet welds
It has been demonstrated (23) that an optimum throat thick-
ness in statically loaded structures does not give an optimum
result under fatigue loading. This is especially true at large
throat thicknesses. To resist fatigue, the welded jOint should be
made uniformly strong so that there is an equally great risk of
initiation from the root and from the undercut. From the view-
point of inspection, initiation from the undercut is easier to
detect.
Figure 5.1.36 A and B shows how throat thickness should
be chosen for different plate thicknesses and penetrations. In
actual practice, throat thicknesses are usually too small! This is
also shown by actual fatigue failures, where the fracture usually
initiates at the root l
Figure 5.1.36 A
0_ - - a
0.2
O+-----.-----r----.-----.----~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
- - - - - Increased penetration 2a,/T-p
Influence of plate thickness
In the case of smooth components, the greater the material
volume, the higher the probability of failure. The critical mate-
rial volume for welds is very small. The influence of e.g. plate
thickness is statistically negligible.
For fillet welds, on the other hand, it has been shown that the
thicker the plate, the larger the region of high stress where
fatigue cracks initiate.
In practice, fatigue strength is reduced by about 10% be·
tween 10 mm and 30 mm plate thickness.
Prototypes versus mass-produced specimens
Prototypes made by hand-picked personnel often exhibit a long-
er life than mass-produced specimens. The difference can be a
factor of 2.
Practical conversions at 2· 106 load cycles
ar (R = 0) "" 0.8· Or (R = - 1)
a rtension (R = 0) = 0.8' a rflexure (R = 0)
Multiaxial states of stress are very common, and research
results here are almost non-existent.
A multiaxial state of stress is defined by three principal stres-
ses a), a2, a3 and their corresponding directions ~.rl and ~.
In the general case, all six components vary with time and in
a way that need not be at all regular, nor need the components
be interrelated.
This entails an enormous complexityl
It is therefore understandable why there is no simple, or even
complex, theory that accurately describes the situation.
The following steps are recommended, in the order given, in
order that reasonable progress may be made in design.
l. Try to calculate or estimate the prinCipal stress in combina-
tion with a stress raiser that is most critical for fatigue failure
at a given pOint. Assume a uniaxial state of stress. (Remem-
ber! A fatigue crack always propagates perpendicular to the
largest prinCipal stress.)
2. Use an approximate method, for example the one given in
StBK-N2 (8).
3. Consult the special literature and start with (1) part 2,
special methods.

5:13
 Dynamic strength - Fatigue, general

Strain cycle fatigue can be involved in two main cases: eta = 0.5' 0°.6 • N-O·6 + 1.75 (a: ). N -0.12
1. When the component is subjected to loads that are control-
led more by strains than stresses, for example a flexible
component between two rigid components subjected to ther- where 0 = el og _1_
mal variations etc. I-tjI
2. When the component is subjected to an extremely small
number of high loads N < 1000 - 10000 (Iow cycle fatigue). N = number of load cycles
In this life range, the S-N curve is nearly horizontal, so stress aB = ultimate tensile strength of the steel
is a poor parameter (cf. the tensile test curve at (J s)' E = modulus of elasticity of the steel
Strain is therefore a more sensitive measure of the state of tp = reduction of area at rupture in tensile test
the material in this region.
The notch effect in connection with strain cycle fatigue can, as
This subject is a very extensive one, so we shall confine our- a first approximation, be put equal to the stress concentration
selves to a few approximate formulas only. factor Kt, and in many cases gives a result on the safe side.
For unnotched steel Kt = 1, the total strain amplitudeE:ta can Those who wish to find out more are referred to (1 ) part two,
be written in accordance with Coffin-Manson: special methods, and ASME Ill.

5:14
5.2 Practical design against 7. Compareo rmax withorperm
Iformax~arperm OK.
If a fmax > 0rperm' change dimensions or welded joint and
fatigue failure. carry out new calculation. (Note that the position of the criti-
cal point may be changed!)

life?
Page No. If it is instead desired to determine the expected life N, proceed
Calculation procedure ..................................................... 5:15 according to points I, 2 and 3, and 0 rmax gives N from the
appropriate S-N curve.
Typical load spectra ........................................................ 5:15
If either of points 5 or 6 is met, correct the SoN curve.
Comments and hints on the calculation metrlod .............. 5:16
Load analysis .................................................................. 5:16 P.S. Check that the finished structure conforms to the desig-
ner's intentions with regard to stress concentrations etc.
Evaluation of load spectra ............................................... 5: 17
ProbaQility of failure QB .. ................... ..... ........ ................. 5: 17
Table 5.2.1
Typical spectrum parameters lip values"
Efficient and convenient calculation methods for designing
welded jOints have long been lacking, but with the introduction Nd
of the stress range philosophy (0 r) in 1974, simplifications were P
possible so that designers had a practical calculation method to
work with. Bridges 1/3R 2. 106
The Swedish Regulations for Welded Steel Structures StBK- Steel structures 1/2R
N2 (8) took a first step in this direction. The method used here MObile crane, hook operation ON 2.105
is largely based on these regulations. Mobile crane, hook operation 1/2 R
The differences lie, first and foremost, in the permissible Overhead travelling crane
stresses. Since the publication of StBK-N2, extensive reviews and at steel mill 2/3 -IN
supplementary tests have been carried out. In our tables, we Container crane 2/3 N
have taken these newer results and international viewpoints into Ship bottom OR 108
account. For the most part, the failure curves agree with StBK-N2 Excavators (boom, dipper
at 2· 106 load cycles, but the slope has been adjusted to arm) 112 - 2/3 N 4 - 5 years
WELDOX and HARDOX steels and to the slopes that have been Vehicle frames:
adopted internationally. Dumptrucks, tippers 2/3 R 2· 106 4 - 5 years
As has been illustrated earlier, in order that the fatigue strength Forestry machines 1/2 - 2/3 R 4 - 5 years
of a component may be calculated, the design of the component Mobile crane chassis 0- 112 R
must already have been largely determined, so that this type of
calculation is actually more of a check calculation. Forks on forklift trucks
The reader will undoubtedly find the calculation method simple at sawmills 1/3 R 2· 106
after having gone through a few examples in section 5.3. Lift arms on wheel loaders,
hard duty, regular cycle 114 N
Lift arms on wheel loaders,
normal varying duty 0- 116 R

Nd == Design load cycle number

Calculation procedure (see also comments below) R = Linear load spectrum, see figure 5.1.28
Given: Statically designed structure, i.e. steel and dimensions N == Normally distributed load spectrum, see figure 5.1.29
given, welded joints positioned and designed in the most
favourable manner.
Required service life Nd (load cycles) given.
Determine the maximum permissible stress range Or perm'I

1. Choice of point for analysis.

Determination of weld class etc., stress direction.
Determination of K., table 5.2.3. Figure 5.2.1

2. Load analysis Or
N/mm2
Measure, calculate or estimate the load spectrum and calcu- 1000
late 0 rmax' Determine the spectrum parameter p, table 5.2.l. Assumed SoN curves
~
...... III!i;>.l. (failure curves)
3. Determine the required probability of failure QB ...... ~
500
Kx, P and QB give the appropriate SoN curve, table 5.2.5 a ~R'
300 .........
or b (depending upon which value of QB is desired).
200 Kx
4. With the aid of the SoN curve, Nd gives 0 r erm' figures 5.2.1
- 5 or table 5.2.5 a or b. P
1.3
1.5
100 1.7
5. If the structure does not contain any residual stresses, or if it 2.0
contains known residual stresses and R < 0,0 r can be 2.3
multiplied by kR' depending upon the R value, ~i~1igure 50
2.6
5.l.2l. 3.0
3.5
6. If the point in question is not a gas-cut edge or heat-affected 4.0
5.0
material, 0 rperm can be multiplied by ks, depending upon 20
the steel, see table 5.2.2. 10 3 10 4 10 5 106 10 7

5:15
 Dynamic strength - Practical design against fatigue failure

Figure 5,2.2 Comments and hints on the calculation proce~

a,
N/mm'
dure
1000
v( ~rm Qs 10- 2
...... t!oo. -p 1 L Choice of points
~
500
"" .:...;
The choice of point(s) for analysis is the most important part.
The wrong point will yield a meaningless calculation. The secret
300 here is to find the most severely stressed region ((J r, principal
stress direction, stress gradient) in combination with existing
~~
•
200 Kx
1.3 stress raisers (K x), which together give the most criticql point
1.5 iZ with respect to fatigue failure_
1.7 As a safeguard, preliminary calculations should be carried out
100 2.
2.3 for a number of likely points before it is possible to determine
2.6 which is the most critical.
50 3.0 Studies of failures and personal experience are very valuable.
3.5 Some idea of which points are critical is provided by figures
4.0 5.l.6-14_
5.0
20 Watch out for fillet welds, even if they are not load-carryingl
10 3 iO' The joint factor Kx is determined fr.om table 5.2.3 on the
Figure 5.2.3 basis of weld class etc. and principal stress direction. Note
where the design sections are located (marked in the table l.
N/mm' A combined stress concentration effect from holes and
1000 welds is not considered to exist if the distance between the hole
OB .10- 3 and the weld is greater than the diameter of the hole.
;:0.,; p=l If the distance is less, the nominal stress range is multiplied
500 :'" ~
by Y KXhole and the Kx factor of the welded joint is used.
In the case of intersecting welds, the largest Kx value increa-
300 :-;; :--... sed by one step from the series 1.3, l.5, 1.7,2.0,2.3,2.6,3.0,
3.5, 4.0 and 5.0 is used. If more than two welds interact, the
200
?
it
largest Kx value is increased by two steps_
If Kx is greater than 5.0, a higher weld class is chosen or the
100 joint is redesigned.
'?
If the desired Kx value is not found in table 5_2.3, test results
~. can be used or an attempt can be made to estimate the Kx
50 ~.
value, some appropriat~ factor from the Kx series being used.
'i
to-
"
5.0
20 315 N/mm2
10 3 10 4 10 5 107 (definition)
Figure 5.2.4
<1,

Nlmm' Certain welded joints can be improved from Sv 2 to Sv 3 if the

UUU weld is TIG-dressed.
"Pl"m 08=10--'
p 1
~ ~
500

300
200 2. load analysis

100 IP
11.
§~
Load analysis is the weak link in the calculation chain and the
most difficult to get a grip on.
I?· 11 Load~ are calculated with the aid of the laws of mechanics to

50 I~' .0
start with. In many cases, this is all that can be done.
It can sometimes be very valuable to carry out some simple
') - measurement as a check.
Complex measurements are difficult to evaluate. Experience
20 liQ shows that the effort is seldom thought to be worthwhile_
Comparative calculations performed on satisfactorily functio-
10' 10 7
ning, similar structures can be very valuable.
Figure 5_2.5 It is even more difficult to deal with the load spectrum. The
0, best method is to record a spectrum covering several operation
Nlmm' cycles on a tape recorder and have a computer evaluate it.
1000 This is expensive, and few designers have access to such
OB 10 5
equipment.
~ ~.
=
A simpler method is to use a pen recorder and evaluate
500
manually. Here, one must often settle for a single operation
300 .::--. cycle .
Typical spectrum parameters p ana Nd exist for certain struc-
200 tures, see table 5.2.1.

n These p values should be used with circumspection. In the

III
case of cranes, for example, the Swedish crane regulations (74)
100 1 should be observed.
:? Experience has shown that severe (above-normal) service
50 :? gives a fuller, often normally distributed spectrum, while normal
use gives a linear spectrum. Furthermore, a normal spectrum
becomes linear on a vehicle frame during haulage driving.
20
103
~.C
10 4 105 106
-
10 7
Load spectra from manoeuvring, steering, cranes and exca-
vators are often normally distributed_

5:16
 Dynamic strength - Practical design agaill:st fatigue failure

A recorded spectrum can be evaluated in a number of ways.
In the case of welded structures, Range-Pair Exceedance
Count, often called simply Range-Pair, seems to be the most
popular method. This is because the minimum stress can be
disregarded for welded jOints (except in the case of stress-
relieved jOints).
Some caution should be observed in using this method in the
case of Signals that resemble a pure sinusoidal Signal, see ref.
(l).
A spectrum is evaluated in the following manner:
l. Choose a number of suitablea r1' a r2' ....
2. Count the number of Nj for each a r by going through the
spectrum for each a fj' tin practice, la template with an
opening corresponding to each a fj is used.)
3. Plot the histogram. The 100 cycles with the highest a r may
be disregarded (favourable), but shall be checked to make
sure that they are less than a 5 ora permstat"
4. Determine the p value and place greater emphasis on the
curve having a good fit at high N/Nd values.
Figure 5.2.6 Evaluation of load spectrum
a
Total number of operation cycles = 103
0" 0, 0, N N,..
N'mm' Ollfla.l
important! Do not confuse the load spectrum diagram in
fig. 5.2.6 with an SoN curve!
In other words, a load spectrum with a given p value, Nd , Kx
and a rmax is represented by one point in the SoN diagram for
the same Kx and p value.
3. Probability of failure GB
When the Kx and p values have been determined, the next step
is to determine,the probabiiity of failure, i.e. the desired factor of
safety.
a rj levels. As in the case of static load, discussed in the chapter "Fac-
tors of safety", there is also a scatter in the load and strength
data in connection with fatigue.
The SoN curve (the failure curve) represents a median curve
for 50% probability of failure in fatigue testing (where there is a
very small scatter in load).
If a curve for a lower probability of failure is desired, e.g. 10-3 ,
it is necessary to move the SoN curve along the N axis a suffi-
cient number of standard deviations so as to obtain a 10-3
probability of failure. The distance the curve has to be moved is
thus dependent upon the standard deviation for the curve. This
varies with different Kx values. The scatter is often greater at low
Kx values and less at high ones. As a practical value for this
type of joint - mill scale, gas-cut, welded joint etc. - it can be
assumed that SN = 0.20 in 10 log N.
Scatter in spectrum testing is often less than in constant
amplitude testing (especially at low Kx).
Symmetrical spectra give considerably greater scatter than
asymmetrical spectra (1).
As far as the choice of probability of failure is concerned, 10-3
is usually obtained with the use of a safety factor along the a r
axis of Sf a = 1. 5-2.0, or along the N axis of SfN "'" 4.
f
It is often very difficult to know the scatter of the load, and it
is common to disregard it and to choose a probability of failure
of 10-4 _ 10.5 .
For our recommended values of a fperm' we have chosen the
following probabilities of failure:
10-3 corresponding to 3.10 standard deviations.
10-4 corresponding to 3.72 standard deviations
10-5 corresponding to 4.27 standard deviations

400 I IO l - 100'
Many factors influence the choice of probability of failure, but
0,4 900
0,3 300 075 3· 10 3 3.9· 10l here are some rules of thumb:
0, 200 05 5· 10 3 89·lO l
°1 100 025 8.10 3 169· IO l Very limited bodily injuries 10-2
• The 100 cycles with the largest Or may be
Limited bodily injuries 10-3
Bodily injuries or very extensive material damages 10-4
disrega,'ded, but must be "" a 5or 0 perm.lal'
Risk of extensive bodily injuries 10-5
In the Swedish Regulations for Welded Steel Structures
StBK-N2 (8) a probability of failure of < 10-5 is used.
Assumed SoN curves and curves for permissible stress range
GrlOrmax
a rperm for different probabilities of failure are presented in
1.0....,,------,..------------, figures 5.2.1-5 for p = 1, i.e. constant amplitude.
For p < 1, see tables 5.2.5 a and b for linear spectra and
different probabilities of failure.
For parent material unaffected by welding, gas-cutting or very
sharp notches, a rperfT) may be multiplied by a material factor of
kB' as given in the taole below.

0.5
Table 5.2.2

Steel

S 235 (BS 40, St 37-2) 1.0

p=1/6 S 355 (BS 50, St 52-3) 1.2
WELDOX 500 1.3
WELDOX 600 lA
WELDOX 700 1.5
103 104 log N WELDOX 900 1.5
HARDOX400 1.5
!
5:17
 Dynamic strength - Practical design against fatigue failure

Table 5.2.3 No Constructional detail Weld K" K'l Remarks

In the figures, - - - marks the areas affected by the constructional detail class
for which the stated values of K, are applicable. The arrows indicate the
lJ Butt weld in single V joint Svl 2.3 3.0 With root with a sealing
direction of the stress and not the type of stress (normal stress - shear
Sv2 1.7 2.0 run, alternatively
stress, tension - compression).
Sv3 1.5 1.5 welded against a
a) Where Ihe root of the weld is nol given a sealing run, the value of K, backing strip which
shall be increased by one step for K"" and by two steps for K, l' in is removed
the series of K, values in table 5.1.1 page 5:7. a~all
b) The value of K, for Sv3 may, in this case, be applied also to TIG
dressed welds in Sv2. OU""'- --01
cl The connection is capable of transmitting shear lorce.

No Constructional detail Quality elc Remarks 12 Butt weld in single V jOint Sv1 2.6 4.0 No sealing run on root.
K,
Sv2 2.0 2.6 but quality reQuire-
ment applies to the
O! Parent material, n.O)
root side also
ground surface

02 Parent material. 1.5 Rough rolled surface ~all

rolled surface of finish correspond-
ing to a surface 011__ --01
rougher than Cutting
Class Sk3, see table
5.1.4
1.3 Surface finish corres- 13 Butt weld in single V joint with Svl 2_6 4.0
ponding to Sk3, burrs backing strip left in position Sv2 2.0 3.S
and surface defects
removed

~all
03 Parent material, See Nos 02 and 04-07
011 -01
shot blasted
surface

04 Parent material, 1.7 14 Butt weld with incomplete Svl 2.6 -

hot-dip galvanised penetration Sv2 2.0 -
surface

05 Parent material, 1.3 Surface irregularities

~Oll
sawn surface removed. Edges chamfer-
ecl according to Sk3 011""'-

15 Butt weld al change of plate Svl 2.6 3.5 Root with sealing
thickness Sv2 2.0 2.6 run a)
06 Parent material, 1.3 See No OS Sv3 1.7 2.0
sheared surface
,;:; 1:3 .,;;; 1:2

07 Thermally cut Sk2 1.7 01.-~DJ.

__--~-a1.
01
surface Sk3 I.S
.,;;; 1:2

OB Open circular 1.5d< c< 3d 2.6 Stress range may be 16 Butt weld at change of plate Sv1 2.3 3.0 Root with sealing
holes calculated over the thickness Sv2 1.7 2.3 run a)
gross area. For Sv3 1.5 1.7
~(J reamed holes with

~
---. . chamfered edges, the ,;:; 1:4 ,;:; 1:3
-~ __--~-(Jl
value of K, may be
(1-- reduced by one 01.
step.
c> 3d 2.3 For values of K, for
(JJ. 0J.
bolted connections, ,;:; 1:3
see StBK-N3.

17 Blitt weld at change of plate Svl - 3.0 Root with sealing

width Sv2 - 2.3 run a)
09 Composite con- 3.0 Automatic flash welding Sv3 - 1.7
nections R "" 6b ___...JJJ.
(studsf
~,;:; 1:3 __ (JJ.
~(J
0--- OJ.-r::li:\ ~
OJ.---1:3 ,;:;

10 Butt weld in double V joinl K," K,J. 18 Butt weld at g'rder splice Svl - 3.0 Butt weld with sealing
Svl 2.3 3.0 Sv2 - 2.3 run on root a)
Sv2 1.7 2.0 Sv3 - 1.7 Rolled or welded girder.
Sv3 1.5 1.5b ) The K, value for Sv3,
however. applies only

nCIJn Ht::r:ln
to a welded girder.
~Oll On a welded girder,
other sections, see
e.g. No 30, shall also
011--- -01 be checked.

5:18
 Dynamic strength - Pf'lu:tica! design against fatigue failure

No Constructional detail Weld K'n K.l. Remarks No Constructional detail Weld K"ll K,l. Remarks
class class

19 Butt weld at girder splice Svl - 3.0 Root with sealing run a). 27 Continuous single V T-butt weld Svl - 5.0
(rolled girder) Sv2 - 2.3 Drilled or ground hole. at attachment of circular or Sv2 - 4.0
Sv3 - 2.0 For Sv3, edges of hole rectangular hollow section Sv3 - 3.5
must also be dressed to stiff plate
(see No 08) (See Nos 25

uCI:Jll and 33 ior welded

girders)

a
I
-~~~~~:~~~~~~- a
I~ 250 mm
20 Butt weld at edge of stressed Svl - - Root with sealing run 28 T -butt weld at edge of, or Sv1 - -
plate Sv2 5.0 5.0 parallel to, stressed plate Sv2 5.0 5.0
Sv3 4.0 4.0 Sv3 4.0 4.0

tal
~all
~all
all--- -a1

21 Butt weld at edge of stressed Svl 4.0 5.0 Root with sealing run
all~---a1
plate Sv2 3.5 4.0
Sv3 2.6 3.5
29 T-butt weld at edge of, or Svl 4.0 5.0
parallel to, stressed plate Sv2 3.5 4.0
___ all Sv3 2.6 3.5

all~al _~ ~all
tal

--~
22 T-butt weld
a1
t
Svl
Sv2
Sv3
2.3
1.7
1.5
3.5
2.6
2.0b)
all-"'-"- - /~4~a1

-I
all
I
t----- I--T
-tau , 30 Fillet weld Svl
Sv2
2.6
2.3
4.0
3.5
Manual weld

Sv3 1.7 3.0

a1
tal
23 Single V T -butt weld
a1
Svl
Sv2
2.6
2.0
4.0
3.0
Root with sealing run,
Symmetrical cross
--I
all' I
I
!~!
,all
t section. +------t-
-I
an'
--t------+
I '--T
'all
Sv3 1.7 2.3 I-girder or box girder

31 Fillet weld Svl

Sv2
2.3
2.0
4.0
3.5
Automatic weld

t Sv3 1.7 3.0

a1 tal
24 Incomplete penetration weld Svl
Sv2
3.0
2.6
-
-
Penetration shall be
equal to at least half
-I '
all-i- __ _~---i all
I--T
Sv3 23 - the plate thickness
(bottom plate in the

all
I--T
-I.+- __ '___ -f" I
figure 1
32 Fillet weld on one side only Svl
Sv2
3.0
2.6
-
-
5v3 2.3 -

25 T -butt weld at girder splice

(welded girder)
Svl
Sv2
3.0
2.6
-
-
Drilled or ground hole
K, values apply to ends
--IL ___: __ -I-all
all
1--1
Sv3 2.3 - of T -butt weld

OiIEfj
+- -.-l-JfrjOUT
---+
33 Fillet weld at girder splice Svl
Sv2
Sv3
3.5
3.0
2.3
-
-
-
Drilled or ground hole.
Stated K, values apply
to ends of fillet weld.
Other sections shall
also be checked. see

OiImJrj~'T
e.g. No 12
26 T -butt weld, e.g. at beam- Section a-a
column JOint Svl
Sv2 -
- 3.5
2.6
Force at Section b-b
may be assumed disper-
-1-- -+ --1-
Sv3 - 2.0 sed over 45' as in figure
a1t -, A-A (applies also to rolled 34 Intermittent fillet weld between Svl 3.5 -
rBtb~~8
Section b-b column of I section. in flange and web in I girder Sv2 3.0 -
Svl 2.3 3.5 which case the values of Sv3 2.3 -
!b . a a1 Sv2 1.7 2.6
Sv3 1.5 2.0
K, for Section b-b may
be put equal to 2.01
~tA-l

B-~·t
-
--I
all' 0-- I
I-
,all --
t
-+ -1-------+

5:19
 Dynamic strength - Practical design against fatigue failure

No Constructional Weld K," K,J. Remarks No Constructional Weld K, Remarks

detail class detail class

35 Fillet weld at edge of. or Svl - - Stated K, values also 44 Beam with web stiffeners in Svl 3.5 '" (f, iff, < 0.6",)
parallel to. stressed plate Sv2 5.0 5.0 apply to section through the span and over end supports Sv2 2.6 shall be calculated at edge
Sv3 4.0 4.0 the weld metal (see also No 43) Sv3 2.0 of stiffener. Weld returned
at the ends. Stated values
tal of K, also apply to single

Il1
stiffeners
.....-an
----~- ffWI)mJIl!
all- - >II'Ii!' ~
-al
36 Fillet weld at edge of. or Svl 4.0 5.0 Stated K, values also 45 Box girder with stiffeners Svl 3.5 Weld returned at the ends.

,
parallel to. stressed plate Sv2 3.5 4.0 apply to section Sv2 3.0 Stated values of K, also
Sv3 2.6 3.5 through the weld metal Sv3 2.6 apply to single stiffeners

tal
D
ii

~~
_all ttl ""
I!)
1 1
~= ....~
.~
all--- - / ~ 450--. al
46 Girder with longitudinal
web stiffeners
Svl
Sv2
3.0
2.6
Manual weld

37 Fillet welded longitudinal cleatc) For I.. 100 mm. values of K, Sv3 2.0

~~ f-4
t Svl
Sv2
5.0 may be reduced by one step
4.0

It~
-a'
..~ h= !I'&:II
I ' 11:
. I':.1 '--
r---It--l;-;
la
Sv3 3.0b)
ttl
I
I
I I
38 Fillet welded transverse cleatC) Svl 5.0 If width of cleat is less .
Sv2 4.0 than half the plate width.

~
I,
-I
a.
I
U
i-4+.- 1
Iia
Sv3 3.0b) K, values may be reduced by
one step. If I > lOO mm.
No 48 shall be applied
47 Girder with longitudinal
web stiffeners

I
Svl
Sv2
Sv3
2.6
2.3
2.0
Automatic weld

39
I~ 100 mm

Fillet weld at transverse

attachment c)
Svl
Sv2
5.0
3.5
Weld not returned at the ends.
Stated K, values may also be
HI
i
I !~,
I I
Sv3 2.3 applied to T-butt weld

~a -
48 Girder with cover plate Svl With or without transverse
Sv2 5.0 fillet weld to Sv2.
Sv3 4.ob) For Sv3. transverse weld and
a- at teast 50 mm of longi-
tudinal welds nearest the
40 Fillet weld at transverse Svl 4.0 Weld returned at the ends. corners shall be dressed.

~a
attachment c) Sv2 3.0 Stated K, values may also be
Sv3 2.0b) applied to T-butt weld

a-
~a
a- .
49 Girder with cover plate Svl - With transverse fillet weld.
Sv2 5.0 For Sv3. transverse weld and
41 Fillet weld at longitudinal Svl 5.0 For I .. 100 mm. values of K, Sv3 4.0b) at least 50 mm of longi-
attachment c) Sv2 4.0 may be reduced by one step. tudinal welds nearest the
Sv3 3.0 Weld not deSigned for trans-

~
corners shall be dressed.
mission of force

-!::-~~(J
~ ~
~~ --~~
;::::::::::::::... a- ~a .
0.- ~

42 Intermittent fillet weld between Svl 4.0 Good contact between rail 50 Girder with cover plate Sv3 3.0 Transverse fillet weld shalt
crane rail and crane girder Sv2 3.5 and top flange. Rail and be dressed to taper of 1:3
Sv3 2.6 girder are assumed to inter- or less. At least 50 mm of
act when fll is determined. longitudinal fillet welds

~o
but not when"lI is deter- nearest the corners shall

~(J mined be dressed to Sv3

a- a---
43 Continuous beam with stiffeners Svl 4.0 ", (f, iff, > 0.6",) 51 Girder with cover plate Svl 2.3 Refer to section at least
over intermediate supports (the Sv2 3.0 shall be calculated at edge Sv2 2.0 one flange width from the
figure shows three alternatives) Sv3 2.3 of stiffener. Weld returned Sv3 1.7 end of the flange plate
at the ends

(fm~mlilIl a-
~a

5:20
 Dynamic strength - Practical design against fatigue failure

No Constructional Weld K. Remarks

Kx values for pressure vessel nozzles under pulsating internal
detail class pressure, from ret (43).

52 Fillet welded connection Svl 5.0 Table 5.2.4

of member 5v2 4.0
Sv3 3.5

+~
Type Joint Kx Fatigue strength
! ' , --I
! :. '-a
+-- JI N/mm at
N = 2· 104 105 2· 106

53 fillet welded connection Svl -

of member 5v2 5.0

~
5v3 4.0
1 3.5 140 102 49

! • ·--a fa
+~
+-
54 Fillet welded symmetrical
lap Joint
Svl
Sv2
Sv3
4.0
3.5
3.0bl
2
rlEh 2.5 152 120 71

:
n
I
a-I ~ 11 i-a
:
I
i 11 11
! 3 3.0 180 177 58

55 Fillet welded symmetrical Svl 5.0

lap joint Sv2 4.0

a-I
,
~, 11
~
Sv3

i_a
I
3.5
4
AA 3.0 167 116 50

: I! I !
56 Contir,uQus single fillet weld
at attachment of circular or
rectangular hollow section to
stiff plate
Svl
5v2
5v3
-
5.0
4.0
5
~ 1.9 160 112 52

a -;::1::::~--1I~ a 6
~ 2.2 195 140 77
~ 250 mm

The arrow indicates the area for the kx value.

5:21
 Dynamic strength - Practical design against fatigue failure

Table 5.2.5 a

Permissible stress rangeu r N/mm2 at probability of failure QB = lo-l

p N Kx
1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
p =1 10' 900 900 900 900 900 856 781 705 655 554
104 636 598 559 529 450 398 362 327 304 257
105 357 321 289 258 209 184 168 152 141 119
6· 105 228 197 176 147 115 101 93 84 78 66
106 201 172 149 125 97 86 78 71 66 55
2· 106 169 143 123 101 77 68 62 56 52 44
p= 5/6 104 755 711 664 628 535 472 430 389 361 305
105 425 382 344 306 248 219 200 181 168 142
6· 105 271 235 206 175 137 121 110 99 92 78
106 239 204 178 149 115 102 93 84 78 66
2.106 201 170 146 120 92 81 74 67 62 52
107 135 110 92 73 62 55 45 39 36 31
p= 2/3 104 900 874 817 772 658 581 529 479 444 376
105 522 469 423 376 306 270 246 222 206 175
6· 105 334 289 254 215 168 149 135 122 114 96
lOS 294 251 219 183 142 125 114 103 96 81
2.106 247 209 180 148 112 99 91 82 76 64
107 165 135 114 89 70 61 55 48 44 38
p= 1/2 104 900 900 900 900 854 754 687 621 576 488
105 643 607 548 488 396 350 319 288 268 226
6· 105 471 347 328 279 218 193 176 159 147 125
106 428 326 284 238 184 162 148 134 124 105
2.106 387 271 233 191 146 129 118 106 99 83
107 308 175 147 116 95 82 75 69 58 49
p= 113 104 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 877 815 689
105 793 735 713 689 560 494 451 407 378 320
6· 105 582 512 469 393 308 272 248 224 208 176
106 555 480 416 335 260 230 209 189 176 149
2· Hr 496 439 354 270 206 182 166 150 l39 118
107 415 358 243 163 l35 118 109 93 81 69
p= 1/6 104 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900
105 900 900 900 900 777 813 741 670 622 526
6· 105 804 711 700 635 483 448 408 369 342 290
106 753 662 636 563 422 378 344 311 289 244
2· 106 688 602 558 479 351 300 273 247 229 194
107 559 481 412 328 240 205 185 144 l34 113
p=o 104 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900
105 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900
6.105 900 900 900 900 876 789 811 679 634 560
106 900 900 900 900 758 683 684 581 543 473
2· 106 861 839 816 772 623 561 543 470 440 375
107 690 645 594 521 395 356 318 288 269 220

5:22
 Dynamic strength - Practical design against fatigue failure

Table 5.2.5 b

Permissible stress rangeo r N/mm2 at probability of failure Ga = 10-5

P N Kx
1.3 1.5 1.7 2,0 2,3 2.6 3.0 3,5 4,0 5,0
p= 1 103 900 900 900 900 /81 692 642 592 554 491
104 557 514 481 450 363 322 298 275 257 228
105 312 276 249 219 168 149 138 128 119 106
6· 105 199 170 150 125 93 82 76 70 66 58
106 176 148 129 107 78 69 64 59 55 49
2· 106 148 123 106 86 62 55 51 47 44 39

p = 5/6 104 661 612 572 535 431 382 354 327 306 271
105 372 328 296 261 200 177 164 152 142 126
6· 105 238 202 178 149 110 98 91 83 78 69
106 209 176 154 127 93 82 76 70 66 58
2· 106 176 146 126 102 76 69 61 56 52 46
107 118 95 80 62 55 44 38 33 31 27

p = 2/3 104 813 752 704 658 530 470 436 402 376 333
105 457 404 365 321 246 218 202 186 175 155
6· 105 292 249 218 183 135 120 III 103 96 85
106 257 217 189 156 114 101 94 87 81 72
2· 106 216 180 155 126 93 84 75 69 64 57
107 145 ll6 98 76 63 56 48 40 38 33

p = 1/2 104 900 900 900 853 687 609 565 520 488 432
105 592 522 472 416 319 283 262 241 226 201
6· 105 378 322 283 237 176 156 144 133 125 llO
106 333 281 245 202 148 131 122 112 105 93
2· 106 280 233 201 163 118 108 97 89 83 74
107 187 151 127 99 83 73 64 55 49 43

P = 1/3 104 900 900 900 900 900 861 799 736 689 610
105 710 680 620 586 450 400 370 342 320 284
6· 105 50G 430 398 335 248 220 204 188 176 156
106 470 397 344 286 209 186 172 159 149 132
2· 106 433 356 282 230 186 149 137 126 118 105
107 358 278 178 139 119 106 93 80 69 61

p = 1/6 104 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900
105 900 892 850 831 741 658 610 562 526 466
6· 105 673 665 579 536 408 362 336 309 290 257
106 630 611 528 473 344 305 283 261 244 217
2. 106 577 545 466 399 273 242 225 207 194 172
107 469 419 348 269 205 180 150 131 116 101

p=o 104 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900
105 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900
6· 105 900 900 900 900 811 668 623 599 561 497
106 900 900 893 794 684 572 533 505 473 419
2· 106 833 789 760 665 543 462 432 401 375 333
107 644 554 522 439 333 298 270 234 220 195

5:23
5.3 Examples - Fatigue Example 5.3.2
A welded joint in a crane jib is loaded as shown in figure 5.3.2

Page No.
Example 5.3.1 ....... ........... ... ...... ........ ...... ...... ............ ... 5:24
Example 5.3.2 ............................................................... 5:24 Figure 5.3.2

Example 5.3.3 5:25

Example 5.3.4 5:25
Example 5.3.5 5:26
Example 5.3.6 5:26
Example 5.3.7 5:27
Example 5.3.8 5:27
Example 5.3.9 5:28
Example 5.3.10 5:29
Example 5.3.11 5:29
Example 5.3.12 5:29

and designed with the following data:

a r = 125 N/mm2
p = 112
Nd = 2· 106 load cycles
Weld class Sv2
Probability of failure Qs = 10-5
Example 5.3.1
A frame is spliced with a butt weld as shown below. Weld class During fabrication, an additional request is made: to put a light
Sv 2. on the jib.
The joint is designed to withstand 2· 106 load cycles. Full The fabricator, who wishes to oblige the customer, drills a
spectrum, i.e. p = 1. hole as shown in the figure. What happens to the joint now?

What stress range can be. permitted when the probability of

failure Qs is:
a. 10-2
b. 10-5

Solution:
Hole* case 08 table 5.2.3 Kx = 2.6
Figure 5.3.1 Weld case 13 table 5.2.3 Kx = 2.0
'The distance between the weld and the hole is less than the hole diameter. so
the two stress-raisers are considered to interact.

To adjust for a hole, the nominal stress range shall be

multipliE'd by

V Kxhole
.: a r = 125· v'2.6 = 201 N/mm2

Solution: . a rperm in accordance with table 5.2.5b (10-5 )

Stresses: Mainly bending stresses
Critical point: The corner A. Note! Intersecting welds i.e. the
highest Kx value is increased by one step in the Kx series
Kx = 2.0
p =112
Nd = 2· loG
I a rperm = 163 N/mm2

Kx.L = 3.5 (Case 13, table 5.2.3) } -+ KXA = 4.0

KXII = 2.0 (12)
. : a r > a rperm

Qs Figure a rperm What is the probability of failure now?

N/mm2

a) 10-2 5.2.2 57 If we compare with table 5.2.5a, which applies for Qs = 10-3 ,
b) 10-5 5.2.5 43 we getarJ?e!11J. = 191 N/mm2, so it can be said that QB lies
between 1()" and lQ-J

5:24
 Dynamic strength - Examples - fatigue

Example 5.3.3 The frame is naturally subjected to other loads as well, so this
point must be checked for the total load spectrum (including
A welded joint for a tipping cylinder lug is to be designed the tipping cycle) that acts on the frame.
against fatigue, and the lug is to be welded to a frame as shown
in figure 5.3.3. What throat thickness should be chosen, and
will the joint hold?

Figure 5.3.3 p = 1 Example 5.3.4

Nd = 6· 105
Weld class Sv2 Assume that someone wishes to load more on his vehicle than
Q B == 10-3 the frame permits. The frame must then be reinforced with a
W, = 10· 106 mm 3 cover plate on the flanges.
How thick and how long should the reinforcement be?
Pr = 40 tonnes
QB = 10-5
Weld class Sv2
p = 2/3
Nd == 2· 106 load cycles

3000
Figure 5.3.4
50 "'I

Present design:
IPr = 12 tonnes
2000 t 2000
A--
o
~
N
Pr = 40 tonnes

t = ?-l---I------r
Solution: Section modulus W = 1.26' 106 mm 3
In the case of a load-carrying fillet weld, cracks can initiate
Desired design:
either at the root or in section A-A.

We check that the lug will hold in section A-A

Pr 40· 104 2
a rl = 350. 20 = 57 N/mm
350· t

KXl = 4.0
P = 1
~ according to table 5.2.5a a rperm = 78 NI mm 2
Nd = 6· 105
OKa r < arperm
QB = 10-3

The throat thickness is selected from figure 5.l.36, which gives

optimum throat thickness. Assume a certain penetration. Take Solution:
2a)/T p = 0.8 There are two critical points for fatigue here:
Tp = 20 mm~ H/Tp = 0.98~ H = 19.6 a. In the middle of the beam along the weld on the cover plate
b. At the end welds on the cover plate
Point a. determines the required thickness t.
throat thickness (a)= ~= ~ = 13.8
V2 V2 KXII = 2.0 case 51 table 5.2.3
QB = 10-5
i.e. throat thickness = 14 mm P = 2/3 -> (according to table 5.2.5b)
Nd = 2· 106 a rperm = 126 NI mm 2
Will the frame hold under the stress concentration effect of the
lug? W = 18· 104 . 2000 = 1.43. 106 mm3
The bending stress in the frame member is:
new 2. 126

Pr· L 4
= 60 N/mm2
- - = 40· 10 • 3000
a rbend =2. W 2· 10· 106
t:. W "'" (t· 100)' (130 + _t_ ) 2. 2· _1_ = 0.17' 106 mm 3
The most critical point is at the ends of the weld jOining the lug 2 130
to the frame member
t"= 6 mm i.e. 6· 100 mm
K'II (case 36 table 5.2.3) = 3.5
p = 1 ~ according to !able 5.2.5a End weld (case 48) Kx = 5.0
Nd = 6· 105 a perm = 84 N/mm2 QB =
10-5
QB = 10-3 a r bend < a rperm OK at least p = 2/3 ~ arperm = 57 N/mm2
for tip loading. Nd = 2· 106

5:25
 Dynamic strength - Examples - fatigue

The design section for the cover plate is such that we must
calculate where a r = 57 N/mm2 is located for the desired load,
but with original W.
Figure 5.3.5
Example 5,3.6
The fabricator is unfortunately forced to weld a socket to a
frame flange with dimensions as shown in figure 5.3.7.
a. How much must the stress be reduced?
b. If we TIG-dress the weld, how much must we then reduce
the stress?

OB = 10-3
Figure 5.3.7 Weld class Sv 2
p = 2/3
Nd = 2· 106

90
For end weld: o

Mmax = arperm' W = 57·1.26· 106 Nmm

) co
78
. 57· 1.26' 106 . 2
Distance from support L = 4 = 798"'" 800 mm
1.. 100 .1
18· 10 12
i.e. the length of the cover plate = 4000 - 2 . 800 = 2400 mm

Solution:
The critical point is the transition between the flange and the
Example 5.3.5 weld for the socket.

A socket for a hydraulic tube is to be welded onto a vehicle The following applies for the longitudinal weld on the beam:
frame.
If the frame has the dimensions shown in figure 5.3.6, how KXII = 2.0 case 31
high can the socket be made if it is welded at the neutral layer table 5.2.3
and the frame is designed against fatigue?
OB = 10-3 -> arperm (table 5.2.5bl = 148 N/mm2
P = 2/3
Os = 10-5 Nd = 2.106
Figure 5.3.6 Weld class Sv 2
p = 1/3
For the top surface of the flange
Nd = 2· 106
90 2
- ~C::::;;:::::;;:J armaxperm= 148· 78 = 171 N/mm

[} ) o
N
N
a. But when we weld the socket on, Kx = 3.0 (case 40) and
0rmaxperm = 91 N/mm 2 , i.e. 47% reduction!

Thus, this socket, whir::h is non-load-carrying, completely deter-

mines the fatigue strength of the beam!
20 b. TIG dressing, whose purpose is to improve the geometry of
the weld, can be employed to great advantage here

Figure 5.3.8

Solution: TIG dressing

The height of the socket shall match a rperm for the longitudinal
weld.

KXII = 2.6 5
OB = 10-
p = 1/3
I
Case 32 table 5.2.3 gives:

-> according to table 5.2.5b

a rperm = 149 N/mm2
Nd = 2.106
The socket gives Kx case 39 = 3.5 andorperm = 126 N/mm2

220/2 - 20 h/2 A TIG-dressed weld of class Sv 2 may, for certain joints (where
h is calculated from -----= -- -> h = 152 mm TIG dressing brings about an improvement), be counted as Sv 3.
149 126 Case 40 Sv 3 Kx = 2.0
Owing to the stress gradient,
a rmax perm = 148 NI mm2

armax perm = 148 = 0.86 Le. 14% reduction with

°rmax 148. 90 TIG dressing compared to
78 47% without TIG dressing'

In order to obtain the same strength in the beam after welding

of the socket, it is necessary to increase the thickness of the
flange to 23 mm in case a. and 14 mm in b.

526
 Dynamic strength - Examples - fatigue

Example 5.3.7 Two steels are usually considered:

A skilled designer has located his welds where the stresses are
S 355 =
as 350 N/mm2 < arperm!
WELDOX 700 as = 700 N/mm2
low in the structure. Accordingly, the maximum stress is located
where the material is unaffected.
How much lighter can the structure (the beam) be made of What is the difference in weight between the two steel grades?
WELOOX 700 than of S 355 (BS 50) with the same overall
dimensions? 3
Moment of inertia I "" 2· [ t'100 + 30· t· 452 ]
=
12
Figure 5.3.9

Mr( (((!(((((((((((l(((((((((({
-------
)Mf
o
N
CV) no
-W§QJ,
__
t= 10 mm
= t· 2.88' 105 (mm4)

Required section modulus W = ~

orperm

1.8· 104 . 1650 = 8.49. 104 mm3

Ws 355
350
Solution:
W WELDOX 700 = 1.8· 104 . 1650 = 6.77' 104 mm3
w"", 2· t' 6320' + 2· _1_ ·160· t· 160'zt'85335 439
160
W= _1_
50
Mr = 0rperm' W W' 50
t=
For material unaffected by welding, a rperm = kB . a rperm with k8 2.88.105
obtained from table 5.2.2
Kx mill scale case 02 table 5.2.3 = 1.3 8.49· 104 . 50
t BS 50 D = 2.88' 105 = 14.7, i.e. 16 mm
OB = 10-
p =1
5
1 a fperm = 148 N/mm2
(table 5.2.5b) tWELDOX 700 = 11.7 mm i.e. 12 mm
Nd = 2· 10°
What is the difference in weight for two forks?
S 355 Kx = 1.3 a rperm = 148· 1.2 = 178 N/mm2 m = Ltot ' 2 . 260· t . 7800· 10-9 [ kg]
kB = 1.2
WX 700 Kx = 1.3 a rperm = 148· 1.5 = 222 N/mm2
mBS 50 0 = 3300·2· 260· 16· 7800· 10-9 = 214 kg
kB = 1.5
mox 812 = 160 kg
t\'IX 700' k 1 · 222 = 10· k 1 · 178-> tWX700 = 8 mm
t.m = 54 kg or 25%!
The cross-sectional areas "wx 700 (640 + 320).8
ABS 50 D (640 + 320) . 10

i.e. Awx 700 = 0.8 i.e. 20% lighter!

ABS 50 0
Figure 5.3.10

Example 5.3.8
A designer has to choose a material for a log grapple mounted
on a forklift truck. The log grapple must be able to withstand 3
tonnes (1.8 tonnes on each of the two tines, since the load may
be unbalanced). The profile of the grapple shall be as shown in
figure 5.3.10. The fabricator can weld to class Sv 2, and a
probability ot failure of OB = 10-3 is considered adequate. Ltot = 3300 mm
3 ton

Sv 2 - K, 11 = 2.0 / Gas-cut, cutting class 3

__ / Sk3-K x = 1.5
Solution:
First, we have to know the load spectrum and the required
service life.
o :c * gives equal fatigue
o
Use e.g. table 5:2.1, which gives p = 1/3 and Nd =
2· 106 for o
strength when
Kx gas-cut = 1.5 and
forks on forklift trucks at sawmills. The critical point is the gas- 0"1
cut surface in section A-A.
:c o KXII welded = 2.0
~t
Kx = 1.5 case 07 table 5.2.31
OB = 10-3
P = 1/3 -> a rpe(m = 439 N/mm2
Nd = 2· 106 (table 5.2.5a)

5:27
 Dynamic strength - Examples - fatigue

Example 5.3.9 Nd ". 1.019· 106 load cycles and the value of p lies between 0
and 1/6. choose p = 116. since the largest contribution to the
A stress spectrum on the frame (S 355) of an industrial truck cumulative damage takes place at N > 105 .
(prototype) has been measured as shown below during 10 hours
of typical operation at a point where a risk of fatigue failure is The value of Kx at point Dis then determined.
considered to exist. (After some time, the frame broke here.)
The frame has the dimensions specified in the figure and Sv 2, intersecting welds!
must be spliced due to limitations in fabrication technology.
Have the right steel and plate thickness been chosen to Kxll "'" 2.0 case 12 table 5.2,3 (can be compared to longitudinal
achieve a life of 104 hours (4 years) with a probability of failure butt weld)
QB = 1O-3?
a fmax E; as
Kx.l = 3.5 case 13
Kx tot { Kx increased by one step} = 4.0
Figure 5.3.11

Kx
QB
= 10-3 1
= 4.0 a rperm = 289·N/mm 2 (table 5.2.5a)
P = 1/6
Nd "" 106
We havea r ax = 500 N/mm2 and 10 mm plate thickness. So it
wasn't so sFrange that the frame broke at this particular point.

Increase the plate thickness to 500. 10 = 17.3 mm

289
Take 18 mm plate thickness a rperm < O's for S 355 (BS 50)
.,' S 355 is adequate here.

I
We also check point E.
Only longitudinal weld Sv 2, Kx 11 = 2.0
Kxll = 2.0
~B : ~?: -+according to t~ble 5.2.5ao rperm
B-B Nd = 106 = 563 N/mm
Weld class Sv 2 at E. D, S, A
The maximum stress range at point E after the increase in
Sv 1 at C
plate thickness = 289· 2540 = 489 N/mm 2. (It was even
Measured stress spectrum 1500 larger before!)

ar N N Ntot This means that the actualarmax = 489 N/mm2 is less than
N/mm2 aria rmax 10 hours 104 hours arperm = 563 N/mm 2 .

500 1.0 1 1· 163 1· 163 OK. Bur larger than 0' 5S355 = 350 N/mm'. Not enough!
450 0.9 2 2 3
400 0.8 3 3 6 WElDOX 700 must be used here!
350 0.7 6 6 12
300 0.6 25 25 37 ',' 18 mm WELD OX 100
250 0.5 52 52 89
200 0.4 75 75 164 Now we also check the weld for the buckling stiffener at point C,
150 0.3 183 183 347 a - (section depthf approximately
100 0.2 235 235, 582
50 0.1 437 437 Nd = 1019
a r maxc = (650)2. 600 . 289 = 76.3 N/mm2
800 1500

Sv 1-+ Kx = 5.0 case 39 (Note! not intersecting welds)

Solution:
First we determine the value of p from the measured spectrum
by plotting the histogram.
Note that we may disregard the 100 largest a r-values.
~~ : !~-31 -+table 5.2.5aa rperm = 244 N/mm2
Nd = 106
Figure 5.3.12 OK sincearmaxC= 76.3 <a rperm = 244 N/mm2
Ur/ur max .,' Steel WElDOX 700, plate thickness 18 mm!

1.0
~
~ r-....l
.......
~~
~~ ~
0.5 ~ "-. 1-"'"
i"-.. ~ 1 -........ p= 1/3
i'l
""" '" r-...

~
............

L 1/6

o ~
102 103 104 105 106

5:28
 Dynamic strength - Examples - fatigue

Example 5.3.10 Figure 5.3.13

or/omax
A critical point in a welded structure has the following data:
Kx = 3.0
QB = 10-3
--> table 5.2.5aorperm = 53 N/mm2
P == 2/3
Nd = 107

R = a min = _ 0.6
°max

a min = - 20 N/mm2
i.e. we have an external stress which becomes compressive
some time during the load cycle.
Question: Is it possible to increaseorperm by means of stress oL---~----~--~~===d
relieving so that we meet the conditionormax = 65 N/mm 2 ? 102 10 3 104 10 5 10 6
Nd = 10 5

Solution: Which steel can be used when QB = 10 -5?

Use figure 5.1.21, which gives the factor kR = 1.13 for R = -0.6
Solution:
a rpermstress.rel. = kR . a rperm Table 5.2.5b
a rpermstress-rel. = 1.13' 53 = 60 NI mm2 < a rmax p = 0 and 105 givesorperm = 900 N/mm2
i.e. WELDOX 900 up to and including Kx = 5.0!
Answer: No (Note: This is an actual application today!)

Example 5.3.11 Example 5.3.12

A mobile crane only utilizes its maximum capacity about 250
times during its life. It frequently utilizes its lifting height, how-
ever.
A typical load spectrum is shown in figure 5.3.13.
Figure 5.3.14
The frame for a forwarder (an articulated forestry machine for
hauling felled timber cross-country) is considered to be too heavy.
The material that has been used in the frame is S 355. It has not
been thought possible to utilize a higher yield strength, owing to the
stress-raising effect of the welded joints. The rear frame is now to
be redesigned.

Present design
Mk
Log bunk
I P210ad
Crane moment Mk
~
Crane mount ~
3.5

5.0
Bogie mount

Moment and
Transverse force
from front section
O120
KXll=1.7
t=10
320
A-A
o Marks critical points for fatigue failure
The numbers indicate Kx values in Sv 2

Proposed Frame length 4300 mm

design

Section 0-0 Section E-E

5:29
 Dynamic strength - Examples - fatigue
The loads come for the most part from the front section, the
crane, the log bunks and the bogie (the 'rear axle').
Experience shows that extreme loads can easily arise in con-
nection with e.g. loading and driving over very rough terrain.
It has been necessary to utilize S 355 up to its yield stress
=
(350 N/mm2) for such cases. A probability of failure Qs 10.3 ,
= =
a load spectrum p 1/3 and a life Nd 2 . 106 are assumed.
The fabricator can weld to class Sv 2, but does not accept
grinding.
How much lighter can the frame be made? Can steel with a
higher yield strength be utilized?
The present design of the frame is shown in figure 5.3.14.
Solution:
Mark the most probable positions of the critical points and indi-
cate the Kx values.
Calculations, testing or experience will show where the most
critical points are. This analysis is not carried out here.
The result is that we have largely the same high fatigue
stresses along the entire frame on the top and bottom flanges. It
is then relatively easy to identify the most critical points, those
with the highest Kx values.
The bogie mount, Kx = 5.0, determines the maxa rperm
which, according to table 5.2.5a, is:
Kx = 5.0
p = 1/3 orperm = 118 N/mm2
Nd = 2· 106
This was, .of course, known, and a plate thickness in the frame
beams of up to lD mm was therefore chosen.
We redesign the frame and try to move the welds to areas of
low stress and simultaneously reduce the Kx values.
A proposed design is shown at the bottom of the figure (fig.
5.3.14).
Section B-B: The crane mount has been welded to the vertical
plates instead of directly to the beams.
The reinforcement wedge has been pulled up
on the beam web and the vertical weld against
the beam web goes only so far down that it is of
the same strength as the longitudinal weld on the
beam.
Note also the vertical plate's weld against the
beam.
Section C-C: Mount for bottom and top protective plate is com-
bined and plug-welded to the beam web.
Section D-D: No weld on beam flanges!
Section E-E: The log bunks are fastened with bolted jOints and
the tubes are positioned so that the Kx value and
o rperm match Kx and 0 rperm on the flanges of the
frame beam.
5:30
Now we only have the longitudinal weld on the frame beams as
the limiting Kx. It would also be possible to move this weld to the
web and utilize the ks factor and be able to use steel with a hig-
her yield strength. In this situation, all welds must be moved even
more towards the middle of the web and be located on an area of
0.2 . H (beam depth) in order that e.g. WELDOX 700 may be
utilized to its limit. If we can do this, we have come a long way!
Usually, it proves difficult in practice to come below 0.4 . H,
and then we should be able to permit stresses as shown in
figure 5.3.15.
Figure 5.3.15
0 , " {,;"-_-; K. = 3.5- 0, = 15.0 N/mm2
Orperm= 375 N/mm2
Assume that Kxflange = 1.7 is limiting, thenorperm = 354 N/mm2.
Compare this to the original permissible stress range of
118 N/mm 2.
We can then reduce the thickness of the plate in the beams to
118
- - 'lD= 3mm!
354
This is an unrealistic plate thickness in practice.
Choose therefore t = 6 mm!
There is a risk here now! In the original proposed design, the
yield stress 350 N/mm2 had been utilized for extreme loads.
The stress from these loads now increases to:
10 2
"'6 . 350 = 583 N/mm
Therefore choose WELDOX 700 (as = 700 N/mm2) t = 6
mm, then the frame can withstand both fatigue and extreme
10ads.WELDOX 700 is also better able to withstand
unforeseen extreme loads in fatigue.
When the frame is 4300 mm long, the weight reduction is then:
dm = M· L· (2B' 2H)' 7800· lD-9
dm = (10 -6)' 4300 (2·120 + 2· 320)' 7800· lD-9 = 118 kg
i.e. about 100 kg lighter, which means when the frame weighs a
total of about 800 kg, about 12% lighter!
5,4 Something about crack
propagation
Page No.
Calculation method for crack propagation
under fatigue load .............................................. ,', .. ,....... 5:31
Example ................................ ,.... ', ........... " .. ,........ ,.... " ... 5:33
Design data ....................... " ........................................... 5:35
This section is not specific to WELDOX and HARDOX steels, but is
nevertheless of great interest in dealing with fatigue and in evalua-
ting how rapidly a crack propagates under fatigue load.
Crack propagation is one of the areas of Material Scienc(i! in
which large advances have been made recently.
Calculation method for crack propagation under fatigue load
If we examine figure 5.1.4, which shows how a crack propagates
a distance A a during a load cycle I:!. N, we can see that there
must be some relationship between the steel, a r' A a and I:!. N
in order that the way in which a crack grows may be described.
Such a relationship is the Paris fatigue crack propagation
equation:
~~ - crack propagation per load cycle in mm/cycle
C and m are material constants
I:!.K == variation in stress intensity N/mm 3/2 , MN/m3/2
What is meant by stress intensity?
If we are to describe the stress of a sharp notch using elastic
theory, the maximum stress is:

G max = anominal (1 + 2 ~ )
where a is the depth of the notch
r is the radius of the notch
In fatigue cracks, r is extremely small, so that a max ---> 00, The
Introduction state of stress must therefore be described in some other way,
So far, our treatment of fatigue has been aimed mainly at deter- for which purpose the concept of stress intensity is excellent.
mining what happens at the end of a component's life: Failure

~'f (:,8 ... )

or no failure, This is not enough in some cases; it is also neces-
sary to be able to determine how a crack initiates and how K==a nom
rapidly it propagates,
Different phases during fatigue are of interest in connection == stress intenSity MN/m 3/2 , N/mm 3/2
with different structures. a nom = nominal stress in undisturbed region M NI m2 == NI mm 2
1. Automobile engines: "Cracks must not form." Infinite life is a == crack depth m, mm
aimed at. Crack propagation is of little interest here. Design
and production eliminate all factors th-at promote the initia- f ( ~, 8 , ,. ) = geometry function that describes the size
tion of cracks, w of the crack in relation to other
2, Welded structures, e,g. bridges, offshore drilling rigs, reactor dimensions, location etc.
vessels: "It is unrealistic to assume that welded structures
are free of defects." We must therefore assume that cracks Stress intensity can be described in this form for all cracks, It is
already exist and the initiation phase is of no interest. Crack only
propagation is, however, of great interest. How long is the
safe life of the structure?
3, Airplanes: "Finite life is accepted," Both initiation and pro-
f(:,8 ... )
pagation of the crack are of interest.
that is more or less complicated. For a central crack in a very
Where our steels are involved, it is usually point 2 that attracts large plate as shown in figure 5.4.1, for example
the greatest interest.

Figure 5.4.1
t( :,8 ... ) 1 ==

(Jnom
L\. K is then the variation of the stress intensity when the stress

~LLlLl_ULltlJ~
varies by L\. a
Since we are talking about crack propagation and a crack only
propagates under tensile stress, we must impose a restriction
I I when it comes to L\. a,
I
I
I
l:J.a = a max -a min. a > 0

I
I

I
If we take the log of the Paris equation da - C (!:J. K r, we have
! I· 2, ·1 i da
log - = m' log L\. K + log c
dN

I dN

I
I

I which is the equation of the straight line in a log-log diagram,

I I
where m is the slope, This is also the line of regression obtained
in crack propagation experiments, see figure 5.4,2, What is
interesting here is the coupling to the SoN diagrams of welds. As

T1T1TfTlTfTrnr anom
was pOinted out previously, the fatigue of welded jOints consists
mostly of crack propagation, If the slope of an S-N curve (n) for
a welded joint is compared with the slope of the line of regres-
sion in crack propagation experiments (m), we find that
K = a nom . ~ for a through crack n = - m. See figure 5.4,3.

5:31
 Dynamic strength - Something about crack propagation

5.4.2 We know from section 5, L that below Cl given notch effect in

combination with low stress, a crack cannot propagate. An en-
log~ durance limit exists here.
dN This is represented in the crack propagation diagram in the
mm/cycle form of an asymptote. Below about 10~ mm/cycle, the curve is
almost vertical. At very small da/dN, we can determine the
threshold value 6. Kth .
11 K < 11 Kth thus results in no crack growth. 11 Kfu for WELDOX
=
700 8.9 MN/m3/2 and for HARDOX 400 8.7 MN/m3/2, per- =
pendicular to the direction of rolling, and R = O. The endurance
limit (1ru can be obtained from the definition of 11 K:
_ 6.K th
a ru -
~o'f (~, e .. )

Note that this equation contains ao - the actual crack length.

Thus, an S-N diagram can, in principle, be plotted on the basis
of crack propagation, see figure 5.4.4.

1O-5+----~

figure 5.4.4

log Or \ Omax = Rm
log 11 K

N/mm 312

N =_1_
k or"

Figure 5.4.3

logo,

o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 log N

S-N curve derived from theories of fracture mechanics.

log N Near the threshold value, the stress ratio R = 0 min/O max exer-
cises an influence which can be very great in some cases. This
is disregarded in this general treatment.
At large values of 6. K, we will approach a critical value 6. K-->
log~ Kc (fracture toughness) when the crack propagates unstably
dN m =- n and a "final fracture" is obtained.
Handbooks exist with tables of different values of K for diffe-
rent geometries, for example in ref. (29), and a collection is
provided in ref. (30). (Cf. fig. 5.4.10-17).
When it comes to welded joints, the geometry is special and
the crack lengths are small (for most of the life of the joint).
Maddox (Welding Institute) has proposed that the geometry
function f (~ ... ) be multiplied by the factor Mk.

When it comes to very short cracks, f (~ ... ) for most

crack geometries "'" 1 and can thus be replaced with this value.
For welds:
6.K = Mk '6.0' \Ga
Mk is dependent on weld geometry and relative crack depth
and is a function of a. In most cases, we can put Mk equal to a
log I!J. K
constant.

5:32
 Dynamic strength - Something about crack propagation
Figure 5.4.5 Mk when ao « ai, we can leave out the term containing at

l-~
2
Approximate values of Mk (a/t '" 0.01, a = crack depth, t = plate thickness) Nf = ._ao~___ for m,* 2
Butt weld
C (M k . do . film ~_ 1
2 0>0
The constants C and m are dependent upon microstructure,
environment and, to some extent, R value. The variation of C
has the greatest influence. According to Gurney, ref. (31), the
approximate values for structural steels and their welds are:
Load-carrying fillet weld
C;: 1.832· 10-13 and m = 3.0 N-mm system

Mk = 2.5-3.5
These values have also been verified for WELDOX and HARDOX
steels.
The initial size of the crack (defect) is obtained from nonde-
structive testing. When it comes to welds, it can be assumed that
the notch at the weld toe gives a typical average value of ao =
0.15 mm and a typical max. value of ao '" 0.40 mm.

Calculation procedure for estimation of life

1. Determine the size of the initial crack. If this has to be
Non-load-carrying fillet weld' estimated, choose one that is sufficiently large to be im-
probable.
2. Calculate do
3. Select Mk
4. Select C and m if these are not known from similar tests, or
assume as above.
l- Mk = 2.0-2.8 5.
6.
Use the Paris fatigue crack propagation equation·
Fatigue life factor >3 (usually 4, depending on scope of
inspection) in view of scatter in data.
7. Compare with desired life.
*If we have several levels of do, the calculation can be carried
out in steps.

- Mk = 2.0-2.8
Example 5.4.1
A connecting rod made of WELDOX 700 for a compacting
machine that compacts refuse has been deeply scored (score
depth 2.2 mm). See figure 5.4.6.

Figure 5.4.6

Approximate values are given in figure 5.4.5.

The Paris equation can now be written:

~ = C (M k ' do' "I/liar

dN
And this can be integrated in accordance with the following
formula from an initial crack ao to critical crack size.
And since C, Mk , do and m are constants, the following is
obtained:
The customer doesn't dare operate the machine, since he
thinks there is a risk of fatigue failure, which would lead to very
extensive damage.
It takes 6 weeks to get a new connecting rod, and a mountain
of refuse quickly starts to grow.
Question: Can he run the machine without risking fatigue
failure during the 6 weeks while he is waiting for the new part,
during which time he compacts 2000 times/day a.nd a max =
180 N/mm2 and a min = - 30 N/mm2 in the cross section in
question? The plate is 20 mm thick.

l-~ l-~
Solution:
1 2
N, = -----=,.--. _af'--_ _-_a-"!o___ for m
C (M k ' /la. fir 1_~
2
'* 2 The initial crack is known to be 2.2 mm deep
do = 180 N/mm2
2 There is no weld here.

5:33
 Dynamic strength - Something about crack propagation

The function f (~ ) can be tal<en from figure 5.4.17, and f (! ) ~ 1.5 C "" 1.832· 10-13 m= 3.0
for an elliptical surface crack gives
1 _ 18-0·5 + 8.5-05
K = 1.12'0 v;ra 1.832· 10-13 n.5· 120· v'iYo 0.5
C = 1.832· 10-13 m= 3.0 N f = 3.71 . 104 cycles
3 With a fatigue life factor of 3, we may expect the life to be
1-- 1.24, 104 cycles.
2
2.2
NI = ----------------------~-
1.832· 10- 0.12' 180· Vn to
13 3
--1
2
NI = 3.18' 105
cycles
With a fatigue life factor of 3, we can permit"'" 105 cycles 2000
compactions/day in 6 weeks = 2000· 7· 6 = 8.4· 104 cycles Example 5.4.3
'.' we can use the machine for 6 weeks and then replace the
connecting rod. A weld on a manhole cover has dimensions according to figure
5.4.9

Example 5.4.2 Figure 5.4.9

20
Load-carrying fillet welds have been made with insufficient
throat thickness, and there is no S-N diagram for this case. -H-

~
What is the approximate fatigue life?
am., = 120 N/mm2
Omln = 0 A-~

0max= 150N/mm2
0min = 0
Kx { section A-A} = 4.0
What life is obtained with
a) Crack propagation theory
Solution: b) S-N diagram

The crack initiates from the root and propagates through the
weld metal. Here, 2a o "" 2af, so the value of af must be estima- Solution:
ted.
a) Assume initial crack a o == 0.15 mm
What throat thickness is needed to ensureo max = 120 N/mm2 = 150 N/mm2
/),,0
to prevent plastic yielding? Mk == 2.5 "well made" weld (little stress concentration)
°max . t = 2· athroat thickness' as' Y2 C = 1.832· 10-13 m = 3.0
120·20 0.15-05
- - - == athroat thickness' 500 . Y2 1
2 Nr =
1.832· 10-13 (2.5' 150· v'ir"t 0.5
athroat thickness = 1.69 mm"" 2 mm
NI = 9.6' 104 "" 105
af = 10 + 8· v'2 - 2 . v'2 == 10 + 6· Y2 = 18.5 mm b) S-N diagram figure 5.2.1 (fracture curves) for p = 1
= 4.0 ~ N f = 3· 105 cycles
f ( ~ ) :Central crack in finite in-plane-loaded plate, fig. 5.4.10 = 150 N/mm2
Agrees fairly well with a)
a/w = ao == ~ "" 0.4
10 + 8Y2 21.3
Example 5.4.4
~ = 0.7 as an average value during propagation If, in example 5.4.3, we also require a residual strength that
w
gives a maximum permissible crack depth = 3 mm, how many
Figure 5.4.8 load cycles will the structure withstand then?

Solution:
The S-N diagram, which only gives the number of cycles tu
failure, cannot solve this problem.
ao = o.i 5 mm af = 3 mm
With the same data as above, we obtain:
co
+ 1 _3-05 + 0.15-05
o
1.832· 10-13 (2.5' 150· fit 0.5
NI = 3.72' 104 load cycles. Compare with example 5.4.3.
NI = 3· 105
.: Most of the fatigue life is expended at the start of crack
propagation.
5:34
 Dynamic strength - Something about crack propagation

Figure 5.4.10 00 Figure 5.4.11

i t

Kr= 0 0' Via fl

I1 (W·~)
(W'~)

i I~
==
~
•
ao
2W
l

-I
Mo 14 2h

K1= 00' vJia· fi6 (W)

0.4
3.5 6 Mo
oo=~
h
W
3.0 f l6 (~)

1.15

2.0 1----+--+----l---+--;---cF---;<-+-7"~.." 0.8

0.7
1.10 V
1. 5 t---+---t--7f---:J'£--:;;./""-:;~7f""-----::?f---7I 00
1.0

1.05
/
;/
V
1.0 OLIIIIIiiii~0~.1~~0~.2~==oE.3:::::==0[.4=--oL.5--0L.6--.-J0. 7 1.00
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 a 0.5
a
W W

Figure 5.4.13

Figure 5.4.12

2a

a
L- ..c
N
I--

2W
14 ·1
00 3.0

15 (t· if)
1.15 2.5

W
11
LlO 2.0

1.05
W
11
16
4
1.5
\\
1.00
2
1 '--- t--

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 4 6 8 10

c a
11 r

5:35
1.4 5.0 /
1.3
h/W=y
/'
~ 4.0
/
./
:/ // 3.0 /
<
1.2

-------
,/""

l.---"" W- 3
2.0
/
--
1.1
V
~
1.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 a 0.7 o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
a
0.7
W W

Figure 5.4.16 Figure 5.4.17

-- M
Surface crack:
KI= 1.12 (1o·Vi'a·!lQ
a
(c)
6M I nternal crack: ( a)
(10 = TW2 Kr = (10 v'lTii' f 10 C
t = thickness a

2.5 J

/
2.0

1.5
:/
/
1.0

0.5
- I - -r--
----
--- 0.1 0.2 --0.3-------
0.4 0.5 0.6
a
W
0.7 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
a
c
1.0

5:36
5.5 Design of panels against Table 5.5.1

impact. Steel Yield strength N/mm2

guaranteed typical value

Mild Steel (MS) 220 250

Page No.
S 235 (BS 40, St 37-2)
Problem description and consequences .................. ........ 5:37
High-Strength Steel (HS) 350 380
Mechanics .... ....... ...... .............. .......... .............. ............... 5:37 S 355 (BS 50, St 52-3)
When elastic theory can be used ..................................... 5:38
Extra High-Strength Steel 700 750
Plastic theory must be used for extreme loads ................ , 5:39 WELDOX 700
Design data and formulas for extreme loads .................... 5:39
Abrasion-Resistant Steel (AR) 900 1050
Examples ....... .... ........ ...... ............ ........ ........................ ... 5:38 HARDOX400

A higher yield strength indirectly means that the steel is harder,

which is extremely important in most cases of abrasion. When
new structures are to be designed or a better material is to be
chosen, it is necessary to proceed by trial and error.
Problem description
This costs a great deal of time and money.
When panels are subjected to abrasive wear, impact stresses
also frequently arise, for example in bins and hoppers, truck There is a need for:
bodies, feed tables, pioe bends, underbody protection plates,
loader buckets etc. - Comparison between different steels under impact
As we all know, impact stresses cause undesirable dents in - Design philosophy
the panels. - Design data
- Analytical models
Figure 5.5.1
A simple approach for the low-speed « 10 m/sI impact
phenomenon is given below.

Mechanics
In order to be able to tackle the problem correctly, it is impor-
As a result: tant to be familiar with the mechanics of impact.
- The abrasion will be concentrated primarily to the peaks on If, for example, we study the loading of a vehicle, the entire
the panel, leading to rapid wear. system can be regarded as a "mass-spring system". See figure
- The transported material will stick more readily to the panel. 5.5.2.
- Friction increases. Often, a certain mass m (kg) is given, for example a stone
- The structure gives an impression of weakness. falling from a specified height h (m). The energy input to the
system is
The concentration of abrasion to the peaks is disastrous for Etot = m' g' h (Nm), (g = 9.81 m/s2).
stiffened panels (such as dumptruck bodies), since the plate
will rapidly wear out over the welded joint. Sticky material will Figure 5.5.2
collect in the "valleys" ,(the dents) and thereby provide a sub-
strate for additional sticking.
When the material slides along the panel (e.g. during dum-
ping) this will give rise to very high friction (which in practice
often requires a steeper tipping angle).
Even without material adhesion, friction will increase owing to
the wavy surface, and this is often a very great disadvantage, for h "mx+kx=F"
example on underbody protection plates (on off-road vehicles).
In general, a structure with pents and heavily deformed pa-
nels looks weak in the eyes of the end user! The dents are most
obvious on the side of the plate that is not subjected to impact mXl-klX ...
and abrasion. This side is usually painted, and the paint is m2x2+ klXj-...
brittle, so that the impact marks appear as ugly "sunbursts". x
m3 3+ .. .
After some time, the cracks rust and the "sunbursts" stand out m4 x4+ .. .
even more.
m/e.g. rock
The dents often irritate the end user more than wear!
The designer must therefore try to minimize the plastic defor- kl spring constant of panel
m2 mass of body
mations to a level that can be accepted by the end user.
k2 spring constant of body mounts
We know that plastic deformation can be reduced if we
m3 mass of frame
choose a steel with a high yield strength. It is also known that k3 axle spring constant
the thicker the plate, the less plastic deformation there will be. m4 mass of axles and wheels
Thick plate weighs more and costs more! k4 tyre spring constant
The best technical-economic solution is to use a plate with a
high yield strength! A comparison of the yield strengths of diffe-
rent steels is given in table 5.5.1.

5:37
 Dynamic strength - Design of panels against impact

Such a system can be described by force equations Solution:

(mx + kx = P (xl l,
and the result is a system of differential equations that is solved Experience shows that the deformation of the plate will be circu-
with the aid of numerical methods and a computer. lar as vieyved from above, which means that we can approxima-
It is the contact force (PI) between the stone and the panel, te the panel as being circular and rigidly clamped.
i.e. the force in spring kl' which is of the greatest interest during
the impact. along with the parameters which influence its mag- . 300
nitude. ra dIUS a = - -
2
Usually m and m2 are of r.oughly the same order of magnitu-
de, in which case almost all of the energy of m will be transmit- We further assume the propagation of the load to be
ted to m2 before m2 can start to move, at which point the 2· ro= 30 mm.
maximum force (P1maxl in spring kl has already been reached. The stress will be greatest directly underneath the load, and
Due to the inertia of m;t. Pmax in spring kl is largely indepen- the stressor can be calculated from (3) case 7, page 218:
dent of the resilient mounting k2 of m2. which can be proven by
calculations.
While a softer spring k2 spares the frame and underlying Or = ~
2n m I-
[(m + 1) log ~+
ro
(m + 1) r0 :
4a
]

parts in the system, it does not appreciably affect PImax '

Interest should therefore be concentrated on the parameters
3 . p. (m 2 _ 1) . a2
m, h, m2 and k} when studying the force Plan the panel. Deformation !:J. =
The influence of the size and fall height of the falling mass is 4 . n . E· m2 . e
obvious.
Reducing m2 reduces P1max slightly, but for practical rea-
sons, it is only possible to reduce m2 by about 20%, in which
case the reduction of Pimax will only be marginal.
A weaker spring kl could, however, lead to an appreciable For the elastic case
reduction of P1max' If kl (the body) is made too weak, the risk of
plastic deformation will increase. Thanks to the high yield
strengths of the WElDOX and HARDOX steels, kl can be made
fairly small without a risk of plastic deformation (but not for extre-
me loads!), e.g. HARDOX 400 in the plating and WElDOX 700 or 2 ro = 30 mm
WElDOX 900 in the ribs.
1 1
The elastic case m
v 0.3
When designing panels against impact, we assume the most
stringent load case that the structure is guaranteed to with- 300
a -2- = 150 mm
stand.
An elastic approach involves the assumption that the given
energy (E = mgh) is to be absorbed elastically. lOmm E = 210000 N/mm2
This is represented 'by the area underneath the curve in a
load displacement diagram (P -!:J.) in figure 5.5.3. P 4n E m2 ~
k
!:J. 3 (m 2 -1) a2
Figure 5.5.3 p
k 4.2961 . 104 N/mm
p2 Eel' 2 k
Ps+-------f
p2 4288· 1aJ· 4.2961 . 104 • 2
p+-----Jf
P 6.06' 105 N i.e. 60 tonnes!

With substituted values, 0 = 8670 N/mm2. This is greater than

Os = 700 N/mm2 (for WELD OX 700), which means that the panel
will be plastically deformed.
155 kg falling from 2.82 m on a panel made of 10 mm 700
N/mm2 steel is not a particularly high requirement.
How large a mass will such a panel just be able to withstand if
the mass is released from about 3 m?
p.!:J. k!:J.2_ p2 (v = v'2gh~ v = 7.67 m/s).
Eel = -2- = -2- - 2k 0rmax=os= 690N/mm2~ Pmax= 3.3346·105 N
i.e. p2 = Eel' 2· k p2 (3.3346' lOS? = 1.294. 104 N ~ m
Ps corresponds to 0 =0 s . Eel = 2k 2· 4:2961' 104
= 43.9 kg!
Example 5.5.1: With knowledge of realistic plate thicknesses and conditions of
A panel of 10 mm WElDOX 700 (os = 700 N/mm2) must with- service, it can be said directly that design on the basis of elastic
stand a mass of 155 kg falling from a height of 2.82 m. theory is not feasible. The result would be far too heavy structu-
res.
Figure 5.5.4 Such a result may be correct if no plastic deformation what-
soever is the requirement.
The elastic theory does not appear feasible in practical design
work.
1) u
I· 300
·1
Calculate the maximum stress in the plate.

5:38
 Dynamic strength - Design of panels against impact

Design philosophy
From the above, it would appear difficult in practice to design
panels with the aid of elastic theory to withstand borderline
loads.
It should be possible to permit some plastic deformation,
but it is our job to keep it within the framework of what the
end user (or other specifying party) can accept.
In other words, we must use plastic theory.
The plastic case
We can examine the tensile test curve for the steels in question
as shown in figure 5.5.5 which is elastic - perfectly plastic.
Just as in the elastic case with the P-!J.. curve, the energy is
represented by the area underneath the U -f curve.
Figure 5.5.5
a Figure 5.5.7
This proves not to be a limitation, since very large values of !J.. Pm
are usually of no interest.
The formula has been checked by means of fall tests (see
ret. 62).
80 fall tests were performed in Oxelosund (62) on rigidly
clamped 600· 600 mm panels.
The falling body (radius 50 mm) had a mass of 155, 300,
500 and BOO kg and was released from a height of 2.B2 m. The
maximum plastic deformation !J.. Pm was measured.
Three steel grades were included in the study:
S 355 (BS 50, St 52-3)
WELDOX 700 (StE 690, RQT 700)
HARDOX400
The nominal plate thicknesses were 6, B, 10, 12 and 16 mm.
The results are presented in figures 5.5.7-10, which can be
used as design guides.
Plate thickness in mm

15

Epl E

We consider once again the problem of the falling mass and the
given input energy Einput that is to be absorbed by the plate. Let 10
\ "\ ,WElDOX 700

~DOX400~ ~
us see how two different steels - WELDOX 700 and HARDOX 400
- the same plate thickness sustain this load. See figure 5.5.6.

I~
m=155kg '\
Figure 5.5.6 h=2.82 m I'
5
WELDOX 700 HARDOX400
a a (> 6Pm
o 10 20 30 40mm
ar900 N/mm2 Figure 5.5.8
I I Plate thickness in mm
I
=Einput
15
1\ \ .~
I\WElDOX7~
j j S 355
HARDOX400\ (BS 50. St 52·3)
Epl.WX 700 E E

f plastic HX 400 = 700 . f plasticwx 700 = 0.77 . f plastic wX700

900
10
1\ ~
\\
~
""'""- ~
The result is approx. 25% less plastic deformation if
HARDOX 400 is used instead of WELDOX 700!
m=300 kg
h=2.82 m 1\ '\
5
The corresponding figure for S 355 (BS 50) and HARDOX 400 is 6Pm
about 60%! "(
Usually, when it comes to calculating extreme loads, Ep.I» o 10 20 30 40mm
Eel, and the elastic contribution can therefore be neglectea.
Figure 5.5.9
Plate thickness in mm

Calculation of required plate thickness ~S355

A formula has been derived (62) from reference (4) for calcula- 15 -~ ~ (BS 50, St 52·3)

ting the required plate thickness t (mm) when the following are HARDOX400
~lDOX 700' "
known:
Einput = Input energy (mgh) N mm ~ ~
Us

t= -
= Yield strength of the steel
!J.. Pm = Maximum plastic deformation

I Einput -~!J..p 2,!J..p <

V If·Us·!J..Pm 36 m m
NI mm2
mm

1.3 (EuinpsuI )113

10

'" "
~
I'...
"'-
"'- '"
m=500 kg
The formula is sufficiently accurate when h=2.82 m
5
(> 6Pm
o 10 20 30 40 mm

5:39
 Dynamic strength - Design of panels against impact

Figure 5.5.10 Solution:

Plate thickness in mm WElDOX700 HAROOX400
Figure 5.5.7 gives

15 :\ "\. i.e.
t = 13 mm
t = 12 mm
I i.e.
t = 9.8 mm
t:: 10 mm
HARDOX4oo\ ' \WElDOX 700
(slightly too thin, but the next thickness
in the stock list is 16 mm)

10 1\ '\ Of the fall height had been only 2 m, what would the plate
thicknesses have been then?

m=800 kg Solution:
h=2.82 m
5 Here, the fall height differs from the one in figure 5.5.7 (2.82 m)
and a correction must be made with the aid of figure 5.5.12.
(> LlPm
o 10 20 30 40 mm WELDOX 700 HAROOX400
12 mm"""", - 4.0 mm/m redu- 10 mm"""", - 3.0 mm/m redu-
As these diagrams show, Ll Pm decreases with increasing ced fall height ced fall height
strength, and especially upon changing from WELDOX 700 to 2_82 - 2_0 = 0.82
HARDOX 400. i.e_ - 4.0 . 0.82 = - 3.28 mm - 3.0' 0_82 = - 2.46 mm
t = 10 mm, 34% for m = 155 kg But 6. Pm = 10 mm 'is a requirement, which means that if figure
29% m = 300 kg 5.5.7 is to be used, then
37% m = 500 kg
18% m = 800 kg 6. Pm = 10 + 3.28 = 13.28 6. Pm = 10 + 2.46 = 12.46
mm mm
The decrease is roughly the same (25%) as was obtained by
a comparison of the tensile test curves.
Figure 5.5.11 shows a comparison of the deformation of dif- the plate thicknesses are then
ferent steels of 16 mm plate thickness subjected to 500 kg
falling from 2.82 m. t = 11.2 mm t = 8.2 mm
i.e. 12 mm i.e. 8 mm
Figure 5.5.11
Figure 5.5.12
ON:~----------------------+---~
LlPm carr mm!m(reduced fall height)
1------"""'""::::--=-=-----t---I-1 HARDOX 400
WElDOX 700
10~------------~~--~~~~~ -4.0
1--------------~--~~~~S355

20~-----------------~~
-3.0 /
30t-------------------+~-~

-2.0 /
/
40L-------------------+--~
Llpmm Parameters: t= 16 mm
m=500 kg
h=2.82 m -1.0
/
Influence of fall height
This has also been investigated, but on a smaller scale, and it Plate thickness in mm
has been found that at constant energy, the maximum plastic o I I I 1
deformation decreases with decreasing fall height. 6 8 10 12
This is of no importance when comparing two steels and the
same m and h. However, the fact that the deformation is always
less when the fall height is reduced is important to bear in mind Example 5.5.3
when sizing the plate_ Figure 5.5.12 can be used to correct for A tipper for very heavy duty has to be able to withstand boulders
different plate thicknesses when the fall height deviates from weighing 800 kg falling from 2.5 m without the maximum plastic
the one assumed here (2.82 m). deformation in the bottom exceeding 20 mm. What plate thick-
nesses are required for grades WELDOX 700 and HARDOX 400?
The body has the following dimensions:
Example 5.5.2
In designing a dumper body for a haulage vehicle, the designer R~re5.5.1~
has two steels to choose from: WELDOX 700 and HARDOX 400.
The body must be able to withstand 155 kg, from a height of
2.82 m, and the customers complain when the dents (~Pm) are
larger than 10 mm.
What plate thicknesses are required for the two steels? ...---- 3000 ,. ____ ~

5:40
 Dynamic strength - Design of panels against impact

Solution: Solution:
Input energy Einput := 300·9.81· 1500 = 4414· 103 Nmm
WELOOX 700 HARDOX400
700 N/mm2 steel HARDOX400
Input energy Einput = mgh = 800· 9.81 . 2500 =WELDOX 700
= 19620' 103 Nmm
as typ = 750 N/mm2 as typ = 1200 N/mm2
as typ = 750 N/mm2 as typ = 1050 N/mm2 Check of accuracy of calculation
Check of accuracy of calculation
I Einput ) l/~
t.Pmperm == ( "
(Einput ) 1/3 as
as
t.'l.Pmperm = 18 mm I t.'l.Pmperm = 16.1 mm
29.7 mm I 26.5 mm
OK, since t::.. Pm = 15 mm
OK, since t.'l. Pm = 20 mm I
I
I t= - I Einput _ ~ . t.'l. Pm 2
5 V :It. as' t::.. Pm 36
36
t = 9.7 mm t = 7.6 mm
t= 19 mm t = 15.6 mm
these thicknesses must still apply after 5000 hours
Agrees well with diagram!
i.e. 20 mm 16 mm according to
our standard
Plate mass 2400 kg 1920 kg Thickness allowance due to wear
Difference = 480 kg
WELD OX 700 HARDOX400
(see our price list)

Plate price _ _ /tonne _ _ /tonne 5000 Wear is in reverse proportion

1.5· 2000 = 3.75 to hardness: 250 HB for
WELD OX 700, 360 HB (typical
Plate price _ _ apiece _ _ apiece
t = 13.45 mm value 400) for HARDOX 400
Difference:

1.5. 250. 5000 = 2.6 mm

360 2000

t = 10.2 mm
Example 5.5.4 t = 14 mm (new rolling) t = 10 mm
A leading dumptruck manufacturer wishes to introduce a new
body on the market. The body was previously made of 700 Plate mass
N/mm2 steel (e.g. WELDOX 700), but the customers are now 1075 kg 768 kg
starting to demand more wear-resistant bodies.
The dumptruck manufacturer has carried out measurements of Difference: 307 kg
wear, and in the middle of the body, wear amounts to about 1.5
mm/2000 hours on the 700 NJmm steel. Plate price (see our price list) (Prices May '81)
The dumptrucks are intended for use in road haulage, which
means that their unladen weight is very important. 15,90 + 18,20 = 34,10 GBPI 15,90 + 17,40'" 33,30 GBPI
The dumptruck manufacturer intends to guarantee that the tonne tonne GBP 25,58
body will be able to withstand boulders weighing 300 kg falling Plate cost GBP 36.66
from a height of 1.5 m without creating dents larger than 15 mm, Difference
even after 5000 hours. What plate thickness should be chosen GBP n,20/body
and what is the most economical alternative if saving of 1 kg of
weight is worth GBP 1,00 and if the designer has to choose Taking into account value of weight reduction
between WELDOX 700 and HARDOX 400? at GBP 1,00 per kg:
The body has the following dimensions (figure 5.5.14). Difference GBP 384,20/machine

Figure 5.5.14

counted as bottom during e.g. loading

from side with loader.

5:41
 Dynamic strength - Design of panels against impact

Example 5.5.5
A dumptruck owner has sustained a large dent Ll Pm = 30 mm in
I S 355 WELD OX 700 HARDOX400
typical values
his new body made of 10 mm HARD OX 400. The customer
claims that the new bodies are of poorer Quality than the old ones Os = 380 N/mm2 750 1050
WELDOX 700 and demands a new body from the dumptruck !J.. Pmperm 20 mm 16mm 14.7 mm
supplier.
He has one loader, and this can only lift 2.0 m above the bottom OK, larger than 10 mm max, value according to the
of the body. stipulation. In other words, the formula can be used.
The body is the same as in 5.5.4, Le.
it is supposed to withstand 300 kg from 1.5 m.
There is no doubt that the customer has loaded his new body
t= V Einput
:n; • os'I':. Pm
5
- - ' 6. Pm
36
2

very hard.
How hard? t = 16 mm
i.e. 16 mm
11112mm
mm I 9.3 mm
10mm
Solution: according to our standard range
10 mm I':. Pm = 30 mm HARDOX400 Plate weight:
960 kg [720 kg [600 kg
After having glanced through 5.5.7-10, we see that 10 mm and Differences:
/':, Pm = 30 mm agree with the curve for HARDOX 400, i.e. 800 kg 240 kg 120 kg
from 2.82 m.
The boulder that hit the body from max. 2.5 m was of the
following size:

800· 2.82 == 900 kg

2.5
so the claim is rejected!
Example 5.5.6
A manufacturer of loader buckets is intending to introduce a new
bucket that he calls "Controlling Stones' on the market.
The bucket is particularly suitable for large boulders weighing
about 1 tonne, and is supposed to be able to withstand a collision
with such a boulder at a speed of 10 km/hour without suffering
larger dents in its shell than 10 mm. What plate thickness should
be used for S 355, WELD OX 700 and HARDOX 400?
How great is the difference in the weight (mass) of the bucket
when it has the dimensions shown in figure 5.5.15?
Example 5.5.7
Designing underbody protection plates (to protect the under-
sides of off-road vehicles) is often difficult owing to the complex
mechanics involved, for example, in collisions with stones. A
forwarder drives up onto a stump with one front wheel while
straddling a stone, slips on the stump and falls onto the stone,
the underbody protection plate absorbing the force of the colli-
sion.
Normally, underbody protection plates are made of S 355
(SS 50); sometimes they are made of 700 N/mm2 steel, i,e.
WELD OX 700.
The thicknesses are usually 10 mm for S 355 and 8 mm for
WELDOX 700.
What would the plate thickness be with HARDOX 400?

Solution:
The easiest way is to perform a comparative calculation with a
known case, e.g. 8 mm WELDOX 700, and assume that maxi-
mum dents of 15 mm are permitted, considering the same
machine and te same load case.
The known case gives:

Einput = :n; • as' f (I':. Pm

5
+ 36 . -r )
!J..p 3

Solution:
10 km/h 5 15 3
Figure 5.5.15 Einput =:n;' 750· 8
2
(15 + 36" (4) (Nmml

Einput = 3.366' 106 Nmm

With HARDOX 400, the plate thickness is:

t= ,V
.
Einput
:n;·1050·15

t = 6.06 Le. 6 mm

The velocity of the boulder plus loader after the collision is: Check of the formula:

v= ]2 . 10 = 9.3 km/h = 2.58 m/s !J.. = (Einput ) 113 = (3.366' 106 )1/3 = 14.7 mm
16 Pmperm 1050
Os
i.e. the boulder was imparted an energy of
m; = 1000· 2.582 = 3328 Nm OK in this case, since it is only a comparative calculation.
2 2 If the surface area of the underbody protection plate is
Or, conversely, the boulder "hit the bucket" with 2.8 m2 , the weight difference is 45 kg!
3328 Nm = 3328· 1()3 Nmm
Check of accuracy of calculation:
Same example but with S 355.
!J.. = (Einput ) 1/3 t = 10 mm and the difference in weight between HARDOX 400
Pmperm Os and S 355 is 90 kg!

5:42
6 Toughness - brittleness 6
What is brittle fracture? ...................... 6:1 Comparison between ordinary
Conditions for brittle fracture ............... 6: 1 steels - WELDOX and HARDOX steels ... 6:4
Design philosophies ............................ 6: 1 Toughness requirements ..................... 6:5
Different measures of toughness ......... 6:2 Examples ........................................... 6:5
Fracture mechanics ............................ 6:2 Fracture mechanics data for parent
material and welded joints ................... 6:7
 6 Toughness - brittleness
Many people cherish the belief that steels of very high strength
must be more brittle than ordinary steels. We now know that this
is not the case; on the contrary, WELDOX and HARD OX steels
exhibit very high toughness in relation to their high strength and
hardness.
This section contains a comparison between ordinary steels on
the one hand and WELDOX and HARDOX steels on the other with
respect to toughness.
As a tool for this comparison, we will use fracture mechanics -
a relatively new branch of Materials Science, with the aid of which
it is possible to determine whether defects in structures are
critical from the viewpoint of brittle fracture.
Introduction
Nothing (unfortunately) advances engineering science as much
as failures and catastrophes. An example of this is provided by
brittle fracture research, which received new impetus on Mon-
day, March 14, 1938, when the all-welded Hasselt bridge in
Belgium collapsed due to brittle fracture. Over the years, many
famous brittle fractures have occurred with very tragic consequ-
ences, such as the Liberty ships that snapped in the middle,
ammonia tanks, steam domes etc.
Nowadays, happily, the steel industry can offer extremely
tough steels down to -196°C, and the fact that brittle failures
occur at all today - fortunately very rarely - is due more to
economic than technical factors: Tough steels are more difficult
to manufacture and therefore more expensive.
It is therefore of great importance for the designer to select a
steel with exactly the toughness level that provides the safety
against brittle fracture that he needs. Toughness costs money!
Brittle fracture is absolutely not unique to WELDOX and
HARDOX steels, but since these steels are harder and possess
higher yield strengths than ordinary steels, it is only appropriate!
that we take a closer look at how tough the WELDOX and
HARDOX steels actually are.
What is brittle fracture?
A brittle fracture is characterized by the fact that the failure is
preceded by negligible plastic deformation immediately adja-
cent to the fracture surface and that the fracture propagates at
high velocity (750-2000 m/s)*. Crystal cleavages can be seen
under the microscope, which means that the fracture is trans-
crystalline (cuts through the crystals).
Macroscopically, a chevron pattern (something like a herring
bone pattern) can be seen, and the chevrons point towards the
point of initiation.
*The fracture proceeds unstably, and brittle fracture is there-
fore a type of unstable fracture propagation.
Three fundamental conditions must be satisfied in order for a
brittle fracture to be initiated (45):
l. Sufficiently high nominal stress in the material.
2. Sufficiently low temperature.
3. Sufficiently high degree of triaxial state of stress.
Beyond these conditions, the strain rate (i) is of great impor-
tance in that an increase of the strain rate can be equivalent to
an increase of the nominal stress, a decrease of the temperatu-
re or an increase of the degree of triaxiality in the state of stress.
Plate thickness is also of importance for the initia'.':Jn of brittle
fracture, since the degree of triaxiality is greater in a thick mate-
rial (plane strain) than in a thin one (plane stress).
Some of the circumstances in which these three conditions
may be critical for a welded structure are as follows:
Condition 1. High stresses due to high permissible stress, over-
load or welding residual stresses of the same order
of magnitude as the yield stress.
Condition 2. Low service temperature.
Condition 3. High degree of triaxial state of stress at notches
and around defects.
It is unrealistic to imagine a welded structure
completely free of defects.
Figure 6.1
a
/
/ /a, = f (Temp)
/
/
/
a, = f (Temp)
Temp
It is easy to satisfy the three conditions given above. This is
illustrated by figure 6.1, which shows two curves: the yield
stress (as) and the initiating stress (a ,) as a function of the
temperature. The welding residual stresses are of the same
order of magnitude as the yield stress. At the same time, the
stress required for initiation decreases with declining tempera-
ture. This means that below the critical temperature (T c), the
nominal stresses are greater than those required to initiate the
fracture. aj is also a function of the degree of triaxiality.
It is the 0j curve that is dependent upon the toughness of the
steel (the weld).
The defects do not have to derive solely from fabrication.
They can propagate owing to fatigue or they can be "pure"
fatigue cracks. The cracks can then initiate brittle fracture.
Design philosophies
Two philosophies can be applied in order to avoid brittle frac-
ture.
a. Accept the fact that cracks can form in certain zones, but
that the surrounding (parent) material is tough enough to
stop propagation. This results in the propagation testing of,
chiefly, parent material.
b. Make sure that the material in all zones is tough enough to
prevent the initiation of a brittle fracture from a defect.
Defect size is determined by the fabrication procedure and
by what can be detected by non-destructive testing. This
leads to the initiation testing of all zones.
6:1
 Toughness - brittleness
Often, both philosophies are applied in practice, with the Fracture mechanics
emphasis on b.
In order for the condition in b. to be satisfied in practice, the Brittle fracture often start from defects, especially sharp ones.
parent material must also, in most cases, be relatively tough. The state of stress in front of a stress-raising defect (notch)
can be written as follows according to elastic theory:

Different measures of toughness

Over the years, a large number of test methods have seen the
o max=o nominal (1 + 2 V+)
light of day, but it would take us too far afield to describe them
here. We shall concentrate on only a few. where a = notch depth
r = notch radius
The Charpy V notch test
This is by far the most widespread method of testing impact The radius of e.g. a fatigue crack is less than 0.01 mm, which
toughness (also called notch toughness in reference to this test). means that 0 max > > 0 s' This will mean plasticization of the
The test cannot be counted as a pure initiation test or propa- crack tip at very low nominal stresses. If r approaches 0,0 max
gation test; rather, the energy absorbed in initiating and propa- approaches ! The state in front of the crack tip must therefore
(X)

gating the crack through the specimen is measured. be described in some other way. This is done by means of the
As a result of the use of this method, the number of brittle stress intensity factor K, which can be expressed as follows in
fractures in ships during the 40s and 50s was considerably front of a through crack in a large plate (se figure 6.3):
reduced. It was found that when the energy absorbed in the
impact test at low service temperatures was under 20J, pro-
blems were experienced with brittle fracture in soft steels (such
as S 235). When energy absorption was 27J or more, the Figure 6.3
frequency of brittle fracture was very low. o
Note that this body of experience is limited to ships (plate
thickness = 15-20 mm, loading conditions, shipyard practice
etc.). To convert these data to other thicknesses, the curve in
figure 6.2 (which is taken from SS 4741) can be used. The
Charpy V test is the simplest and cheapest type of pre-delivery
test, and has proved highly useful for ships in particular. There
is a risk involved in extrapolating these experiences to other
types of steel, plate thicknesses and loadings. The Charpy V test
tells us nothing about how dangerous a defect is. Nor is it
advisable to allow large numbers of catastrophic in-service failu-
res to occur in order to accumulate more experience that could
eventually provide Charpy V values for new structures and
steels. On the other hand, it is quite unrealistic economically to
--I.. 2a
employ supertough steels.
A more reliable and refined method is needed in order to be
able to determine what defect size should be specified, and
what toughness should be demanded, of the structure in a
given load case and at a given temperature.
Such a method is called fracture mechanics, and is not at all
as complicated as it sounds.

Figure 6.2 o
+20~-----------------------r------~

K=o'~'f f= 1

Note that the unit is stress' length 1l2 = force' length-3!2 e.g.
N/mm3!2 or MN/m3!2.

~ -20 For stress intensity:

~ 1 MN/m3!2 = 31.623 N/mm3!2 = 0.9101 ksi viii
.a
IV
iii
Co
E
For stress:
.! -40
...u 1 MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 = 0.1449 ksi
'1...:
VI The stress intenSity of all cracks can be described as follows:
C
~ K=o·\f'3ta·f
-60
C and CMn steels in the welded state It is only f which expresses the crack's relative size, position,
27J for steels withoB < 450 N/mm2 interaction with other stress raisers etc, that is a little tricky.
40J for steels with oB > 450 N/mm2 There are handbooks olK values for different geometries, see
ref. (29, 30), and charts of the most common ones are shown in
-80

9
// 6mm
figures 5.4.10-17.
If K increases, it eventually reaches a critical value Kc at
which unstable crack growth (brittle fracture) occurs. Kc is cal-
led fracture toughness. Compare different fracture criteria:
-1001-1------'-:....-------,----+------1 o = OB plain specimen
-60 -40 -20 0 +20
Testing temperature·C K = Kc sharply notched specimen

6:2
 Toughness - brittleness

In other words, Kc is a material characteristic that depends on Figure 6.5

temperature, microstructure, location in plate, environment etc.
Toughness
The equation K = (J • vn:a. f provides a measure of the crack
length a load I load

~l~
I
displacement displacement displacement
Critical crack size ac occurs when K = Kc for a given stress (J:
I
. _
ac - 1C a- )2. (-f-1 )2
1 (K c
I a yield,f max

f is usually"'" 1, and for a through crack (2 ac ) in a large plate,

the following formula applies:

a =~(~)2 Temp.
c 1C (J
brittle behaviour ductile plastic collapse

Here, then, is a method of calculating the size of cracks which

can be permitted when the values of Kc and a and the location
of the crack f are known. I n the brittle region
Fracture toughness exhibits a temperature dependence simi-
lar to that of Charpy V toughness, and its dependence on thick- ~/ (1 _v 2 )
ness is illustrated by figure 6.4. Above a given thickness (te l, Kc 2'(Js' E
is independent of thickness and is called K1C if the crack is
loaded perpendicular to its plane, for example as shown in KI2 (l _v 2 )
figure 6.3. E
Figure 6.4
Jlc= 2 'a s ·oc
v = 0.3 for steel
E = modulus of elasticity

In the ductile region:

Temp = constant
K2
I Oc "" c
I 2a s ' E
I

K/
J c "'" -E-

-----------------K~
Table 6.6 presents some fracture toughness data for parent
material and welded joints in ordinary steels and in WELDOX and
Plate thickness HARDOX steels. Figure 6.6 provides explanations for table 6.1
regarding the location of the specimens.
The scatter of the Kc
values is about ± 10%.
The consequence of this is that at plate thicknesses less than
tc (and this is usually the case), the value of Kc must be that
appropriate to the plate thickness concerned. Figure 6.6
Fracture toughness works best for thick plates and materials
that behave in a relatively brittle fashion, e.g. at low temperature,
but it can also be used for materials with a ductile fracture
behaviour, as long as the appropriate value of Kc is used.
There are other fracture mechanics methods that are more
suitable for ductile fracture modes, for example
COD (Crack Opening Displacement), which is a semi-empirical
method and describes the critical valueo c (mm) that the crack
tip is capable of opening before unstable crack growth occurs.
COD can be used for non-linear relationships.
Jet the J integral, which is an energy method and can describe
non-linear relationships. Unstable growth takes place when
J "" J c .
These methods complement each other depending upon the
fracture behaviour of the material, see figure 6.5. COD and J c
are also thickness-dependent! The following approximate rela-
tionships apply between Kc, COD (o c) and J c:

WM = Weld Metal
HAZ = Heat-Affected Zone (junction + 1 mm)
SA = Submerged-Arc
MSA= Manual Shielded-Arc, covered stick

6:3
 Toughness - brittleness

The steels are welded with roughly the same heat input.
Comparison of the toughnesses of ordinary steels Comparisons show that roughly the same defect sizes can be
- WElDOX and HARDOX steels. withstood!
We will compare the Charpy Vvalues and critical crack size ac This is very importantinformation when WELDOX and HARDOX
when the steels are loaded up to their respective yield strengths steels are to be welded with the same welding methods, person-
(see figure 6.7, whose values are taken from table 6.6). nel, equipment etc. We know that we will obtain the same types
The table shows that the WELDOX materials are very tough and of welding defects and problems as with ordinary steels, since
can withstand defects in the parent material as well as the HS WELDOX and HARDOX steels are fundamentally equivalent to
steels (e.g. Domex 390 or S 355), despite the fact that the steels ordinary steels with regard to weldability.
are loaded up to their respectiv'e yield strengths! Furthermore, we have access to the same equipment for
nondestructive testing. Since defect size is largely the same
Figure 6.7 when the steels are loaded to their respective yield strengths and
a c mm is of an order that can be detected, it must be evident that
WELDOX and HARDOX steels are no more prone to brittle
70 fracture than ordinary steels.
The most important information is provided by experience. It
60
tells us that in more than one million tonnes of WELDOX steel
Parent material
WELDOX 500 Q t = 20 mm along the specimen (l-T) plate delivered and used in advanced structures, there have been
no brittle fractures to our knowledge.
50 a, = l.. (~)2 The toughness of the weld metal can vary within very wide
;r as
limits, as is evident from ref. (38) and table 6.6.
At -20°C, for example, Kc can vary between 46 and 180
40 o.,......---D MN/m3!2, the corresponding ac values for S 355 J2 being 5 and
84 mm, respectively, depending upon filler material, heat input
,,'" /; --- X and number of passes! It seems as if the weakest link at the
30 ./ / ,- present time is the weld metal, which is, of course, where the
most welding defects occur.
//
Domex 390/ "
, "
20 , /WELDOX 700 WELDOX 700 < 45 mm
,//1 Table 6.4
. /"
"
10 . /,,-/
,,- Toughness in: Influenced by:
r;f/ Parent material Steel manufacturer
Heat treatment
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 ±O 'c HAZ Steel manufacturer
Welding shop
Heat treatment
Table 6.1 Weld metal Manufacturer of filler material,
Charpy V Longitudinal specimen (L-T) Typical values, Joules powder flux, gas etc.
Welding shop
Heat treatment
Domex 390' WELDOX 500 P WELDOX 700 WELDOX 700 Steel manufacturer to some extent
t < 45 mm (melting)
-120' 25
- 80' 155 This is illustrated in figure 6.8, which shows the impact tough-
ness of different zones in WELDOX 700 welded by means of the
- 60' 20 80 170 60 submerged-arc method with two different heat inputs.
- 40' 60 128 180 157
- 20' 90 170 182 210 Figure 6.8
+ 0' 122 190 221
WELDOX 700 20mm
+ 20' 130 217
Submerged-arc NiCrMo 2.5, 0 4 - OK 10.61
*) Y.P. 390 N/mm2
2.5 kJ/mm 1Ox 10 Charpy-V
Table 62
Steel Yield strength (guaranteed value)
N/mm2
Domex 390 390
WELDOX 500 500
WELDOX 700 700
WELDOX 900 900

The following comparison can be made as in figure 6.7 for the

heat-affected zone (HAZ). See table 6.3.

Table 6.3 HAZ 20

ac mm I I I
I
S 355 J2 WELDOX 500 WELDOX 700 -40 ±O +40 -40 ±O +40 Co

-60'C 8
-30 19
-20 20 16

6:4
 Toughness - brittleness

Toughness requirements There is no guaranteed value of K" for S 355 J2 in table 6.6.
Estimate Kc! S 355, 27J at - 20°C.
It is almost impossible to provide general rules for the selection
of toughness to avoid brittle fracture. It is, of course, possible to Kc 5355 "" 50 + 0.9 . 27 = 75 MN/mm3/2
design with a large margin of safety, but toughness costs mo-
ney. On the other hand, so does brittle fracture. In the case of ac = _1_ (~ )2 = 0.011 m = 11 mm
simpler structures, what is mainly required is experience and n 390
judgement. When it comes to more complicated structures (e.g.
offshore drilling platforms) and structures where human life is at Required Kc for WELDOX 700
stake, extensive tests are sometimes necessary. Kowx 700= ;700, ~
The following are some of the faetors which influence the choice Kcwx 700= 133 MN/mm 3l2
of toughness:
this means that the required Charpy V value is
Design
Temperature
Plate thickness
Steel type
Load, stress, state of stress, strain rate etc.
Welds (heat input, filler metal, electrode care, welding envi-
ronment etc.) Cvwx 700= 133 -50 = 92 J
Heat treatment 0.9
Scope of inspection etc.

For structures regulated by standards and specifications, the According to Table 6.1, the typical value for WELD OX 700 at
toughness level is usually specified. See table 6.5, which is -20°C = 210 J, and there doesn't appear to be any problem.
taken from ref. (73). The thickness reduction entails a reduced degree of triaxiality,
and according to figure 6.2, the testing temperature for WELDOX
Table 6.5 700", O°C when the service temperature is -30°C.
taken from the most recent edition of the Swedish Regulations 92 J at ± O°C is a less stringent requirement than 92 J at
for Cranes (73). -20°C.
Quality class requirements for steel in welded structures. It would be completely impractical for the steel mills if they
were all to specify individual Charpy V values. Therefore, 27 J has
been established for S 235 JR - S 355 JR and 40 J for EHS.
Operating lowest quality class at respec- We are trying to find a testing temperature that has 40 J and
temperature tive material thickness, mm
T,GC t, mm
corresponds approximately to 92 J at ± O°C.
For This material and this thickness, it has been calculated that
t ... 20 20 <t ... 40 40 <t ... 100 a reduction of the temperature by 20°C is equivalent to a
Steels except 5.;;T B B B reduction of the toughness by 50 J.
EHS steels -40 ... T <5 B C 0 .. 92 J - 50 J = 42 J at -20°C.
40 J at -20°C can be accepted WELDOX 700 D. If the struc-
EHS steels 5 ... T 0 0 0 ture is such that human lives are at risk in the event of a brittle
-40 ... T <5 E E E fracture, then 40 J at -40°Cshould be chosen (WELDOX 700 E).
A value of 39 Joules applies for EHS steels
.. WELDOX 700 0 and if a greater margin of safety is
required, WELDOX 700 E.

Example 6.1
A manufacturer has used S 355 JO (27 J at ± 0°) in his welded
structures. The company has been buying from a very good steel Example 6.3
mill for 10 years and has in actual fact been getting much
tougher steels than requested, often 27J at - 40°C! The compa- Which defect is the most dangemus?
ny is therefore building up its experience with tougher steels than a) Surface crack of elliptical shape as shown in figure 6.9
they realize and may be in trouble if they switch steel suppliers,
for example.
Figure 6.9
Example 6.2
A designer has found. reason to switch material in a welded
structure exposed to -30°C from S 355 JO (as = 390 N/mm2) to
WELDOX 700, and he wonders what toughness he should choose
in his structure that will enable him to reduce plate thickness from
19 mm to 390/100·19= 11 mm, i.e. 12 mm. He knows the
relationship between service temperature and testing tempera-
ture as illustrated in figure 6.2 and an empirical relationship be-
tween Charpy V and Kc.
Kc= 50 + 0.9' Cv Cv in J, Kc in MN/M3I2
Cv;;o27J

Solution:
Proceed via the same critical crack size

ac=_l (~)
n Os

Os because the designer exploits the full yield strength of the

steel, and there are welding residual stresses here!
 Toughness - brittleness

b) Internal crack of elliptical shape as shown in figure 6.10 Solution:

Figure 6.10 Figure 5.4.17 gives
15

5 As the plates are not stress-relieved, a = as is reached in the

weld.

alc = 0.5-+flO (+)= 0.82

Compare the stress intensities

a) Ka is obtained from figure 5.4.17

a =5 2c = 15

alc = ~= 0.67 = -+110 (-ca )= 0.76 ac = 0.377' (~y

7.5 as
Ka 1.12·a o v;r:5·0.76= 3.37ao
Kc from table 6.6
b) 2a = 5 2c = 15
S 355 <1s = 350 N/mm' WElDOX 700 ':;5=700 N/mm'
-2CY'C
~= 2.5 = 0.33 = -+flO (~c )= 0.90 Parent HAZ Weld Parent HAZ Weld
c 7.5 material metal material metal
Kc MN/m 3l2 190 88 46 200 167* 113**
Kb = ao' ~. 0.90 = 2.52ao acmm 111 24 7 40 22 10
Ka/Kb = 1.33 * -30° for WELDOX 700
** No data available. Must be estimated e.g. via Charpy V. The
'.' Surface cracks are the most dangerous and visual inspection Charpy V value for 1.7 kJ/mm weld metal at -20"C is taken
should be taken seriously. from fig. 6.8, which gives 70J. Kc is estimated from
If we have bending stress in the plate, the surface defects are
even more dangerous and the internal defects less dangerous. Kc=50+0.9·Cy Cy ";i!:27J
Kc =50 + 0.90' 70 = 113 J.

Example 6.4
The example shows that we can tolerate the same defect size in
What defect sizes in the form of surface cracks of elliptical WELDOX 700 as in S 355 at -20°C and 20 mm plate thickness
shape 2 . c = 4 . a . a, Le alc = 0.5, can a welded joint (welded when the welded joint is loaded to the yield strength of the
by means of the submerged-arc method) resist at -20°C with respective steel!
WELDOX 700 and S 355, respectively, when the structures are
not stress-relieved? Plate thickness = 20 mm.

6:6
 Toughness ~ brittleness

Table 6.6 Cl
Some fracture mechanics data. Typical values for parent meterial. Explanations of locations, see fig. 6.6

Steel T Loca· Temp. Kc Je COD Cv Weld· Filler Number Heat Rei.

mm lion ·C MN/m3/2 kN/m dcmm J iog metal of input
method passes KJ/mm
BS 43 D, S 275 J2 20 L-T - 20 210 215 54 32

BS 50 D, S 355 J2 G3

Domex 390D'
20
20

20
20
20
T-l
L-T

L-T
L-T
l-T
- 20
- 20

-120
- 40
- 20
141
190

60
140
140
96
175

60
130
130
30
112

60
90
1\ / 32
32

33
33
33
20 l-T + 20 140 130 132 33
50 L-T + 20 87 34
WELDOX 500 Q 20 L-T -120 80 35
- 80 180 35
- 40 230 128 35
- 20 . 195 190 170 36
40 L-T -120 45 35
- 80 70 Parent material 35
- 40 200 35
WELDOX 700 > 40 mm 20 L-T -120 85 80 25 33
- 80 160 130 155 33
- 40 230 270 180 33
- 20 225 260 - 33
WELDOX 700 20 L-T - 40 155 0.10 100 37
- 20 200 0.26 210
± 0 210 0.29
HARDOX 400 20-40 L-T - 40 110
50 L-T - 40 75

WELDOX 900

• Y.P. 390 N/mm2

60
20
20
L-T
L-T
T -L
- 40
- 40
- 40
60
160
147
110
/ \
Table 6.6 b
Some fracture mechanics data. Typical values for welded joints.
Steel T Loca· Temp. Kc Je COO Cv Weld· Filler Number Heat Ref.
mm lion ·C MN/m3/2 kN/m dcmm J ing metal of input
method passes KJ/mm

SA OK 12.24
BS 43 D, S 275 J2 25 L - TI -20 105 55 0.75 20 On both OK 10.61 2 5 36
HAZ sides
SA OK 12.24
BS 50 0, S 355 J2 G3 25 L - TI -20 88 39 0.79 30 On both OK 10.61 2 5 36
HAZ sides

SS 50 0, S 355 25 L - TI -40 44 0.05 10 SA OK 12.24 2 6.2 38

WM
OK 1061
-20 46 0.08 22 OK 21.82 38
± 0 66 0.07 38 38

SS 50 D, S 355 L - TI -40 90 0.22 18 MSA PhC 6H 5 5 38

WM
-20 III 0.18 42 PhC 6H 5 5 38
± 0 200 0.30 77 PhC 6H 5 5 38

BS SOD, S 355 25 L - TI -40 115 0.13 60 MSA Ph 27 21 0.8 38

WM
De·
scending
vertical -20 180 0.23 91 Ph 27 21 0.8 38
± 0 124 0.23 143 Ph 27 21 0.8 38

SA OK 12.24
WELDOX 500 25 L- TI -20 llO 62 0.67 70 On both OK 10.61 2 5 36
HAZ sides

WELDOX 700 > 40 mm 20 T -u -60 108 0.03 SA S3NiMoCr 6 2.7 39

HAZ
OK 10.61
-30 167 0.18 SA OK 10.61 6 2.7 39
20 T -u -60 88 0.02 SA OK 10.61 ? 7.0 39
HAZ
-30 98 0.03 SA OK 10.61 ? 7.0 39
50 T -U -60 109 0.03 SA OK 10.61 20 2.7 39
HAZ
-30 143 0.04 20 2.7 39
40 T -SI -80 140 0.06 SA OK 10.61 4.5 39
HAZ
-40 198 0.24 SA OK 10.61 4.5 39

6:7
7 High surface pressures
Introduction, where the problems
occur anr how they can be solved
with WELDOX and HARDOX steels ......... 7:1
Design principles ................................. 7:1
7
Guidelines and examples ..................... 7:2
Lugs and how to design them
against: play, fatigue failure
and crack propagation ........................ 7:2
 7 High surface pressures
Introduction Figure 7.1
High surface pressures are frequently encountered, are often Steel against steel
critical design criteria, and can cause problems in some cases.
P N/mm (width) Roll against flat surface
The problems can take the form of:
Surface fatigue
Pitting
Mangling
Surface deformation

Cylinder against cylinder

Surface fatigue
occurs in e.g. roller races in rolling-contact bearings, trunnions
on cement kilns and drum barkers. The failure often starts at
the location of a maximum shear stress (a little below the sur- oH=0.591· -JP.E'
face) and near a defect (often slag). The result is spalling with
subsequent pitting.

Pitting
occurs in gearing in the presence of lubricants and high surface
pressures, according to Niemann when the Hertz surface pres-
sureoH =0.27' HB. (HB = Brinell hardness.)
oH=0.591· - J P ' E '
Mangling
occurs when the yield stress of the steel has been exceeded
and the steel is "kneaded out", e.g. rollers, roller races.

Surface deformation Some rules of thumb for avoiding spalling or

involves deformation of the surface on both a microscopic scale
i.e. the peaks of the surface profile are flattened (smoothing) -
and a macroscopic scale, i.e. the entire hole, for example, is
deformed plastically.
pitting
A factor kH that has been found empirically to work for permis-
sible Hertz surface pressureoH in N/mm 2 is often given

0Hperm"" kH ' HB . 10

where HB is the Brinell hardness of the softest rolling body.

- Stationary and slow movement
(static 0.5 - 0.6)
Telescopic jibs with rollers kH = 0.10 - 0.15
EHS and AR steels have been used very successfully to
combat all these problems. Pure fatigue loading must be avoided when the pOint of con-
tact is completely fixed over a long period of time.
EHS and AR steels have
high yield strength - counteracts mangling and surface defor- - Railway rails kH =0.5 (OH"" 1100 N/mm2)
mation (V max -'=30 m/s)
High hardness - counteracts surface damage such as pitting - Bridge bearings kH = O. 5 static
high hardness through their entire thickness - counteracts - Cranes (wheel contact) kH = 0.2 - 0.3
spalling - The lower the travelling speed, the higher the value.
High purity - counteracts fatigue failures in the surface zone - Gears, precision-made and well lubricated
10 < V <20 m/s ref. (41)
- Roller races for steel furnace, unlubricated in very dusty en-
Some design principles vironment (Kaldo in Oxeliisund) kH = 0.14 HB = 320 V =
Rolling contact 11 m/so
occurs between rollers and roller races/ways (e.g. cement kilns - Roller races for cement
and drum barkers, railway wheels-rails, bridge bearings, rolling kilns and drum barkers
contact bearings). v = 1.5 - 3 m/s
If adequate lubrication is not provided between the surfaces,
the Hertz surface pressure is a relatively good parameter for - For rolling bearingsoH = 0.5 HB W = total number of
design. 6VW
Some formulas for the Hertz surface pressureoH (N/mm 2 )
are given in figure 7.1. revolutions, accroding to ref. (41).

7:1
 High surface pressures

Surface deformation The hardness of the bolts must not be lower than that of the
plate.
is brought about by plastic flow at the peaks of the surface
profile and, if the surface pressure is very high, a deformation of Bolt HBmin according to SMS 2265
underlying material. 8.8 225
This phenomenon can be related to the yield strength of the 10.9 280
material, and a hardness measurement is, after all, nothing but 12.9 330
a quantification of the resistance of the surface to plastic defor- 14.9 390
mation.
Problems of this kind can arise in connection with:
Excessively high bearing pressure in e.g. bolted joints. Mangling
Mangling of roller races. of e.g. roller races occurs frequently when the Hertz surface
Fatigue load or extreme loads in lugs of various types give rise pressure exceeds the yield stress of the steel (surface).
to play, which can be very troublesome.
EHS and AR steels, of course, possess high yield strength This occurred in S 355 (HB '" 150 cr styp = 380 N/mm2) at crH
and great hardness (see table 7.1). = 410 N/mm2.
and in this case, kH was'" 0.3.

In other words, the designer must also check that the Hertz
surface pressure does not exceed the yield strength of the
Some guidelines and examples steel.
Bearing pressure WELDOX and HARDOX steels can,beused with success here.
In this case, a warning concerning the soft zone created by the
can sometimes be completely decisive in determining which gas cutting of WELDOX and HARDOX steel is in order ..
plate thickness should be used. To permit full exploitation of the Since gas cutting involves heating above the tempenng tem-
strength of e.g. bolts, the plate and the bolt should have roughly perature (overtempering), a heat-affected soft zone will ~e
the same hardness, which is not the case with 8.8 bolts and created in the plate. Figure 7.2 shows how hardness vanes at
ordinary steels, for example, where the bolt is much harder than different distances into the plate from the gas-cut edge. A hard
the steel. zone is created immediately adjacent to the edge. This is caused
The Swedish Regulations for Bolted Connections StBK-N3 by enrichment with carbon and alloying elements, which 10c~11y
(42) give the following permissible bearing stresses for ordinary increase the hardenability of the steel and harden upon coohng,
and exceptional combinations of loads for two different bolted thereby giving rise to the hardness. .
connection classes SI and S2, see table 7.2. 2-5 mm into the plate, we encounter the soft zone. Since e.g.
SI is intended for structures under static loads. WELDOX and HARDOX steels have the same basic analysis as
8.8 bolts can be used for both SI and S2. S 355 (BS 50), they will have the same hardness in this region
after overtempering as S 355 (BS 50). In order to be able to
exploit the high hardness of the WELDOX and HARDOX steels in
Table 7.2 edges that have been gas-cut, we must machine these edges to
Permissible bearing pressure p according to StBK-N3 in N/mm 2 . a depth of 3 - 6 mm, depending upon the degree of heating
involved in the gas cutting process. Such an edge has to be
Class of S 235 S 355 V.P. 390 NI mm' machined anyway in order to provide good roller contact, for
bolted example.
connection ord. exc. ord. exc. ord. exc.

SI, S2 260 300 380 440 390 450 Lugs

Lugs for hydraulic cylinders, articulation jOints etc. are structural
elements that are subjected to very heavy loads and to which
Recommended bearing pressure for EHS and AR steel in N/mm 2 • special attention must be devoted. .. . ..
Problems associated with lugs can be very serious and Irnta-
Class of ting.
WElDOX 500 WElDOX 700 HARDOX 400
bolted
connection ord. exc. ord. exc. ord. exc. Play
leads to poor precision, high impact stresses, noise, insecurity
SI, S2 490 570 690 800 900 1040 on the pert of the operator, gives a poor impression of quality
etc.

Table 7.1
:

(J sguaranteed (J Bguaranteed (J styp HBtyp HBguaranteed

Steel t - 6 60 mm N/mm2

S 355 (BS 50) 350 min 510 380 150 -

WELDOX 500 500 590- 750 540 210 -
WELDOX 700 700 780-930 750 260 -
WELDOX 900 900 940-1100 950 310 -
WELDOX 960 960 980-1150 1000 320 -
HARDOX 400 900 - 1000 400 360-440
HARDOX 500 - 1300 480 min 450

Choosing the right steel is a simple way of solving many problemsl

7:2
 High surface pressures

Figure 702

Hardness after gas cutting WELDOX 700 Hardness after gas cutting S 355 (SS 50. St 52-3)
HVlO HVlO
450 450

,
''."
...
\'\
40 0 400
- - - Just below the plate surface
- - - Middle of the plate thickness
"\ \ - - - Just below the plate surface
- - - Middle of the plate thickness
35 0 I 35 0
\

~\\
~ WELD OX 760 > 40 mm \
\
\ \ \
30 0 30 0
I \
I \ \
\ \ / ..::;.= :..:: \
25 0 25 0
V\
\
i/'-I' ) I \
\
\
\.
20 0
~
NWELDOX 700 < -40 mm
20 0
~
" " t' __
I'-- " =
150 15 0

T 2 4 6
T 2 4 6
Distance from the cut edge, mm Distance from the cut edge, mm

Locations for hardness measurements

Hardness measured in the middle of the

Fatigue Figure 7.3.

causes the structure to fail in service, which can somtimes be
catastrophic.

Failure under extreme load

is at least as serious as fatigue failure.
The major industries, and especially the aviation industry,
have studied lugs thoroughly, and this has resulted in design
standards.
Small companies may have difficulty finding suitable rules.
Here are some:

Prevention of play
Tlie holes in lugs that are subjected to fatigue load have a
tendency to become loose, i.e. develop play. This is due either
to deformation of the whole lug under extreme load or to plastic
deformation of the peaks of the surface profile (and possibly the
underlying material).
Abrasive corrosion is very common in these contexts and
greatly accelerates the process.
Lugs are often fabricated from heavy plate by means of gas
cutting, with a subsequent drilling operation to complete the
hole.
Reaming is less common. A link bearing is often built into the lug, see figure 7.3. SKF
The roughness of the surface after drilling can be very large specifies M7 in the lug for link bearings in hydraulic cylinders,
"" 10 - 100,u m. which requires reaming. This is not done for cost reasons,
Machine reaming gives about 6-16,u m. however; instead, the link bearing is simply pressed into a
A higher tolerance grade than ITl2 (i.e. 250,u m on 040 mm) drilled hole and often develops play after a while.
is seldom achieved by twist drilling.
This means that tlie "surface" is very readily deformed on Increasing the interference of the fit makes the bearing
steels with low yield stresses. very difficult to fit.

7:3
 High surface pressures

The use of WELDOX 700 steels in lugs to reduce play has been
highly successful!
In most cases, the problem has been completely eliminated!
The lugs are usuallYimade of WELDOX 700, gas-cut with Cl
radial machining allowance of about 5 mm (due to the
overtempered zone) and then simply drilled.
Since WELDOX 700 has a much higher yield stress (twice as
high) than S 355 which is normally used, the risk of plastic
Most fatigue failures occur at section C-C, where it is com-
mon to have changes of section with high stress concentrations
(Kt) and, not too uncommonly, poor welds! The design of this
section must therefore be given special attention. It can be
designed in accordance with the principles of chapter 5.
At sections A and B, the fatigue crack often starts from the
edge of the hole. For this reason, a chamfering of the hole to
about 1.5· 45 is very beneficial.
0

deformation of the whole lug is also drastically reduced.
This is evident from figure 7.4, which shows the plastic defor-
mation of the hole as a function of the stress in the hole cross-
section crnet' from ref. (47), (48), (49), (50) and (51).
Note that the holes used in the tests for figure 7.4 complied
with a tolerance of H7 (Le. reamed), and if the holes are only
drilled with e.g. H12, the deformation will be about 10011 m
greater.
This is also verified in figure 7.6, which shows the dimensions
and principal stress distributions of a lug.
The figure shows that stress concentrations are caused by the
hole and the pin.
The maximum stress a max is of interest and can be calculated
according to (46):
a max = a net • Kt

°net = Plug as per fig. 7.6

Figure 7.4 t· (w-d)
A = d/w
N/mm2 d/w"" 0.4-0.6
I'l did", 0.3-0.4 "10 (diametral play)
1000~------~~~----------r----------.~

WELDOX 700

500·4f------~~~----------r_--------~~

-P/2
S 355 (BS 50, St 52·3)

There are also calculation methods that take into account uneven
pressure distribution in the hole (along the pin) according to
p I'J d H7 (46), but further studies are required in order to verify these
methods.
Figure 7.7
G rmax a rmax = anot . Kt ). = dfw
O+-----------+---------~r_--------~~
o 50 100 150 N/mm2 Kt =). + 1/). R = 0, p =1
I'l pl.,um 1000

700
Fatigue
in lugs is, naturally, of frequent occurrence and the consequen-
500
ces are often serious, since it leads to a failure of function of
e.g. a hydraulic cylinder.
Figure 7.5 shows different pOints of initiation for the fatigue
failure of a longitudinally loaded lug (more interesting and often
400
t--..
- WELDOX 700
'""i.",

S 355(BS 50)
I III

more critical than a transversely loaded lug). 300

-
200
Figure 7.5

100
104 10 5 106 10 7 108
Figure 7.7 can be used in design against fatigue.
- r - - - - - - -+--- P The graph in figure 7.7 has been plotted from ref. (44), (46),
(47), (48), (49), (50), (51), (52) and on the basis of experience.
Note that the graph has been transformed too rma in the hole
according to the above formula and applies for p = i.e. a full t
load spectrum.
Observations in connection with lugs subjected to longitudinal
tension and compression.

7:4
 High surface pressures

Lugs subjected to tensile and compressive loads (see figure 7.5) 3. Calculate a r ma. = a r net' Kt
are usually said to be suhjected to alternating load since the
nominal stress a nom changes sign, see figure 7.8. The stress 4. Compare with figure 7.7 and put
distribution when + a nom acts towards the right and gives
a max 1 is shown at the top of the figure. a maXdiagram
a maxperm 2
Figure 7.8
This gives a probability of failure"" 10-3
if we have spectrum (variable amplitude) loading, use the Palm-
gren-Miner cumulative damage rule and put

.r ~ = 1 as a criterion
Ni

w Example 7.1
Check a lug as per figure 7.9 for fatigue. The lug is to sustain
2 . 106 load cycles. It is incorporated in an ejector mechanism for
flour sacks, load spectrum p = I, and according to the designer,
the bearing pressure is 60 N/mm2.

Unoml

Solution: Checking the bearing pressure

Pi
°nom::::;: w:t
a = _P_ = 4.8' 104 = 60 N/mm2
p max d ·t 40 . 20

Critical paint A
4.B· 104
0rnet = -:--:-c-~:-:- = 60 N/mm2
o nominal 20 (BO -40)
°max
The compressive force does not contribute to a r net at point A

Kt = 40lBO + _~l:-::- = 2.5

40/80
2
a r max = 2.5' 60 = 150 N/mm
0rmaxdiagram = 150· 2 = 300 N/mm2
according to figure 7.7, we can readily permit 2· 106 load
cycles.

Will the weld hold?

Assume QB = 10-3
Weld class Sv2. Kx = 5.0 case 28
Nd = 2· 106
According to table 5.2.5a, this givesa perm = 44 N/mm2

When a nom changes direction, most of the stresses will not

a rnorm {weld } =
(4.8 + 0.3)' 104
BD. 20
= 31 N/mm2 OK'
have to go past the hole, but will rather be taken up by the pin
directly. The stresses that go past the hole will return and, upon
passing the edge of the hole, will give rise to tensile stresses
0max2! See the lower figure.
This means that the edge of the hole on longitudinally loaded Example 7.2
lugs will not be subjected to compressive stress (in the tangen- How much can the radius R of the lug in example 7.1 be reduced
tial direction)! if WELDOX 700 is used instead of S 355, and Nd = 10'?
'.' The stress ratio ~ O.
If the lug is connected by a welded jOint, the joint will naturally
be subjected to alternating stress if a nom changes sign. Solution:
Other rules apply to transversely loaded lugs.
a rmaxdiagram S 355 300
Rwx 700 = 40· = 40 - - - - 27 mm
OrmaXdiagrarnWELDOX 700 450
Calculation procedure for checking
longitudinally loaded lugs: i.e. 40 - 27 = 13 mm

I
1. Caculatearnet=arnom'--=
W Plug
-----'=--
w- d t· (w - d)
Example 7.3
Note: onlya~O is included!
The lug in figure 7.9 is also used in a street sweeper, which
2. Calculate Kt = l + III has the following estimated load spectrum during its expected
wherel = d/w life. Fatigue failure occurs. What should be done?

7:5
 High surtace pressures

All three points must be checked according to re!. (53).

(J min °max ni
N/mm2 I N/mm2 1. Pperm = 0.9' (w-d), i'a perm

0 180 0.4 . 105 Failure load a perm = as

0 144 10 · 105 "Yield load" a perm = a s' Note that this load gives plastic
0 128 20 · 105 deformations as per figure 7.4
-110 110 25 · 105
2. Pperm = k2 ' C . a perm
k2 as per figure 7.10
Figure 7.9
3. Pperm = d· t· Pperm
Pperm as per section "Bearing pressure".

Figure 7.10

4.8 tonnes

0.3 tonnes
o o
1.5-t------,:------'----,:-----7'--1

R = 40 t = 20
1.4+-----t----->~-t-_¥-----i

Solution:
Use the Palmgren-Miner cumulative damage rule and only in-
clude a rnom whose
l.3~+-----+-----1-~-__\_---1
a min >-: O.
Kt = 2.5
a rmax = Kt 'a rnom
1. 2 -t--.---r--.,----.--i-,.-.-......-.--t--.--.--.-,--t---
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 cid
arnom2 a rmax2 ni Ni (as per graph
N/mm N/mm in fig 7.7 for 1:~
Ni Cracks in lugs
S 355
Fracture mechanics can also be applied to lugs, and ref. (54)
180 450 0.4· 105 1.7. 105 0.23 gives the following expressions for the stress intensity factor for
144 360 10 · 105 16 . 105 0.625 a through crack.
128
llO
320
275
20 ·
25 ·
105
105
45 .105
200 . 105 *
0.444
0.125
--
1.43
K = a nom' V If a' [5.38 - 12.3 ++ (+ y-
19.1

* extrapolate the curve for safety's sake.

for wld = 2.40
' .. 1: ~i > 1 and we quite definitely get fatigue failure
I
The function (+) in tabular form
Change the material to WElDOX 700
aIr (5.38 - .... )
a rmax ni Ni ni o 5.380
WELDOX 700 Ni 0.1 4.327
0.2 3.574
450 0.4· 105 100· 105 0.004 0.3 3.052
360 10 · 105 1000· 105 0.010 0.4 2.698
320 20 · 105 2800· 105 0.007 0.5 2.464
275 25 · 105 - --- 0.6 2.312
0.021 0.7 2.214
0.8 2.152
This gives a much better result. since 1: ~i. < 1. 0.9 2.123
I 1.0 2.103
For corner cracks, the following approximation can be used:
Extreme loads
Three points have to be checked when it comes to the extreme K = a nom' fu· f (+)
load that a lug can bear.
1. Width - diameter ratio d/w
2. Edge distance C according to figure 7.6
(+ )
a = 2 mm 2.58
3. Bearing pressure a = 3 mm 2.64

7:6
8 Wear 8
Wear, general ..................................... 8: 1 Some hints concerning
Choice of material ............................... 8:2 constructional details .......................... 8:3
Design principles -
rules of thumb .................................... 8:2
 8 Wear

Wear, general Figure 8.1

Knowledge of the physics of wear scarcely extends beyond a

narrow circle of specialists.
In practice, many designers have proceeded by trial and
error, with more or less success, in their attemrts to reduce
wear, without really knowing what they have been dOing in
terms of the physics of wear.
Even though we are still in the early stages of research into
the phenomenon of wear, it may be of interest to examine
briefly what has been found so far and to show how many wear
problems can already be tackled today through a suitable
choice of material.

Some basic concepts

When solid bodies come into mechanical surface contact,
phenomena occur that can be grouped under the heading
tribology - the science of friction, lubrication and wear.
The phenomenon of friction has been known since ancient
times, and we are all familiar with the law of friction F = fI . N
from mechanics.
What is less well known is that the actual area of contact
between two bodies is several orders of magnitude smaller than
the nominal contact area, and when movement occurs between
the bodies, projecting micro-irregularities (asperities) collide
with each other and give rise to considerable plastic deforma-
tions and very high temperatures in the surface layer.
The object of lubrication is to separate the surfaces and to
prevent contact between the asperities. In practice, this is im-
possible owing to the fact that the asperities break up the lubri- tional energy is always converted to heat, and the temperatures
cant film and owing to the imperfect stability of the film itself. in the surface layer become so high that phase transformations
Wear can be defined as the loss of material from the surface take place. Figure 8.2 illustrates schematically what happens
layer of a body under mechanical·contact. during abrasion.
Corrosion increases abrasive wear, since the corrosion pro-
ducts are often brittle and therefore sensitive to abrasion.
Mechanisms of wear Corrosion must be included in the analyses, and if the corro-
sive medium is very aggressive or the period of service is very
The fundamental phenomenon for all wear is fracture due to
long, corrosion and abrasion can play a decisive role.
a. shearing-off of adhesive contact bridges
b. chip cutting action
c. impact Figure 8.2
d. fatigue
Direction of
These fundamental mechanisms of wear seldom occur in isola- abrasion
tion, but interact with each other. In addition, other phenomena
"Friction martensite"m9!J!IJ;:mH!l!l Severe deformatIOn and
such as heating, plastic deformation or corrosion interact with phase transformatIOn
700 Hv max
the fracture mechanisms. Deformation and
In addition, a practical tribological system is controlled by temperature effects
Strain-hardened
system parameters such as forces, movements, design etc. 600 Hv
In other words, practical cases of wear are extremely comp- Deformation
lex, so it is perhaps not so strange that the literature contains Strain-hardened to
references to an abundance of "wear mechanisms" with imagi- a lesser degree ' 200,,01
native names, many of which try to describe the entire system 400 Hv
As-supptied
rather than verifiable wear mechanisms.
A good rule of thumb in analysing wear problems is to consi-
der the actual wear process in terms of one of the types of Depth
fracture listed above.

Abrasive wear Erosion

Abrasive wear is the type of wear that is of most interest to us.
If a hard particle is dragged across a softer surface, it can act
as a cutting tool- a so-called 'abrasive element'.
Material removal takes place by the formation of chips, leaving
a scratch in the surface, figure 8.1. However, most of the fric-
Erosion occurs when a surface is bombarded by a stream of
particles. Two types of fracture dominate: chip cutting and im-
pact. Cutting predominates at small angles of incidence, impact
at large angles. In the extreme case of glanCing incidence, ero-
sion grades over into abrasion.

8:1
 Wear

Material aspects of the wear of wear parts Figure 8.4

The predominant wear mechanism in e.g. construction, forestry
Tonnes loaded
and transport equipment is the abrasive-erosive and, to some
extent, corrosive wear of wear parts,
The most common material that is exposed to the wear in 50000
such applications is AR steel.
AR (Abrasion Resistant) steels are steel alloys based on Mn,
Cr, Mo, W, B and heat-treated to great hardness. 40000
Modern AR steels have found many successful areas of
application because they:
- possess their great hardness from the start
- exhibit considerable toughness, despite their great hardness 30000
- are readily weldable
- are bendable
- resist abrasion-erosion very well 20000
- can take hard impacts without cracking
- function simultaneously as structural steels.
10000
None of the competing materials - such as 13% Mn steel,
Nihard, cemented carbide and wear rubber - can boast such a
wide range of usage as AR steels.
On the other hand, these materials can perform better than 100 200 300 400 500
AR steels in special cases of wear. Brinell hardness

Choice of material
Faced with this complex picture of wear, it might be useful to Design principles
review some si!l1ple guidelines for material selection.
For many applications, it has been found that hardness is a We all understand now that wear is a complex problem, making
very good material parameter for determining the wear resistan- it difficult to give any general rules for deSign.
ce of the material. The following guidelines must therefore be applied with
Figure 8.3 provides a good overview and guidance. discretion and some caution.
The fact that hardness is a good measure of wear resistance In doubtful cases, consult the steel manufacturer.
is evident from figure 8.4, which is taken from a study conduc- - Try to ascertain which wear mechanism dominates
ted by the Swedish Mine-Owners' Association on loader buckets
for loading iron ore. The curve shows almost exact proportionali- - If corrosion is a serious problem, allow for a reduction of plate
ty between life and hardness. thickness (one-sided material loss, uniform corrosion)
0.5 mm in 10 years Industrial air, coast, urban area
0.75 mm per year Structure operating alternately
in water and air
Figure 8.3 The importance of different factors in the abrasive
wear of steel. - Learn from experience of previous installations (actual plate
thickness at start, n;Jmber of tonnes loaded, hours, trips,
hardness of material, reduction of plate thickness).
~ IMPULSE ~
STRUCTURE·
DEPENDENT --small
soft
PIECE SIZE
MATERIAL
HARDNESS
-
large.
hard
NOT
STRUCTURE·
DEPENDENT
- If experience is available from previous installations, extrapo·
late to the hardness of the new material if abrasive-erosive
wear is involved.

I
WEAR NOT WEAR
I - If experience is not available, use some of the following
typical values and extrapolate to the hardness of the new
mater a1.
CORRELATED CORRELATED
WITH
1. Truck body (tippers, dumptrJcks, hcfulage vehicles):
WITH
HARDNESS HARDNESS
WELDOX 600 (240 HB) 3 mm/lOOO hours
HARDOX 400 (400 HB) 0.65 mm/lOOO hours

Table 8.1 The hardness of different steels

OSguaranteed OSguaranteed aStyp HBtyp HBguaranteed
N/mm' N/mm' N/mmz

S 355 (SS 50) 350 min 510 380 150

WELDOX 500 500 570-720 540 210
WELDOX 700 700 780-930 750 260
WELDOX900 900 940-1100 950 310
WELDOX960 960 980-1150 1000 320
HARDOX400 900 1050 400 360-440
HARDOX500 1300 480 450-560

Table 8.1 shows that the AR steels have very high yield stresses and are thus better equipped to withstand shocks and impacts (see
section entitled "Design of panels against impact).

8:2
 Wear

2. Loader buckets (shelll...,truck body multiplied by 5. Figure 8.6

3. Bucket cutting edges, 480 HB, working in iron ore, 50 mm,
300 - 600 hours life, depending on design of cutting edge. Wear plate + (e.g.) Philips C6

~\~
4. Bark pipelines
S 235, BS 40 A, St 37-2 (140 HB) 0.16 mm/month
WELDOX 600 (240 HB) 0.10 mm/month
HARDOX 400 (400 HB) 0.05 mm/month
5. Rotating drum barkers
shell HARDOX 400 0.75 mm/year
lifters HARDOX 400 2.25 mm/year
6. Loading bin for iron ore, opening 1000 x 500 (mm 2 )
HARDOX 400 (400 HB) in bottom (450 slope) 20.5 mm worn
off after 107 000 tonnes (piece size 0-50 mm).
- The wear must not be allowed to reduce the plate thickness
beyond the minimum required for strength reasons (stress,
stiffness, impact stress, fatigue etc. ).
- Carry out an economic comparison of different alternatives,
and don't forget repairs and downtime costs for the replace-
ment of wear parts.
Note: It is unquestionably economical to switch from e.g. S 355
(BS 500) to HARDOX 400 in cases involving abrasive wear.
This is clearly shown by our experience. Figure 8.7

Some hints concerning constructional details

Shape
Shape is very important when it comes to sliding materials. A
change of direction of the sliding material causes local wear.
Softly rounded corners are therefore important in cyclones
and pipes.
e.g. OK 48.30
Pipe joints must not cause misalignment of the pipes. HARDOX 400
Flatness is therefore an important requirement for wear
plates!
Increase the thickness where wear is greatest, for example if
the wear looks like that shown in figure 8.5. Service life can
then be extended considerably by, for example, choosing a
more appropriate shape for a new part, for example as shown in Stud welding can often be a good alternative for fastening
figure 8.5. wear plates that have to be replaced quickly.
Gas-cut edges subjected to abrasive wear suffer very little Naturally, bolted joints are also acceptable.
wear at first owing to the very hard surface layer. After this layer Drilling recommendations are provided in our metal-working
has been worn through down to the overtempered soft zone booklets.
(3-5 mm wide), wear proceeds more rapidly, eventually slowing Fan and pump impellers, as well as their housings, intended
down to the wear rate that is specific for the steel. for the transport of dust or slurry can be made of AR steel for
best results.
When fabricating the irnpellers, it is important to locate the
Figure 8.5
, welds (jnci. heat-affected zones) in such a way that they do not
wear out faster than the unaffected plate.
\
I One way of tackling this problem is shown in figure 8.8.
\
I
,
\

I
Figure 8.8

, Proposed shape of
\~new part
\
\
\ \
\ \ A right!
-~--~
Worn part

The importance of this phenomenon must be judged from

case to case. The antidote is milling of the gas-cut edge to
remove the soft lone, see figure 7.2.

Fastening of wear parts

The easiest way to fasten wear parts is by welding, since EHS
and AR steels offer very good weldability.
Filler material is to be chosen on the basis of the real need for
hardness. It is usually possible to use filler metal intended for
much softer steels (undermatchingl.
Therefore, make sure that the welds are protected against
wear, for example as shown in figure 8.6. If the welds are B wrong!
exposed to wear, sealing runs should be made with hardfacing
metal, see figure 8.7. Soft zone - Rapid wear
9 References 9
 9 List of references
1. Jarfall, Dimensionering mot utmattning dell och 2 Mekan-
resultat 77004.
2. Schnittiger, TillfOrlitlighetsanalys fOr Mekanister Inst. for
Maskinelement KTH 1972.
3. Roark, Formulas for Stress and Strain 4th edition, McGraw-
Hill.
4. Johnson, Impact Strength of Materials, Arnold.
5. Schijve J, Proceedings Rimforsa, Sweden Aug 1977.
6. Gurney T R, Fatigue of welded structures Cambridge Univ.
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7. Olivier R. und Ritter W. Wohlerlinienkatalog fUr Schweiss-
verbindungen au~ Baustahlen. Teil 1 und 2, DVS Bereich-
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8. Swedish Regulations for Welded Steel Structures 74 StBK-
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lastning, JK-rapport D 266.
15. Blomberg F, Kompendium i maskinkonstruktion AK. Inst.
for maskinkonstruktion KTH.
16. Stuber M and Rolfe, Effective Utili2ation of High-Yield
Strength Steels in Fatigue. WRC Bulletin 243.
17. Abathi, Albrecht and Irwin, Fatigue of Periodically Over-
loaded Stiffner Detail, Journal of the Structural Division
Nov 1976.
18. Bergqvist L, Sperle J 0, Utmattningshallfastheten hos hog-
hallfasta stal med termiskt skurna snittytor, STU -rapport
75-5680.
19. Wylde J G, The effect of axial misalignment on the fatigue
strength of transverse butt welded joints. Welding Institute
Research Reports 99/1979.
20. Johansson B G, Hallsten K E, Hur bra skall man bygga
fartygsskrovet, Nordiska Skeppstekniska motet i Oslo 1976-
09-30, Kockums AB Malmo.
21. Gurney T R, Some recent work relating to the influence of
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Bauteilen, Verlag Stahleisen 1961 Dusseldorf.
27. Falck J, Teknisk Tidskrift 1940 sid 93 -.
28. Timoshenko, Theory of plates and Shells McGraw-Hill,
2nd. ed.
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Bethlehem Pennsylvania 1973.
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Welding inst res rep E/59178.
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