©  2019 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

SSD3601/1/2020

70669627

MSWord
 CONTENTS

 Page
PREFACEv

PART I: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN1

1 DESIGN BASICS3
1.1 Introduction3
1.2 Design standards3
1.3 Design materials3
1.4 Characteristics and design loads4

2 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL TENSION MEMBERS5

2.1 Introduction5

3 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS7

3.1 Introduction7

4 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL BEAMS AND PLATE GIRDERS9

4.1 Introduction9

5 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL BEAM COLUMNS11

5.1 Introduction11
6 STRUCTURAL STEEL CONNECTION DESIGN13
6.1 Introduction13

PART II: STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN15

7 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL TIMBER THEORY AND MATERIALS17

7.1 Introduction17
7.2 General design concepts32
8 ELEMENT DESIGN METHODS37
8.1 Allowable stress design37
8.2 Limit state design51
8.3 Plastic design52
8.4 Design examples52

...........
iii S S D 3 6 01/1
 9 DESIGN OF TIMBER CONNECTIONS65
9.1 Introduction65
9.2 Nails68
9.3 Bolts70
9.4 Timber section properties72
9.5 Design examples76
10 FORMWORK81
10.1 Loads acting on the formwork81
10.2 Timber formwork materials84
10.3 Timber formwork design86
10.4 Falsework87
10.5 Design examples91

...........
iv
 PREFACE

The purpose of this study guide is to wrap up the module contents, to provide
clarity and to add some information that does not appear in the prescribed
books. Note that the contents of this study guide may change in future based
on changes to the contents of new editions of the prescribed books.

Prescribed books:

TITLE: Structural Steel Design to SANS 10162:-1

AUTHOR: Greg Parrott
EDITION: 13th
PUBLISHER: Greg Parrott
YEAR: 2015
ISBN: 1-919858-13-X

TITLE: Southern African Steel Construction Handbook (The Red

Book)
AUTHOR: The South African Institute of Steel Construction (SAISC)
EDITION: 8th
PUBLISHER: The South African Institute of Steel Construction (SAISC)
YEAR: 2013
ISBN: 978-0-620-55511-1

How to use this study guide:

Firstly, you are encouraged to preview. That is, read the titles and sub-titles, and
summarise what each chapter is about. Secondly, read thoroughly through the
entire chapters whilst keeping record of your questions. Thirdly, review all for
understanding and try to answer all the questions by yourself. You may discuss
the contents further with your lecturer or module leader if you still need more
clarity on certain aspects. Each chapter is summarised and emphasis is placed
on the module outcomes. You must have read the prescribed books before
or concurrently with this study guide. There are a few worked examples (but
not in all the chapters of this study guide), which are intended to assist you
when you are studying.

...........
v S S D 3 6 01/1
PR EFACE

Syllabus: General Considerations (covered for both

steel and timber)

Structural Loading (covered for both steel

and timber)

Design of Structural Elements (covered for

both steel and timber)

Steel Connections Design (covered for

both steel and timber)

Trusses and Bracings (covered for steel

only)

Project component: SSD3602 Single-storey warehouse building (steel

only), designs of roof, connections, cost
optimisation (bill of quantities) and
technical communication (reports and
drawings)

Purpose

The purpose of this module is to introduce you to structural steel and timber
design and enable you to develop competencies and skills in solving prob-
lems in structural steel and timber design using the developed standards and
codes of practice.

Module outcomes

At the end of the course you should have acquired an understanding of and
skills in structural loading; steel connection design; steel elements design;
timber section resistance to tension and compression, bending and shear ef-
fects; timber elements bolted and nailed joints design.

Outline

This study guide consists of two parts: Part 1 – Structural steel design; and
Part 2 – Structural timber design. There is no prescribed textbook for Part 2 –
Structural timber design, hence you are encouraged to use the library should
you wish to learn more about a certain aspect.

...........
vi
 PART I

STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

1 SSD3601/1
2 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 1

Design basics

1.1 Introduction

This chapter is intended to introduce you to steel as a construction material, its

characteristics and limitations. You may refer to the Southern African Steel
Construction Handbook (Red Book) for more insights.

Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be familiar with the technical aspects of steel as
a material, as well as structural loading.

1.2 Design standards

The design codes to be used in the design of structural steel elements are:

• SANS 10162: Parts 1 and 2

• SANS 10160: Parts 1, 2 and 3
• Other codes may be referred to inside this study guide when necessary

1.3 Design materials

The Southern African Steel Construction Handbook (Red Book) presents densities of
different steels that are available in the country.

3 SSD3601/1
1.4 Characteristics and design loads

The first chapter of the prescribed textbook, Structural Steel Design to SANS 10162:-1,
outlines the different types of loading and load patterns that can be applied to structural
steel members. You are advised to read that chapter thoroughly before proceeding to
other chapters.

4 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 2

Design of structural steel tension members

2.1 Introduction

Tension elements are structural members experiencing or taking a co-axial pulling

force. Such members must be designed to satisfy the code requirements covered in
Clauses 12.3, 13.2 and 13.11 of SANS 10162: Part 1. The prescribed textbook,
Structural Steel Design to SANS 10162:1-2005 by G Parrott, covers the designs of
steel axial tension members.

Outcome

At the end of this chapter you should be able to calculate the axial force in a tension
member and choose the adequate section to support the load.

5 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

6 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 3

Design of structural steel compression members

3.1 Introduction

Columns, stanchions and struts are typical examples of members in compression.

Columns are vertical members subjected to predominantly axial compressive force in
a building, and struts are members subjected to axial compressive force in a truss
structure. Members subjected to both compression and bending are referred to as
beam columns.

SANS10162: Part 1: Clauses 10, 11, 13 and 25 as well as Annexures E and F give
the requirements for the design of compression members. The prescribed textbook,
Structural Steel Design to SANS 10162:1-2005 by G Parrott, covers the designs of
steel compression members.

Outcome

The expected outcome of this chapter is that you should be able to differentiate
compression members, calculate their resistance capacity and choose the adequate
section for each member.

7 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

8 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 4

Design of structural steel beams and plate girders

4.1 Introduction

A beam is a structural member that transfers the load applied normal to it, along its
axis and to its supports. The load generates two internal actions in a beam:
flexure/bending and shear. It is common that flexure/bending is resisted by flanges
and shear by the web of the beam section. For more on the steel sections, refer to the
Southern African Steel Construction Handbook (Red Book). Beams may fail in the
following ways:

i) Strength failure

• Maximum factored bending resistance (Mr) is exceeded [material strength

failure]
• Maximum factored shear resistance (Vr) is exceeded [material strength failure]
• Local buckling of web or flanges [stability failure]
• Lateral –torsinal buckling [also stability failure]

ii) Serviceability failure

• Excessive deflection
• Excessive vibration
• Anything else that would impair the serviceability

9 SSD3601/1
SANS10162: Part 1: clauses 10, 11, 13 and 14 as well as Annexure D give the
requirements for the design of beams and plate girders. The prescribed text book,
Structural Steel Design to SANS 10162:1-2005 by G Parrott also covers the designs
of steel beams and plate girders.

Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to calculate the beam capacity, define
its conditions and class, and finally choose the adequate section for the beam.

10 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 5

Design of structural steel beam columns

5.1 Introduction

Structural members that are subject to a combination of bending and compression or

bending and tension are called beam columns.

SANS10162: Part 1: Clauses 10, 11, 13 and 14 as well as Annexure F give the
requirements for the design of beam columns. The prescribed textbook, Structural
Steel Design to SANS 10162:1-2005 by G Parrott also covers the designs of steel
beam columns.

Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to determine the conditions and classes
of beam columns, calculate the member structural capacity and choose an adequate
section to support the load.

11 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

12 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 6

Structural steel connection design

6.1 Introduction

Connections consist of plates and member sections bolted or welded together. Bolted
connections can be done using riveting or bolting. Riveting is an old and-labour
intensive method. High-strength bolting is another common method with the
advantage of simple installation. Bolts have higher static and fatigue strength than
rivets. The primary function of connections is to transfer forces and moments between
members at a joint.

For the correct code references, see the Southern African Steel Construction
Handbook (Red Book) and Structural Steel Design to SANS 10162:1 by G Parrott for
more insights.

Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to calculate the resistance capacity of
welded and bolted steel connections.

13 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

14 SSD3601/1
 PART II

STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN

Written by: Mr Greg Parrott

Redeveloped by: Mrs Stella Mlasi

Reviewed by: Mr Elliot Nkosi – Pr. Eng.

15 SSD3601/1
16 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 7

Introduction to structural timber theory and

materials

7.1 Introduction

Timber is defined as being either a softwood or hardwood. Hardwood comes from

deciduous (broad-leaved) trees and it is seldom used for common structures, whereas
softwood comes from evergreen trees (conifers in particular) and is extensively used
for timber structures. Although this course will mainly deal with softwoods, you should
be aware that hardwoods are often more durable and stronger than softwoods –
examples include Rhodesian teak and jarrah wood used for railway sleepers.
Structural-grade plywood is marketed locally in both softwood and hardwood varieties
(after Rhodesian teak and jarrah).

Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be familiar with most of the terms used in the
design of timber structure and some of the design codes and standards in use.

17 SSD3601/1
7.1.1 Species

Owing to different climatic conditions in the various parts of South Africa, a regional
usage factor has to be acknowledged. Different species of pine trees are grown and
marketed in the different regions:

Table 7.1: South African pine species – distribution and usage

Botanical Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus

name
Patula Elliottii Radiata Pinaster

Common Southern Mexican Monterey Cape

name yellow

Pine Pine Pine Pine

Regional Gauteng 80% 20% Nil Nil

usage
K. Natal 20% 80% Nil Nil

W. Cape Nil Nil 90% 10%

The different species come with different material properties for design purposes. The
design formulae remain standardised such that the difference in properties is
accounted for by the difference in material property values input into the design
formulae. Thus, the differences need not generally be a problem in designing
structures with timber, owing to the fact that stress-graded timbers used commercially
are tested by the suppliers to comply with South African National Standards (SANS)
as published and amended from time to time. For instance, SANS 1783-1: sawn
softwood timber provide published sawn softwood timber material properties.

Eucalyptus is widely grown and used in South Africa, but not frequently used for
structures. Gum poles tend to be used as pitprops in mines, fencing, telephone and
electricity poles. In addition, gum poles are commonly used in load-bearing structures
such as thatched roofs on cottages. The exception is Eucalyptus saligna (Sydney blue
gum or more commonly, saligna) which is used in glulam products.

18 SSD3601/1
7.1.2 Manufactured timber products

Laminated timber or Glulam is commonly used for architectural purposes. The relevant
code is SANS1460: Laminated timber (glulam).

These products are marketed under different names according to their grades and
composition. Lengths of up to 15 m are commercially available. Although suppliers
have a set of standard sizes up to 1 200 mm deep, special orders can be made upon
request.

Plywood complying with SANS 929: Plywood and composite board may also be used
in structural applications.

During the Second World War the British built the de Havilland Mosquito aircraft using
a plywood-and-balsa sandwich for the fuselage. This Wooden Wonder was a very fast
and versatile aircraft and served for the duration of the war in a number of roles, from
fighter to bomber.

7.1.3 Properties

Only commercially available structural grades of South African softwood will be

considered in this study guide; however, you must be aware of the possibility of
designing timber structures using other types and grades of wood. Visit lumber yards
to find out first-hand what different grades and sizes of structural timber are available
in the area.

Wood is not a homogenous material like steel; it is a natural product at the mercy of
the elements – both during growth and after reduction to usable timber products such
as poles, sheets and boards. In order to ensure the end-user and designer of a uniform
product, the lumber suppliers grade timber in accordance with a set of limitations
specified by the SANS.

Trees want to stand up straight and to that end, if for example the prevailing winds
generally come from one direction the tree will strengthen itself against tensile forces
on the windward side and against compressive forces on the leeward side. The result
is plain to see when the tree is felled: the rings do not form perfect concentric circles

19 SSD3601/1
and ring spacing is closer on the one side than on the other, similarly, the density of
the wood varies from one side to the other. These variations mean that the grader will
find a range of grades from one tree’s lumber. The outer wood is stronger than the
inner core.

The distortion of the grain around knots adversely affects the strength of timber,
especially of tensile and bending members. Knots are therefore regarded as defects
– whether they are sound knots around living branches or the loose knots of dead
branches.

The strength and modulus of elasticity are greatest parallel to the grain. Strength and
other properties vary considerably relative to the direction of the grain and are much
weaker when measured perpendicular or tangential to the grain.

Timber seems to lose strength with time and this loss is accelerated by high stresses.
Time to failure decreases with increase in stress. Therefore, designers should focus
more on long- duration, high-stress loadings than-long term, low-stress loadings. The
design codes do take cognisance of this fact through the design specification called
“The Structural Use of Timber Limits States design” SANS 10163-1 and “The
Structural Use of Timber Allowable Stress Design” SANS 10163-2, with the former
being the design standard that a designer should attend to more.

Timber with a high modulus of elasticity is more likely to be stronger than timber with
a low modulus of elasticity. Grading of timber in terms of stiffness and thus modulus
of elasticity is therefore possible.

Timber creeps under long-term load condition and may give the impression of being
unsafe owing to excessive deflections. The design codes have made provision for this
issue.

20 SSD3601/1
The advantages of timber as a structural material are the following:

i. Timber is relatively light, easy to handle and workable with normal tools and
machinery.

ii. It has a higher strength-to-weight ratio than for example concrete.

iii. Corrosive environments generally have less effect on timber than steel.

iv. Thermal expansion/contraction is low.

v. It has a high fire resistance.

vi. It has a high resistance to impact loadings.

vii. As it is aesthetically pleasing, it is suitable for many architectural features.

viii. Timber is a renewable resource building material in that one can replant the
source tree in consideration of environmental preservation.

Disadvantages of timber as a structural material are the following:

i. Insect and fungus damage can be disastrous if the timber is not treated.

ii. Deterioration owing to moisture changes may occur.

iii. Distortions as a result of creep under long-term loads do occur.

iv. High moisture content leads to a reduction in stiffness and strength.

v. Load defects are found because of the existence of knots.

vi. It is anisotropic – material properties differ in different directions.

vii. It is hygroscopic – it tends to absorb moisture.

viii. It is susceptible to wind, rain and ultraviolet radiation damage.

7.1.4 Grading

The SABS, and recently South African Technical Auditing Services (SATAS), carry out
spot-checks from time to time to ensure that products bearing timber grading marks
do in fact comply with the specifications. These markings are in signal red on each
piece of timber, and are marked according to the test method and stress grade. Visual
stress graded timber is marked with a “V” and a number. For instance, V4 is a visually

21 SSD3601/1
graded piece with a stress grade of 4 MPa. The minimum stress grade of structural
timber is 4 MPa. Mechanical stress grades are marked with “M” and proof-graded
timber is marked with “P” – for example, M4 and P4 respectively. For a quick guide,
see SANS 10163-2 Table 3 for grade stresses for South African pine.

The relevant SANS codes published by SABS for grading of timber are:

SANS 1783-1 – General requirements

SANS 1783-2 – Visual grading: Stress-graded structural timber and timber for frame
wall construction

SANS 10149 – Mechanical grading: The mechanical stress grading of softwood timber
(flexural method). Proof-grading requirements mentioned in Annex C.9 of SANS 1783-
1 (latest edition)

SANS 6122 – Structural timber values and grades

SANS 1783-3 – Industrial timber

SANS 1783-4 – Brandering and battens: Care should be taken to always make use of
the latest edition of the applicable published standard.

SANS 1783 provides for three grades of structural timber: grades 5,7, and 10.

Grade 5 is the lowest of these grades and is generally available and used in the
building industry. Grade 7 is also made readily available these days, while grade 10 is
graded on request and is not readily available and is seldom used.

22 SSD3601/1
7.1.5 Definitions

Allowable stress or The grade stress or basic joint force multiplied by the modification
allowable joint force factors that are appropriate for the specific conditions under
which a member, structure or joint will operate.

Basic joint force The force assigned to a joint or member of a joint to quantify the
strength of the joint or member.

Batten A piece of timber used to support roof coverings of tiles or slates,

usually having cross-sectional dimensions of 38 x 38 mm or 38 x
50 mm or 50 x 50 mm.

Bleeding The exudation of creosote on the surface of treated timber.

Blooming The exudation of dry preservative compound on the surface of

treated timber. Example: Crystal formation in the case of timber
treated with PCP (pentachlorophenol)

Bottom chord The lower edge of a truss. It usually carries combined bending
and tension stresses.

Bow Lengthways curvature in one plane along the edge of a piece of

lumber.

Brandering Timber fixed to the underside of truss chords onto which ceiling
boards are attached. Usually 38 x 38 mm in cross-section.

Built-up beam A beam made up of two or more timber members.

Calculated deflection The deflection predicted for a structure based on elastic theory
analysis.

Camber A specified upward displacement in the centre of a beam or

bottom chord to compensate for deflection due to loads and/or
self-weight.

23 SSD3601/1
Cambium The thin layer of tissue between the wood and the bark. It
subdivides repeatedly to form new wood and bark cells.

Cellulose The principle constituent of wood comprising 50% of the mass of

the wood. It is a carbohydrate that forms the framework of wood
cells.

Characteristic joint The force assigned to a joint or member of a joint to quantify its
strength strength.

Characteristic timber The strength assigned to a timber member or product and below
strength which not more than 5% of the tests fail.

Charge The quantity of timber treated in one and the same treating cycle.

Check A lengthways separation of the wood fibres along the grain

forming a crack or fissure.

Compression break Minute ridges formed by the buckling of cell walls as a result of
excessive compression along the grain.

Connector Any device, capable of transmitting specified loads, used for

joining one or more pieces of timber together.

Cup Curvature occurring in the transverse section of a board.

Defective A piece of structural timber that fails in one or more respects to

comply with the requirements of the relevant specification.

Density group Density group D, is assigned to timber that exceeds 480 kg/m3
and timber that has a density between 400 kg/m3 and 480 kg/m3
is classified as density group D2.

Design deflection The calculated deflection adjusted to account for creep,

abnormal moisture content or abnormal fluctuation in moisture
content.

24 SSD3601/1
Discolouration A change in the colour of a piece of lumber that affects only its
appearance and is caused by fungal stain.

Edge knot A knot of which a cross-section occurs on an edge and which

extends at least two thirds across or through the board.

Factored resistance φ R The product of the resistance R and the appropriate resistance
factor.

Flat-grained timber The grain patterns made by the annual growth rings make an
angle of less than 450 with the surface of the piece.

General slope of grain The slope of grain (as observed over a distance of at least 600
mm) on the face that is furthest away from the pith and tangential
to a growth ring.

Gravity load The mass of the supported object multiplied by acceleration due
to gravity.

Glued laminated A member which has been manufactured by gluing a number of

member (Glulam) strips of timber together which have their grains essentially
parallel to each other.

Grade stress See “Stress grade”.

Gum Non-volatile viscous plant exudates which either swell or dissolve

in water. The gum exuded by pines is in fact oleoresin.

Hair check A very fine check of width not exceeding 0, 5 mm.

Heartwood Wood between the pith to the sapwood. It is no longer active and
is identified easily by its darker colour owing to the presence of
phenolic compounds, gums, resins and other materials which
make it more resistant to decay than sapwood.

25 SSD3601/1
Imposed load The load due to intended usage, including loads due to movable
partitions, cranes, winds, rain, ice, snow, earth and hydrostatic
pressures.

Inbark Bark of thickness exceeding 1 mm (usually associated with a

knot) that has been enclosed by the tree and subsequently
exposed by reduction of the tree to lumber.

Inner bark The physiologically active layer of tissues between the cambium
and the phellogen, plus any cells of the phloem that remain alive.

Knot hole A hole or cavity formed in a piece of lumber as a result of the

absence of a knot or part thereof and the effect extends at least
two-thirds across or through the board.

Knot whorl Four (or more) closely associated knots that occur on at least two
faces of a piece of lumber and that originate in unexposed pith.

Lignin The second most abundant constituent of wood, located

principally in the secondary wall and the middle lamella, which is
the thin cementing layer between wood cells. It is an irregular
polymer of substituted propylphenol groups. In softwoods it is 23
– 33% of the mass of the wood and 16 – 25% of the mass of
hardwoods.

Limit-states Those conditions of a structure at which the structure ceases to

fulfil the function for which it was designed. The states concerning
safety are called “ultimate limit-states” and include exceeding of
load-carrying capacity, overturning, uplift, sliding, fracture and
fatigue failure. Serviceability limit-states restrict intended use and
occupancy of a structure and include excessive deflection and
vibration and permanent deformation.

Load effect A force or moment induced in a member, due to ultimate loading,

ultimate displacement or ultimate distortion.

26 SSD3601/1
Lot Not less than 50 and more than 10 000 pieces of structural timber
of the same cross-section and stress-graded by the same
method, from one manufacturer, submitted at any one time for
inspection and testing.

Lumber This is a general term used to describe timber which has been
cut into boards or planks. It is more commonly used in USA than
Southern Africa.

Lumen The cell cavity of wood.

Machine damage Limited undersizing of timber by mechanical means during

regularising. (Usually at the ends of boards due to movements of
the timber during machining.)

Machine skip An area of the surface of a regularised piece of timber that was
not removed during machining.

Member Any structural component of either solid timber or built-up from

pieces glued together to form particular sections (e.g. “I” beam
with solid flanges and plywood web).

Modification factor A factor that is applied to the member resistance, the connection
resistance or the calculated deflection, to allow for the specific
condition/s under which a member or structure will operate and
which will influence its structural behaviour.

Moisture content The mass of water in a sample of timber expressed as grams of

moisture per kilogram (or percentage) of the oven-dried mass of
the sample timber.

Nominal load Loads are specified in SANS 10160: Basis of Structural Design
and Actions for Buildings and Industrial Structures. This standard
is divided into parts 1 to 8 for the applicable loading towards a
structure. The designer should refer to the relevant applicable

27 SSD3601/1
 parts as required by the structure occupancy and purpose under
design consideration. Usually SANS 10160 parts 1, 2, 3 and 8
are mostly considered for residential- type timber structural
design application.

Oleoresin In softwoods, especially pine, this is a solution of pine resin

(rosin) in an essential oil (turpentine).

Outer bark The outer tree layer of dead tissues (generally of a dry corky
nature) outside the phellogen.

Phloem The tissues if the inner bark, characterised by sieve tubes which
act as conduits for food-bearing sap.

Pith The soft core near the centre of any section of trunk or branch.

Planned all round See wrought timber.

(PAR)

Plywood Plywood comprises an odd number of layers of veneers of wood

glued together with the grains of each veneer perpendicular to
the preceding one. Both softwood and hardwood plywood are
available.

Regularising The process whereby a piece of timber of rectangular cross-

section is machined throughout its length to a uniform thickness
or width or both.

Resin Inflammable, water-soluble plant exudates common to both

hardwoods and softwoods (e.g. gum trees and pines).

Resin-infiltrated area An area on the surface where the wood is saturated with resin to
an extent that causes a darkening of the wood to a colour that is
deeper than that of sound knot in that board.

Resin pocket A cavity that contains or has contained resin.

28 SSD3601/1
Resistance (R) The resistance of a member, connection or structure, as
calculated in accordance with SANS 10163-1, based on the
specified material properties and nominal dimensions.

Resistance factor ( φ ) A factor, referred to in SANS 10163-1, that is applied to a

specified material property or to the resistance of a member,
connection or structure that, for the limit state under
consideration, takes into account the variability of the material
properties, dimensions, workmanship, type of failure and
uncertainty in prediction of member resistance.

Rough-sawn Timber sawn on a breakdown saw or similar machine and edged

but not otherwise machined.

Sapwood The pale-coloured wood near the bark; it is the part of the timber
most vulnerable to decay.

Seasoning The drying out of timber to improve its serviceability. It may be

air-dried without artificial heat or kiln-dried using artificial heat.

Self-weight load The load comprising the weight of all structural members and any
permanent finishes attached to the structure.

Serviceability load The design load or action effect that pertains to the serviceability
limit state.

Shake A separation along the grain, the greater part of which occurs
between the annual growth rings.

Sizing See “thicknessing”.

Softwood structural Timber derived from coniferous trees grown in Southern Africa
timber (structural and having a nominal width of at least 75 mm, a nominal
timber) thickness of at least 38 mm, and a working stress in bending of
at least 4 MPa.

29 SSD3601/1
Sound knot A knot that is free of decay, insect damage and inbark and is
firmly attached along at least two thirds of its periphery to the
surrounding wood on one face of the board. It may be shrunk
away completely from the surrounding wood on the opposite
face.

Split A separation of the wood fibres along the grain forming a crack
or fissure that extends through the board and is visible on both
faces.

Spring Lengthways curvature in its own plane on the face-side of a

board.

Sterilisation of timber The destruction of all live stages of insects or fungi or both.

Stress grade (of a piece The numerical value of the working stress in bending in MPa that
of structural timber) can be safely sustained by the piece under long-term loading
conditions.

Structure Any assembly of timber members, including the detail parts,

fasteners and other items required for the manufacture or
erection of the assembly.

Superficial face splay A splay knot that has been so cut that the knot does not penetrate
knot the lumber to a depth exceeding one-eighth of the thickness of
the board.

30 SSD3601/1
Tantalised timber Timber impregnated with copper-chrome-arsenic (CCA) or
copper-gallium-arsenic as a preservative. The copper gives the
treated timber a distinctive green colour. (“Tanalith” is a trade
name.)

Thicknessing The process of converting rough-sawn timber to regularised

timber by skimming a thin layer off the surface. This process does
not necessarily produce smooth surfaces. (See “wrought
timber”.)

Through face knot A knot that penetrates the lumber from one face to the other but
is not exposed on an arris (side).

Timber In Southern Africa it is the term used to describe wood that has
been cut into boards and planks but in the USA it refers to trees
which are still standing.

Twist A form of warp that appears as lengthways spiral distortion.

Ultimate load The design load or action effect that pertains to the ultimate limit
state.

Veneer A thin layer of wood, usually about 1 mm thick, cut from a log
either by rotary-cutting in a lathe against a knife or by sawing or
by slicing.

Volatile solvent A solvent for wood preservatives that evaporates from the treated
open-stacked timber to the extent of at least 90% of its volume
within a period after treatment not exceeding two weeks.

Wane The original surface of a tree, with or without bark, visible on a

piece of square sawn lumber.

Warp Any departure (may take the form of a bow, spring or twist or any
combination of these) from a true or plane surface of a board.

31 SSD3601/1
 Wood preservative A pesticidal agent which, when impregnated into or otherwise
applied to timber, renders it less susceptible to destruction by
fungi, insects or marine borers.

Wood protectant An agent that is fungicidal or insecticidal or both, applied to timber

to protect it temporarily from attack during one or more stages of
processing.

Wrought timber A board planed on all sides to produce smooth surfaces.

Xylem The portion between the cambium and the pith.

7.1.6 Standardised codes and specifications

The SANS codes and specifications which have already been mentioned form the
basis of design in South Africa. You are not expected to learn these codes by rote, but
rather to be familiar with the content and to be able to apply them to the designs. The
SANS publications have lists of references and bibliographies which you should read.

In addition to these codes the Eurocodes and the British Standards Institution codes
can also be studied. There is a growing international tendency towards standardisation
and we may soon see the application of a single set of codes and specifications.

7.2 General design concepts

Timber is probably the most versatile material – it has been used for millennia in vast
quantities for every sort of application. Structural applications range from simple
frames for dwellings to the war-machines of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Modern structural timber design has become a sophisticated extension of what was
previously known as empirical design, but there are still a number of uncertainties for
which the design methods have to make assumptions or adjustments. The designer
therefore needs to know the material, the application and the situation for which the
structure will be used.

32 SSD3601/1
The demand for diversity from architects and the public in general has resulted in a
range of timber structures, some of which are not at all economic in design. For
example, a traditional post-and-beam house uses far more timber than is necessary,
but it achieves an effect which some people want. Some of the structural applications
of timber are described in the following paragraphs (after Stalnaker & Harris).

7.2.1 Pole structures

Pine or gum poles may be used for falsework in concrete construction, frames of cheap
housing and sheds, roof structures, fencing, sign-board supports, bridges, piers, jetties
and so forth.

7.2.2 Timber-framed (or light-framed) structures

Timber-framed buildings in the modern sense comprise a designed frame which may
be clad with planking on the outside and dry-walling on the inside. Other exterior
cladding includes corrugated iron or asbestos-cement or glass-fibre sheeting. Another
variation uses a clay brick veneer on the exterior.

7.2.3 Post-and-beam construction (Tudor style)

This very heavy construction has stood the test of time; many fine examples are over
400 years old. Posts of diameter size 175 to 250 mm are placed at 2.4 – 3.6 m centres
and horizontal members are spaced 1.2 – 2.4 m vertically. Often diagonal “knee
braces” are used to provide rigidity where the foundation posts are more than 1 000
mm above the natural ground level. Figure 7.1 presents a schematic arrangement for
post-and-beam construction in one structure.

33 SSD3601/1
 FIGURE 7.1
Post-and beam construction

7.2.4 Log buildings

The cost generally discourages this type of building, but there are a few examples of
log cabins in South Africa. They are seldom actually designed. Rough-hewn logs are
stacked on top of each other and often rely on gravity and friction to hold them together
rather than any conventional jointing or connecting systems.

7.2.5 Prefabricated panel systems

A variety of proprietary systems are available, mostly used in timber roof trusses in
South Africa and more popular in residential housing wall panels overseas and slowly
gaining popularity locally. SANS 1900 – Monoplanar prefabricated timber roof
structures (nail-plated), is the standard used to ensure compliance of the prefabricated
panel systems.

7.2.6 Laminated structural components

This is another branch of engineered timber structures where considerable cost saving
can be effected by using timber beyond its traditional capacity. By using high-quality
adhesives, timber is glued together to form sections which are much stronger than
equivalent sawn timber sections. This is however an aspect of design which still

34 SSD3601/1
requires more scientific analysis and at present laminated members are basically
designed according to the shape and grade of the component timber. SANS 1460 –
Laminated timber glulam and SANS 6122 – Structural Timber Values and Grades are
the reference standards for the application and testing methods of laminated structural
components.

A major attraction is the variety of length and shapes that can be achieved. Complex
curved portal frames are the most common of these. In other countries, laminated
timber roof structures commonly span in excess of 30 m.

Glued components are another “new” development. Plywood web I-beams with solid
timber flanges also offer the user cost savings in both material and erection.

7.2.7 Heavy timber construction

Where the smallest dimensions of columns are greater than 200 mm and beams
exceed 150 x 300 mm, the structure is regarded as heavy construction. This sort of
work is rare owing to the cost of timber. Piers, jetties and bridges would usually fall
under this category.

7.2.8 Bridges

Although not that common, there are a few wooden bridges in South Africa which carry
vehicular traffic on a daily basis. Forestry road bridges are also in use but these tend
to be crude structures made from logs. Abroad there are timber bridges which still
serve the public after 500 years of use. Locally we see pedestrian bridges made of
timber in upmarket golf courses and country estates.

7.2.9 Formwork and falsework

Although it has largely been replaced by steel and glass-fibre or plastic moulds, timber
still plays an important role in formwork for concrete construction, mostly where
aesthetic architectural off-shutter design finishes are required. It is also very common
to see timber beams being used in construction scaffolding height working platforms
and wheelbarrow bridges on construction sites. Timber posts are also used in
temporary support works due to their flexibility in the application.

35 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

36 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 8

Element design methods

Essentially there are two main categories of design methodology for designers to use,
namely allowable stress design and limit state design. Elastic and plastic design is a
variation of limit state approaches as desired for a design. This chapter elaborates on
the abovementioned methods and has been abstracted from notes of Professor Walter
Burdzik who is an expert in the subject of Design of Timber Structures and also a
contributor in the development of SANS design standards.

Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to design timber structural elements
such as beams and columns.

8.1 Allowable stress design

Allowable stress design is also commonly called working stress design, elastic and
deterministic design – all these terms essentially mean the same thing. The material
is assumed to be linearly elastic and a factor of safety has been applied to the yield or
failure strength. The characteristic failure strength is that strength, for timber, that has
a 95% probability of being exceeded. A nominal load is that load assumed to have a
5% probability of being exceeded. The characteristic strength divided by some factor
that includes a safety factor against overstress, gives us the permissible stress. It is
assumed that as long as the stresses due to applied nominal loads are less than the

37 SSD3601/1
permissible stress, the structure will be safe. Characteristic strength value is
determined by testing a large sample of the material in such a way as to ensure that
the probability of any specimen of the material having a strength of less than the
nominal value will be less than 5%.

SANS 10163-2 – The structural use of timber. Part 2: Allowable stress design is the
applicable design code for working stress design. Working stress codes demand that
the stress due to applied loads must be less than the permissible stress. Stresses due
to applied loads are calculated by analysis of the structure. Permissible stresses are
quantified in the design code.

Loads should be adjusted in accordance with the requirements and recommendations

of SANS 10160 – Basis of Structural Design and Actions for Buildings and Industrial
Structures. The code introduces design considerations and so forth as required by
Clause 4.1.2 and load considerations as required by Clause 5 of SANS 10163-2.

Despite the international trend towards the use of limit states design, working stress
design is still endorsed by most countries as an acceptable method, albeit more
expensive, for the design of small timber structures. This is probably because it is a
tried and tested method which is far simpler to apply than the limit states method.

The grade stresses referred to in SANS 10163-2, other than those for the compression
of slender members, are the 5th percentile strength value of a sample, divided by a
factor of 2.22. percentile value is that value which has a 95% probability of being
exceeded and the 2.22 factor includes a factor for the duration of load combined with
a safety factor. The grade stresses in the code are therefore for long-duration loading.
Stresses for slender compression members are divided from a Perry-Robertson type
formula which is based on Euler’s buckling formula that allows for initial lack of
straightness.

Permissible stresses are obtained either by multiplying SANS 10163-2 grade stresses
by stress modification factors; or the loads can be multiplied by the relevant coefficient
or divided by the stress modification factors. The factors used in the design of
members are:

38 SSD3601/1
 𝑘𝑘1 The stress modification factor for the duration of the load
𝑘𝑘2 The stress modification factor of load sharing
𝑘𝑘3 The stress modification factor for the type of structure
𝑘𝑘4 The stress modification factor for quality of fabrication
𝑘𝑘5 The stress modification factor for the moisture content

Allowable stress for bending, tension and shear:

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔: 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛: 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5 (6.3.2 SANS 10163-2)
𝑝𝑝 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
There are other modification factors in SANS 10163-2 but these will be dealt with later.
Note that the symbols used throughout this course will be those in the relevant SANS
codes.

Load duration factor

Long-duration loads appear to cause strength loss in timber. Permanent-, medium-
and short- duration loads are all considered when determining the value of k1 (SANS
10163-2: CI.6.3.3).

Permanent loads are those on the structure for three months or longer and include the
self-weight of the structure. Medium-duration loads (one day to three months) include
imposed floor loads, such as snow, traffic and so on. Short-duration loads of less than
a day include normal wind loads and so forth, and very short-duration loads of less
than one hour are the 0.9 kN point load alternatively called “man load” (SANS 10163-
2: Table 7).

Where wind loading is critical and works to counter the effect of other loads, use only
the wind load to calculate k1 in the applicable design load case and load combination
effect consideration. Where loads work in the same direction and have the same form,
the actual loads can be inserted into the formula for the duration of load factor. It is

39 SSD3601/1
therefore possible to modify the loading and keep the permissible stress equal to the
grade stress, but the correct procedure and application of design loads, load
combinations, load factors, and k factors should be learnt and applied at all times when
designing a structure.

Load sharing factor

Care must be taken in applying this factor to ensure that the structure has a uniformly
distributed load acting on four or more members spaced not more than 600 mm apart
in such a way that they are restrained to the same deflection.

If the structure complies with these parameters and it is not a truss or a group of
laminated members, then the modification factor k2 may be taken as 1.15. In all other
cases k2 = 1.

Type of structure factor

Usually this factor k3 = 1 and it is applied to structural elements where failure would
have little effect. However, the factor’s values range from 0.85 to 1.15 for trusses and
girders of different spans as referenced in Table 8 of SANS 10163-2.

The quality of fabrication factor

This modification factor k4 is usually taken as 1, unless the structure under
consideration is a fabricated set of components complying with a SANS standard; then
k4 = 1.05.

The moisture content factor

Care must be taken in applying this factor to timber treated with water-based
preservatives such as CCA (“Tanalised”) owing to the strong possibility of moisture
content being in excess of 200 g/kg (20%). If the moisture content is certain not to
exceed 170 g/kg (17%), take k5 = 1, but if the moisture content can occasionally
exceed 170 g/kg (17%) in a joint or compression member, then take k5 = 0.75. Normal
moisture content of structural timber is in the order of 12% and fibre saturation point
is around 25%.

40 SSD3601/1
The creep factor
The biological variability of timber contributes to the fact that under prolonged loading,
deformation will increase with time. Some deformation will remain after the load has
been removed; this permanent deformation is called “creep”. Creep is a function of
the stress level and duration to which the fibres have been subjected. It has been
assumed that design stresses are equal to the permissible stresses. Elastic deflections
have to be adjusted in relation to the duration and intensity of the load. The moisture
content of 17% is a critical point above which creep also increases. Note that omission
of creep modification factors will lead to actual deflection being greater than those
calculated.

∆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∆𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . 𝑑𝑑1 . 𝑑𝑑2 ≤ ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Where,
∆ Deflection
𝑑𝑑1 Deflection modification factor for creep
𝑑𝑑2 Deflection modification factor for moisture content

(See SANS 10163-2: Table 9). Refer to clause 6.4 SANS 10163-2.

8.1.1 Design of tension members

Tension members are those that are subject to axial tensile forces parallel to the grain
of the timber member. Forces tend to stretch the member. Failure is less influenced
by slenderness, but dominantly by net cross sectional area (A) of the member.
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡

𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4

Where,
𝜎𝜎 The calculated tensile stress in MPa which should always NOT exceed the
allowable tensile stress
𝑃𝑃 The total tensile force or applied load in N
𝐴𝐴 The net cross-sectional area in mm2
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 The allowable tensile stress in MPa

41 SSD3601/1
The maximum slenderness ratio of a tension member may not exceed 250,
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ
mathematically calculated as 250 ≥ λ = 2 √3 𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
. An

alternative representation of slenderness limit for rectangular sections (buckling on

weaker axis) is: member effective length over member thickness ratio must not exceed
the number 72 as an equivalent interpretation of the slenderness limit. Thus:
 e / b 〈 72 as per SANS 10163-2: CL.7.3.4. One of the reasons is that a tension

member can be subject to a compression load during a stress reversal occasion such
as wind uplift loading or any temporary reverse condition loading on the structure. See
also Table 4 SANS 10163-2 for slenderness limits on compression members, where
the compression member slenderness limit is 52.

8.1.2 Design of compression members

Members which are axially loaded parallel to the grain with purely compressive forces
are compression members; these could be struts or columns. Forces tend to shorten
the member. The failure force is a function of the length and cross-sectional
dimensions. The strength of a compression member is usually written as a function of
a slenderness ratio. This slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio between effective
length and radius of gyration. In a rectangular timber column slenderness can be
simply described as the ratio between the effective length and the weak axis cross-
sectional dimensions.

A loaded timber compression member can fail in three ways depending on support
conditions, length and dimensions:

i. A short, thick member will have a low slenderness and when it fails, the wood
fibres buckle or fold together so that a “compression crease” runs across the
material. These creases may run diagonally or at 900 to the direction of the
compressive force.

ii. An intermediate slenderness column, loaded to failure will have local breaking
and bending of wood fibres as well as sideways movement of the central portion
of the column.

42 SSD3601/1
iii. A slender timber column will buckle sideways before any deformation of fibres
can occur.

Elastic design principles are still valid for compression members:

𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴 ≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5

Where,

𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 The calculated compressive stress in MPa

𝑃𝑃 The total compressive force or applied load in N
𝐴𝐴 The net cross-sectional area in mm2
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 The allowable compressive stress in MPa

The grade compressive stress is a function of the effective length, which in turn is a
function of the end support conditions, and the cross-sectional dimensions. The end
support conditions play an important role in the way a column buckles. The greater the
fixity at the ends of a column, the shorter the effective length becomes and thus the
greater the failure or permissible stress becomes.

The buckling mode or buckled shape gives us a good idea of the Euler effective length
of a column. The Euler column formula assumes straight, homogeneous columns that
have linear-elastic properties with concentric loading.

Timber does not satisfy most of these conditions and the ends can seldom be fully
fixed. In addition, effective lengths determined by Euler’s buckling formula were found
to be too conservative. It was therefore modified to the Perry-Robertson type formula
now found in SANS 10163-2 for concentrically loaded pin-ended columns:

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +(𝜂𝜂+1).𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +(𝜂𝜂+1).𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 2

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = − �� � − 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒
2 2

The eccentricity coefficient, 𝜂𝜂 = 0.002𝜆𝜆

43 SSD3601/1
 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒
Slenderness ratio, 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑟𝑟

𝜋𝜋 2 .𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒
Euler stress, 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 𝜆𝜆2

Where

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 The grade compressive stress in MPa

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 The grade compressive stress parallel to the grain in a short strut, which
is calculated at a theoretical value of slenderness ratio (λ) approaching
zero in MPa
𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 The effective length in mm
𝑟𝑟 Radius of gyration in mm
𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 The effective modulus of elasticity = 𝐸𝐸/2.22
𝐸𝐸 The average modulus of elasticity

In the case of rectangular sections,

𝑏𝑏
𝑟𝑟 =
√12

𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒
𝜆𝜆 = 𝑏𝑏

and in the case of round sections,

𝐷𝐷
𝑟𝑟 = 4

𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒
𝜆𝜆 = 𝐷𝐷

Where,

𝑏𝑏 The least dimension of the rectangular section in mm

𝐷𝐷 The least diameter of the pole in mm

44 SSD3601/1
When determining the slenderness ratio  e / b or  e / D, always use the weak axis of

a structural member. In other words, the least dimension of section b is the smallest
lateral dimension of a rectangular section and D is the least diameter of a pole. See
Tables 4–6 in SANS 10163-2.

Burdzik describes the column or compression member design procedure as follows:

i. Determine the maximum axial compressive force acting on the member.

ii. Establish the support conditions, draw the buckled mode of the column and
determine the effective length about the two major axes.

iii. Assume that the most economical member can be found if the slenderness
ratios about the two major axes are the same. Find the ratio between b, the
width, and d, the depth.

iv. Assume a value for the permissible stress, divide the force by the permissible
stress and thereby determine a required cross-sectional area. Use the ratio
between b and d and find the dimensions.

v. Use the dimensions found in step iv to ascertain the grade stress. Determine
the permissible stress by multiplying the grade stress by the k factors.

vi. If the new permissible stress is more than 20% greater or less than the
estimated permissible stress of step iii, find the average between the estimated
and the new permissible stress. Repeat the latter part until the permissible
stress is within tolerances.

vii. Standardise one of the dimensions and calculate and standardise the other.
Check that the stresses due to the load are less than the permissible stress.

45 SSD3601/1
 FIGURE 8.1
End conditions for a compression member

Figure 8.1 shows some of the end conditions for a column or compression member.
On the left of each sketch the actual member is shown, indicating the fixity. On the
right of the sketch, the buckled shape and Euler’s effective length are also shown.
These values are based on Euler’s assumptions that:

i. yield stress is ignored and infinite elasticity is assumed

ii. the column is perfectly straight and loaded absolutely concentrically

iii. the member is stable and in equilibrium

See Table 15 in SANS 10163-2 for the design effective lengths to be used when
applying SANS 10163-2 design formulae. Table 15 values slightly differ from Euler’s
effective lengths as shown in the figure above, but the principle is similar.

8.1.3 Design of timber beams

The design of timber beams does not only consider bending, shear stresses, deflection
and camber, but also the bearing area at the supports in relation to the allowable
compressive stresses of the timber.

46 SSD3601/1
The basic principles of timber beam design hold true for all timber products. This
means that, as with other materials such as concrete and steel, timber beams can be
designed to take a number of different forms and compositions. For example, the latest
trend in South Africa is to use “I” beams which are composite (built-up) beams with
solid timber flanges and plywood webs. Laminated timber beams have been in service
for some time in this country. To calculate the following:
6.𝑀𝑀
Bending stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑2 ≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5

1.5 𝑉𝑉
Shear stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑
≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣

𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 = 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4

𝑅𝑅
Bearing stress: 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑏𝑏.𝑤𝑤 ≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5 (𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)

Where:

𝑀𝑀 The applied moment in Nm

𝑉𝑉 The applied shear force in N
𝑅𝑅 The reaction force in N
𝑏𝑏 The width of the member in mm
𝑑𝑑 The depth of the member in mm
𝑤𝑤 The width of the support in mm

Laterally unsupported beams

The lateral stability of timber beams is a function of the ratio between the depth, width
and the effective length of the beam. It is an aspect of design that should always be
examined. Table 10 in SANS 10163-2 shows maximum allowable depth-to-width
ratios, commonly called h/d ratios.

47 SSD3601/1
In addition to a beam’s h/d ratios there are other factors that may introduce torsional
effects which can result in buckling:

i. Geometrical and physical properties of the beam

ii. The nature of the applied loadings
iii. Position of the applied loads with respect to the neutral axis
iv. The degree of lateral support at supports and along the length of the beam

The slenderness factor and a critical slenderness factor are used in timber beam
design:

𝜆𝜆 .𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒2

3.𝐸𝐸
𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 = �5.𝑃𝑃
𝑏𝑏

Where,

𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 Slenderness factor

𝐶𝐶𝑘𝑘 Critical slenderness factor
𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 The effective length as a multiple of Lu – obtained from Table 8.1
𝐿𝐿𝑢𝑢 Laterally unsupported length of beam
𝑑𝑑 The depth of the beam
𝑏𝑏 The width of the beam
𝐸𝐸 The average modulus of elasticity
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 Grade bending stress

48 SSD3601/1
Table 11: Effective lengths for rectangular beams (SANS 10163-2 Ed. 1.1)

Type of beam span and nature of load Effective length e

Single-span beam, load concentrated at centre 1,61 Lu

Single-span beam, uniformly distributed load 1,92 Lu

Single-span beam, equal end moments 1,84 Lu

Cantilever beam, load concentrated at unsupported end 1,69 Lu

Cantilever beam, uniformly distributed load 1,06 Lu

Single-span or cantilever beam, any load 1,92 Lu

The designer has the following options:

i. Firstly, Figure 4 in SANS 10163-2 gives a modified grade bending stress, Pbm
which may be read directly from the Figure 4 graph, or

ii. Secondly, to use Table 8.2 of this study guide, which also gives Pbm; both of
these were derived from formulae in Clause 7.2.3 of SANS 10163-2 and both
simplify the calculation process to the form:

Allowable bending stress = fb = Pbm. k1. k2. k3. k4. k5

The critical slenderness factor has already been calculated in Table 8.2 of this study
guide. Thus, all that remains is to determine the values of cs and  e , then read off Pbm
from Table 8.2, where values above the thick line are intermediate beams (where 10
< Cs ≤ Ck) and those below the thick line are long beams (Ck < Cs < 52). Short beams
are those where Cs < 10 and Pbm, so no modification is needed.

49 SSD3601/1
Table 8.1: Modified grade bending stress for slender beams
Grade 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16
E 6000 7800 8500 9600 10500 12000 14250 16000 18000
pb 4.0 5.2 6.0 7.1 8.0 10.5 12.4 14.6 16.7
Ck 30.00 30.00 29.15 28.48 28.06 26.19 26.26 25.64 25.43
Cs Effective Grade Bending Stress p bm
10 3.98 5.18 5.97 7.06 7.96 10.43 12.31 14.49 16.57
11 3.98 5.17 5.96 7.05 7.94 10.39 12.27 14.44 16.51
12 3.97 5.16 5.94 7.03 7.91 10.35 12.22 14.37 16.42
13 3.95 5.14 5.92 7.00 7.88 10.29 12.15 14.28 16.32
14 3.94 5.12 5.89 6.96 7.83 10.21 12.07 14.17 16.19
15 3.92 5.09 5.86 6.92 7.78 10.12 11.96 14.03 16.03
16 3.89 5.06 5.82 6.86 7.72 10.01 11.83 13.86 15.83
17 3.86 5.02 5.77 6.80 7.64 9.88 11.67 13.66 15.59
18 3.83 4.98 5.71 6.72 7.55 9.72 11.49 13.42 15.30
19 3.79 4.92 5.64 6.63 7.44 9.53 11.27 13.13 14.97
20 3.74 4.86 5.56 6.52 7.31 9.31 11.01 12.80 14.57
21 3.68 4.78 5.46 6.40 7.16 9.05 10.71 12.41 14.11
22 3.61 4.70 5.35 6.26 6.99 8.76 10.36 11.96 13.58
23 3.54 4.60 5.23 6.09 6.80 8.42 9.97 11.45 12.98
24 3.45 4.49 5.08 5.91 6.57 8.03 9.52 10.87 12.28
25 3.36 4.36 4.92 5.70 6.32 7.59 9.00 10.20 11.50
26 3.25 4.22 4.74 5.46 6.04 7.10 8.43 9.46 10.62
27 3.13 4.06 4.53 5.19 5.71 6.54 7.78 8.78 9.88
28 2.99 3.88 4.30 4.89 5.36 6.12 7.27 8.16 9.18
29 2.84 3.69 4.04 4.56 4.96 5.71 6.78 7.61 8.56
30 2.67 3.47 3.76 4.27 4.67 5.33 6.33 7.11 8.00
31 2.50 3.25 3.54 4.00 4.37 4.99 5.93 6.66 7.49
32 2.34 3.05 3.32 3.75 4.10 4.69 5.57 6.25 7.03
33 2.20 2.87 3.12 3.53 3.86 4.41 5.23 5.88 6.61-
34 2.08 2.70 2.94 3.32 3.63 4.15 4.93 5.54 6.23
35 1.96 2.55 2.78 3.13 3.43 3.92 4.65 5.22 5.88
36 1.85 2.41 2.62 2.96 3.24 3.70 4.40 4.94 5.56
37 1.75 2.28 2.48 2.80 3.07 3.51 4.16 4.67 5.26
38 1.66 2.16 2.35 2.66 2.91 3.32 3.95 4.43 4.99
39 1.58 2.05 2.24 2.52 2.76 3.16 3.75 4.21 4.73
40 1.50 1.95 2.13 2.40 2.63 3.00 3.56 4.00 4.50
41 1.43 1.86 2.02 2.28 2.50 2.86 3.39 3.81 4.28
42 1.36 1.77 1.93 2.18 2.38 2.72 3.23 3.63 4.08
43 1.30 1.69 1.84 2.08 2.27 2.60 3.08 3.46 3.89
44 1.24 1.61 1.76 1.98 2.17 2.48 2.94 3.31 3.72
45 1.19 1.54 1.68 1.90 2.07 2.37 2.81 3.16 3.56
46 1.13 1.47 1.61 1.81 1.98 2.27 2.69 3.02 3.40
47 1.09 1.41 1.54 1.74 1.90 2.17 2.58 2.90 3.26
48 1.04 1.35 1.48 1.67 1.82 2.08 2.47 2.78 3.13
49 1.00 1.30 1.42 1.60 1.75 2.00 2.37 2.67 3.00
50 0.96 1.25 1.36 1.54 1.68 1.92 2.28 2.56 2.88
51 0.92 1.20 1.31 1.48 1.61 1.85 2.19 2.46 2.77
52 0.89 1.15 1.26 . 1.42 1.55 1.78 2.11 2.37 2.66

50 SSD3601/1
Laterally supported beams
Deflection, shear and bearing are all designed for in the same way as laterally
unsupported beams. The design method is similar to laterally unsupported beams,
with the benefit of reduced out-of-plane buckling of effective lengths on laterally
supported beams. Effective lengths are reduced by the presence of lateral supports.

8.2 Limit state design

Limit states (or load factor or unified code) design attempts to ensure uniform safety
against failure. Assumptions include that both material and likely loads have some
form of distribution of strength and dimensions. Loads are multiplied by factors (in the
same way as allowable stress design using SANS 10160 procedures), but additional
factors are introduced. These factors are the ultimate and serviceability limit states
that modify load combinations applied to a structure (SANS 10160). The probable
distribution of dimensions and strength are taken up in a material strength factor. This
method assures the designer of a more realistic appraisal of the true safety factor
against structural failure. Limit states, in addition to strength values, include
deflections, crack size, serviceability, and so forth.

The applicable design code in Southern Africa is SANS 10163-1 – The structural use
of timber. Part 1: Limit states design.

Limit states design is a method which may be applied to any structural timber design.
However, it is more specifically intended for substantial structures where a higher
confidence level is expected. Let us take a three-storey building as an example. It
would be unusual to apply this method to a small wooden bungalow design. Limit
states design is more simple and rational than elastic design and easier to apply to
more sophisticated structures, with the results being more predictable of actual in-
service behaviour of the structure. Although opinion is divided, it is generally accepted
that the use of limit states design results in a more economical structure than one
designed using allowable stress. However, this part of the course focuses on allowable
stress design methods.

51 SSD3601/1
8.3 Plastic design

The material is assumed to behave plastically and when yield stresses are reached in
flexural members the member will have enough rotational capacity to shed some of
the load to sections that are not as heavily loaded. Failure will occur when sufficient
plastic rotational hinges have formed for the structure to become a mechanism. As
with limit states design, safety factors are applied to the loading. Plastic design does
not form part of the contents of this course.

8.4 Design examples

Example 8.1 Draw a Fink (W) truss. Show and name all structural components.

Solution

Example 8.2 Define the following terms:

i. Engineered timber truss design
ii. Jack rafter
iii. Lateral brace
iv. Node or node-point
v. Vierendeel truss or girder

52 SSD3601/1
Solutions i. Engineered timber truss design: A truss design in which loading
requirements, timber sizes, grades and plate requirements are
detailed
ii. Jack rafter: A special rafter used to form a hip
iii. Lateral brace: A member placed and connected to a member
of truss to prevent horizontal movement
iv. Node or node-point: The point of intersection of the various
members that make up the panels of the truss
v. Vierendeel truss/girder: A special form of truss that is not
triangular but that has specially designed joints at member
intersections and that are rigid enough to prevent the truss from
deforming

Example 8.3 Which types of bolt are acceptable for use in timber structure
connections and which bolt type is not recommended for use in
timber trusses?
Solution Bolt types in trusses from SANS 10243
“Bolts should preferably be hexagonal-head bolts. Cup-head or
carriage bolts are not recommended.”

Example 8.4 Briefly discuss the effects of wind on a structure.

Solution Wind can exert a horizontal force that is not necessarily
perpendicular to the building but is assumed to be perpendicular
for most design purposes. Wind can also exert an upward force
acting on the plan area of a roof. Within the building both positive
and negative pressures may result from wind. (Refer to SANS
10160, Part 3 for more details on wind, and other Parts for other
forms of structural loading).

53 SSD3601/1
Example 8.5 Calculate the factor, 𝑘𝑘1 , for bending stresses when a uniform
loading is applied. Self-weight is 1.5 kN/m and the imposed load
is 2.1 kN/m.

𝑊𝑊𝐿𝐿2
Solution Bending moment = 𝑀𝑀 = for both load cases, it therefore does
8

not need to be calculated to determine the factor. The factor will

be the same for all lengths under this loading.
1.5+2.1
𝑘𝑘1 = 1.0 ×1.5+0.66×2.1 = 1.247

In this case wind loading was not considered, so WW = 0 in the

equation from SANS 10163-2: CI.6.3.3.

Example 8.6 Calculate the permissible axial stress for a column carrying a
permanent load of 8 kN and a short duration load of 15 kN. The
grade stress is 4 MPa and the moisture content is 25%.

8+15
Solution 𝑘𝑘1 = 1.0×8+0.66×15 = 1.285

𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑘𝑘3 = 𝑘𝑘4 = 1

𝑘𝑘5 = 0.75 (𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 > 17%)

Allowable compressive stress,

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5 = 4 × 1.285 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 0.75 = 3.86 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Example 8.7 Evaluate the effect of each of the self-weight and imposed load
on the beam shown below.

54 SSD3601/1
Solution The effect of self-weight and imposed load is the same in this
case because they are both uniformly distributed loads.
2+3
𝑑𝑑1 = 0.6×2+1.0×3 = 1.19

Example 8.8 Calculate the maximum allowable force that may be applied to a
38 x 152 SAP Grade V4 member with a 20 mm diameter hole
drilled through its centre. The proportion of the permanent load to
the imposed short duration load is 2.

Solution Effective area, 𝐴𝐴 = (152 − 20) × 38 = 5 016 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

Grade stress, 𝑝𝑝 = 2.2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (SANS 10163-2: Table 3)

1+2
𝑘𝑘1 = 1.0×2+0.66×1 = 1.128

𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑘𝑘3 = 𝑘𝑘4 = 1

Allowable tensile stress,

𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 4 × 1.128 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 2.48 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Total tensile force,

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴 × 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 = 5016 × 2.48 = 12.44 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Note that had the hole been drilled through the 38 mm face, there
would have been substantially less wood left in the section and
the equation would have been:

Effective area = A = 152. (38 – 20) = 2 736 mm2 with obvious

reductions in order results.

55 SSD3601/1
Example 8.9 Determine the dimensions of a 3 m long column using SAP V4.
The column is fixed at one end and hinged at the other. It is
unlikely that the moisture content will exceed 120 g/kg. A
permanent load of 7 kN and a short duration load of 15 kN are
applied.

Solution Axial load = 15 + 7 = 22 kN

Effective length = 0.85 x 3 000 = 2550 mm (Table 15, SANS

10163-2) Buckling length about both axes is the same, 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑑𝑑

Assume permissible stress, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 3.0 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

22000
Required sectional area, 𝐴𝐴 = 3.0
= 7333 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

With 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑑𝑑

We can use the root of the area to find:

𝑏𝑏 = √7333 = 85.6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

2550
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 85.6
= 29.8 ≈ 30

Grade stress, 𝑝𝑝 = 2.23 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (Table 4, SANS 10163-2)

7+15
𝑘𝑘1 = 1.0×7+0.66×15 = 1.302

𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑘𝑘3 = 𝑘𝑘4 = 𝑘𝑘5 = 1

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5 = 4 × 1.285 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 2.9 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

The difference between assumed and calculated stresses is <

20%, so from Appendix B in SANS 10163-2 the thickness b is
taken as 76 mm.

2550
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 76
= 34

56 SSD3601/1
 Grade stress, 𝑝𝑝 = 1.77 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (Table 4, SANS 10163-2)
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 . 𝑘𝑘5 = 1.302 × 1.285 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 2.3 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

22000
∴ 𝑑𝑑 = 2.3×76 = 125.9 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Standardise d = 152 mm

Final dimensions = 76 x 152 mm

Example 8.10 Laterally supported beam design: Design a beam to a 5 m span

with a permanent load of 1.5 kN/m, and laterally supported on its
compression edge along its full length. A 70 mm wide Stocklam
is required. Calculate the required depth of the beam, final long-
term deflection and test for shear. (W Burdzik)

Solution Referring to Table 3 (SANS 10163-2):

Grade stress in bending, 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 = 5.2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Allowable bending stress,

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 5.2 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 5.2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Allowable shear stress,

𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 = 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 0.7 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 0.7 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Allowable bearing stress,

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 2.1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 2.1 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Design for bending. Test for shear and bearing:

6.𝑀𝑀
Bending stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑2 ≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

57 SSD3601/1
 1.5×52
Moment, 𝑀𝑀 = = 4.69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚
8

6×4.69×106
∴ 𝑑𝑑2 = 5.2×70

∴ 𝑑𝑑 = 278 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Standardise the depth (Clause b.2.2, SANS 10163-2)

9 x 33.3 = 299 mm

Required support width:

Design stress ≤ Allowable stress

𝑅𝑅
𝑏𝑏.𝑤𝑤
≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

1.5×5
𝑅𝑅 = 2
= 3.75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑅𝑅 3.75×103
𝑏𝑏.𝑤𝑤
= = 2.1
70×𝑤𝑤

∴ 𝑤𝑤 = 25.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Test for shear stress:

Design stress ≤ Allowable stress

1.5 𝑉𝑉
𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑
≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣

1.5 ×3.75×103
≤ 0.7
70×299

0.269 < 0.7 ∴ 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.

Calculate final deflection:

Design deflection,

∆= ∆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 × 𝑑𝑑1 × 𝑑𝑑2 ≤ ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

58 SSD3601/1
 𝐿𝐿 5000
∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 200 = 200
= 25 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑏𝑏.ℎ3 70×2993
𝐼𝐼 = = = 155.93 × 103 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12

5.𝑤𝑤.𝐿𝐿4 5×1.5×50004
∆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 384.𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 384×7800×155.93 = 10.04 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑊𝑊𝐷𝐷 +𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼 +𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 1.5+0+0

𝑑𝑑1 = 𝐶𝐶 = 0.6×1.5+1.0×0+1.0×0 = 1.667
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝐷𝐷 +𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼 +𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤

𝑑𝑑2 = 1.0

(Table 9, SANS 10163-2) Assume the equilibrium moisture

content applies; this is less than 17% anywhere in Southern
Africa.

∴ ∆= 10.04 × 1.667 × 1.0 = 16.74 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 < ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∴ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

Member size is 299 x 70 Grade 5 stocklam

Example 8.11 Laterally unsupported beam design: Calculate the size of a Grade
8-member spanning 6 m with a tiled-roof load, tile mass is 50
kg/m2. The members are at an angle of 250o and are spaced at
600 mm centres. There is no lateral bracing. Estimate the self-
weight of beams and battens at 0.3 kN/m2. The short-duration roof
load for inaccessible roofs is 0.5 kN/m2 (SANS 10160).

Solution Factoring loads as required by SANS 10160:

0.6×0.5
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = cos 25𝑜𝑜
= 0.33 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 0.6 × 0.3 = 0.18 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 = 0.33 + 0.18 = 0.51 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 0.6 × 0.5 = 0.3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

59 SSD3601/1
 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 0.51 + 0.3 = 0.81 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

0.81×62
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑀𝑀 = = 3.645 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
8

Dimensions are unknown, so assume a value for modified

bending stress:

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 7.0 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

0.51+0.3
𝑘𝑘1 = 1.0×0.51+0.66×0.3 = 1.14

𝐹𝐹𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 = 7.0 × 1.14 = 7.98 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Set induced stress ≤ permissible stress

6.𝑀𝑀
𝑏𝑏.ℎ2
≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏

Set ℎ = 3𝑏𝑏 (From Table 10, SANS 10163-2)

6×3.645
9.𝑏𝑏 3
≤ 7.98

67 ≤ b mm with a span of 6 m; it is almost a foregone conclusion

that glulam is used, so we can set b = 70 mm, then h = 3 . 70 =
210 mm, standardise to 7 x 33.3 = 233 mm.

From Table 3.1 (or SANS 10163-2, Table 11):

𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = 1.92 × 𝐿𝐿𝑢𝑢 = 1.92 × 6000 = 11 520 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Calculate the slenderness factor:

𝜆𝜆 .𝑑𝑑 11520×233
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒2 = � 702
= 23.4

60 SSD3601/1
Pro rata from Table 3.1 of the code: 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 6.708 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 = 6.708 × 1.14 = 7.647 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

6×3.645×106
𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = = 5.755 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 < 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 ∴ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
70×2332

Check shear:
1.5 𝑉𝑉
𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑
≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣

𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣 = 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 . 𝑘𝑘1 = 1.0 × 1.14 = 1.14 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Induced horizontal shear stress,

1.5×2.43×103
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = = 0.223 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
70×233

σ v 〈 f v which is satisfactory

Check bearing stresses at support:

Design stress ≤ Allowable stress

𝑅𝑅
𝑏𝑏.𝑤𝑤
≤ 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 × 3.4 × 1.14 = 3.87 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑅𝑅 2.36×103
𝑤𝑤.70
= 3.87 ∴ 𝑤𝑤 = = 8.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
3.87×70

This is minimal, so a nominal 38 x 75 mm wall plate will be more

than adequate.

Check deflection:

From SANS 10163, Table 1:

𝐿𝐿
∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 250 = 24 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

∆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 . 𝑑𝑑1 . 𝑑𝑑2 ≤ ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

61 SSD3601/1
 𝑏𝑏.ℎ3 70×2333
𝐼𝐼 = = = 73.79 × 106 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12

5.𝑊𝑊.𝐿𝐿4 5×0.81×60004
∆𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 384 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 384×10500×73.89×106 = 17.64 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑊𝑊𝐷𝐷 +𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼 +𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 0.51+0.3

𝑑𝑑1 = 𝐶𝐶 = 0.6×0.51+1.0×0.3 = 1.34
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝐷𝐷 +𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼 +𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤
/ = b ⋅ h 3 / 12 = 70 . 2333 / 12 = 73, 788 . 10 6 mm 4
5 ⋅ w ⋅ L4 5 ⋅ 0, 81 ⋅ 6000 4
∆ ELASTIC = = = 17, 64 mm
384 ⋅ E ⋅ I 384 ⋅ 10500 ⋅ 73, 788 ⋅ 10 6
WD + WI + WW 0, 51 + 0, 3
d1 = = = 1, 34
C dD ⋅ WD + WI + C dW ⋅ WW 0, 6 ⋅ 0, 51 + 1, 0 ⋅ 0, 3

𝑑𝑑2 = 1.0 (Table 9 SANS 10163-2) Assume that EMC applies.

∆𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 17.64 × 1.34 × 1 = 23.64 < ∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∴ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

Member is 233 x 70 Grade 8 Stocklam on a 38 x 114 mm wall

plate.

62 SSD3601/1
References

Burdzik, WMG. Personal communications. Pretoria: 1996.

Forest products laboratory. Forest Service, US Dept Of Agriculture. 1980. The

encyclopaedia of wood. New York: Sterling Publishing Co. Inc.

Mondi timber products: Trade literature. Mondi Ltd, Stellenbosch.

SANS 10005: The preservative treatment of timber.

SANS 1783: Sawn softwood timber.

SANS 10163-1: The structural use of timber. Part 1: Limit-states design.

SANS 10163-2: The structural use of timber. Part 2: Allowable stress design.

Stalnaker, JJ & Harris, EC: Structural design in wood. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, 1989. (Imperial units)

63 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

64 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 9

Design of timber connections

9.1 Introduction

The term “fastener”, as used in SANS 10163-2, generally means screw, bolt or
connector – other than nails or nail-plates. Designers must be aware of the possible
causes of joint failure so that these problems can be accommodated. Some of the
more common problems include: joint slip or joint deformation, timber shrinkage,
fungal decay and fastener corrosion. These potential problems are largely attributable
to moisture. If adequate precautions are taken to ensure that the timber remains below
17% moisture content, preservatives (and or sealants) are applied and corrosion-
resistant (galvanised) fasteners are used, then most hazards are avoided.

Outcome

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to design a connection or calculate the
capacity of the given connection between two or more timber members.

9.1.1 Allowable joint forces and design loads

The basic joints according to SANS 10163-2 (Appendix C) is taken as the lesser of the
following two values:
i. The average ultimate force divided by 3 or the 5% lower exclusion limit divided
by 2.22, or

ii. The average force at joint slip (timber to timber) of 0.76 mm divided by 1.6

65 SSD3601/1
Tables 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32 and 33 in SANS 10163-2 show basic joint forces for
various fasteners, nails and density groups.

The allowable joint force = basic force multiplied by the relevant modification factors
(𝑘𝑘1 to 𝑘𝑘5 ).

The load acting on an individual fastener is:

2
𝐹𝐹 = �(𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )2 + �𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �

Where,

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥�
𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛

𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦�
𝐹𝐹𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛

𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑀𝑀. 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 ⁄/𝑝𝑝

𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑀𝑀. 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 ⁄/𝑝𝑝

Where,

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 Force in the x-direction

𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 Force in the y-direction
𝑛𝑛 Number of fasteners
𝑀𝑀 Moment acting at a point
𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 , 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚 x and y coordinate distances to the nail furthest from the joint centroid
/𝑝𝑝 =/𝑥𝑥 +/𝑦𝑦 Polar moment of area of the nail group
/𝑥𝑥 Second moment of area of the nail group about the x-axis
/𝑦𝑦 Second moment of area of the nail group about the y-axis

66 SSD3601/1
9.1.2 Butt-joints in compression

Butt-joints acting in one plane are fairly common in trusses. The maximum allowable
gap is 1 mm between members. It may be assumed that 50% of the compressive
forces acting in the member are transferred to the joint fasteners. The allowable
compressive stresses should not be exceeded.

9.1.3 Density groups

Tables 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32 and 33 in SANS 10163-2 give basic joint forces for
the two density groups. Stress grades 4 and 5 generally fall under density group D2
and stress grades 6 to 16 fall under density group D1.

9.1.4 Fasteners

When groups of screws, bolts or connectors are used in a joint, refer to SANS 10163-
2: CI.8, 1.5. Refer to example 9.1.

9.1.5 Loads at various angles to the grain

The angle of load to the grain affects the strength of fasteners. Coach screws; bolts;
and toothed split-ring and shear-plate connectors subjected to forces that are not
parallel to the grain need to be modified by calculating the allowable force N1 for any
angle against the grain. This is necessary because the compressive strength of wood
differs with respect to the direction of the grain. The bearing pressure of a fastener
meets relatively high resistance in the direction of the grain and a much lower
resistance perpendicular to the grain. Nails, staples and wood screws are exempt from
this because in their case, joint slip is a more important factor for failure than ultimate
strength.

67 SSD3601/1
The allowable force is determined by Hankinson’s formula:
𝑃𝑃.𝑄𝑄
𝑁𝑁1 = 𝑃𝑃.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃+𝑄𝑄.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝜃𝜃

Where:

𝑃𝑃 Allowable force for the fastener parallel to the grain in N

𝑄𝑄 Allowable force for the fastener perpendicular to the grain in N
𝜃𝜃 The acute angle of load direction and the grain longitudinal direction

SANS 10163-2, Clause 8.1.6 gives a fairly descriptive commentary and set of rules to
be applied, which will not be repeated here.

9.2 Nails

A variety of nails are available but we will only concern ourselves with plain wire nails
complying with SANS 820: Mild steel nails.

The minimum spacing of nails should be 10.D along the grain and 5.D across the grain.
The edge distance should be 5.D for members subjected to axial forces and 10.D for
members subjected to bending. (See CL.8.2 SANS 10163-2.) By staggering the nails
(or any fasteners), more can be placed in a given area and still be in compliance with
the requirements of the Code. See Figure 3.1.

FIGURE 9.1
Fastener spacing

68 SSD3601/1
Allowable shear load that each nail can carry is:

𝑃𝑃
𝑎𝑎
𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 50×𝐷𝐷 2

OR

𝑃𝑃
𝑎𝑎
𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 12.5×𝐷𝐷 2
Where holes are pre-drilled – 0.5D to 0.8D (maximum) holes

Where

𝐷𝐷 Nominal diameter of nails in mm

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 Basic force in single shear in kN (Table 22, SANS 10163-2)

The allowable strength calculated in this manner may be increased by 25% if metal
side-plates are used. Read the commentary in SANS 10163-2, Clause 8.2.1 with
regard to withdrawal forces. Baird and Ozelton (1995) state that no load in withdrawal
should be carried by a nail driven into the end grain of timber. They also give a formula
for the ultimate withdrawal load in side grain:

𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = 47.6𝑝𝑝2.5

Where

𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 Ultimate withdrawal load in kN

𝑝𝑝 The specific gravity of the wood (see below)

Specific gravity is now called relative density and it is the density of the substances in
question divided by the density of water. The average density, given in Table 1 of
SANS 10163-2, divided by 1 000 will give the required value.

Note: The basic load should be taken as Fu / 6 and may be applied to both green and
seasoned timber.

69 SSD3601/1
Whether this formula for ultimate withdrawal load is used or not is a matter of
designer’s choice; it is not mentioned in the SANS codes for allowable stress or limit
states design. These codes of practice are not comprehensive design documents; they
are guidelines for minimum standards of practice. When you read them, you will notice
that there are many instances where the respective codes refer the reader to other
literature.

9.3 Bolts

Bolts should have washers under both head and nut to facilitate fixing and to spread
the load. Clause 8.4.4 of SANS 10163-2 makes provision for modification of the basic
forces when large washers are used. The minimum sizes of washers given as 3.D
diameter and 0.3.D thickness by SANS for large washers are actually recommended
by Baird and Ozelton (1995) as the minimum for any washers. (See Appendix A of
SANS 10163-2.)

SANS is more conservative than the standards used abroad with regard to spacing of
bolts. 4.D is the general spacing, with 2.D allowed as edge distance on axially loaded
members (1.5.D in other countries); 4.D edge distance for members subjected to
bending and 7.D from ends of members.

Bolt holes should be the same diameter as the bolt, with an allowable tolerance of
+1.0 mm. See Clause 8.4.6 of SANS 10163-2, with regard to joint slip, hole diameter
and creep deflection.

The stress modification factors (𝑘𝑘1 − 𝑘𝑘5 ) and the deflection factors (𝑑𝑑1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑2 ) must
be applied to bolts.

The allowable load per unit area for bolts,

𝑃𝑃
𝑎𝑎
𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 16.𝐷𝐷 2

70 SSD3601/1
where

𝐷𝐷 Diameter of the bolt in mm

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 The basic force in kN. (Tables 27 and 28, SANS 10163-2)

Note: It can be seen from these tables that both timber thickness and density group
have a direct bearing on the allowable bolt load. As a rule, the minimum required bolt
length will be the thickness of the members to be joined plus the bolt diameter, which
is normally slightly larger than the nut thickness. For example, two 50 mm members
joined by a set of M12 bolts will require at least (2. 50) + 12 = 112 mm long bolts, but
the standard sizes are 110 and 120 mm so the joint will need 120 mm long bolts.

Bolts and washers should be corrosion resistant. Hot-dip galvanising is the most
commonly used method, and in certain circumstances stainless steel may be needed.
Do not mix types, or protection of metals or electrolytic corrosion may occur.

Hankinson’s formula may be used to calculate load capacities of the bolts when loads
are between 0o and 90o to the grain. SANS does not suggest a method of determining
joint shear stress values but Breyer recommends this formula:
1.5 𝑉𝑉
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒

Where

𝑡𝑡 Shear stress in MPa

𝑉𝑉 Shear force in kN
𝑏𝑏 Breadth or thickness of the member in mm
𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 Distance from unloaded edge to the centre of the nearest bolt (or edge
of split-ring or circular toothed connector) in mm

Stalnaker & Harris have a variation of this formula, adapted from a beam shear
formula. However, it gives different results to Breyer’s equation. Breyer’s formula is
more conservative and therefore preferable.

71 SSD3601/1
9.4 Timber section properties

Table 9.1: Rough-sawn (minimum dimensions) – SA Pine section properties

Rough- Area Section Modulus Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration mm

sawn mm mm2 Zxx mm3 Zyy mm 3
lxx mm 4
lyy mm4 Xaxis Yaxis

22X 73 1606 19540 5889 713198 64775 21.1 6.4

22X 111 2442 45177 8954 2507324 98494 32.0 6.4

22X 149 3278 81404 12019 6064573 132213 43.0 6.4

22X 197 4334 142300 15891 14016517 174805 56.9 6.4

22X 225 4950 185625 18150 20882813 199650 65.0 6.4

22X 297 6534 323433 23958 48029801 263538 85.7 6.4

36X 36 1296 7776 7776 139968 139968 10.4 10.4

36X 48 1728 13824 10368 331776 186624 13.9 10.4

36X 73 2628 31974 15768 1167051 283824 21.1 10.4

36X 111 3996 73926 23976 4102893 431568 32.0 10.4

36X 149 5364 133206 32184 9923847 579312 43.0 10.4

36X 197 7092 232854 42552 22936119 765936 56.9 10.4

36X 225 8100 303750 48600 34171875 874800 65.0 10.4

48X 48 2304 18432 18432 442368 442368 13.9 13.9.

48X 73 3504 42632 28032 1556068 672768 21.1 13.9

48X 111 5328 98568 42624 5470524 1022976 32.0 13.9

48X 149 7152 177608 57216 13231796 1373184 43.0 13.9

48X 225 10800 405000 86400 45562500 2073600 65.0 13.9

73X 73 5329 64836 64836 2366520 2366520 21.1 21.1

73X 111 8103 149906 98587 8319755 3598407 32.0 21.1

73X 149 10877 270112 132337 20123356 4830294 43.0 21.1

73X 225 16425 615938 199838 69292969 7294069 65.0 21.1-

72 SSD3601/1
Table 9.2 Nominal SA pine Stocklam section properties (cont.)

Nominal Area Section Modulus Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration mm

Size mm mm2
Zxx mm 3
Zyy mm 3
lxx mm
4
lyy mm 4
Xaxis Yaxis
32X 100 3200 53333 17067 2666667 273067 28.9 9.2
32X 133 4266 94767 22750 6316248 363998 38.5 9.2
32X 167 5331 148030 28433 12330870 454929 48.1 9.2
32X 200 6397 213120 34116 21301349 545860 57.7 9.2
32X 233 7462 290039 39799 33818502 636791 67.3 9.2
32X 267 8528 378785 45483 50473146 727723 76.9 9.2
32X 300 9594 479360 51166 71856096 818654 86.5 9.2
32X 333 10659 591763 56849 98558170 909585 96.2 9.2
32X 366 11725 715994 62532 131170184 1000516 105.8 9.2
32X 400 12790 852054 68215 170282955 1091447 115.4 9.2
32X 433 13856 999941 73899 216487299 1182379 125.0 9.2
32X 466 14922 1159657 79582 270374033 1273310 134.6 9.2
32X 500 15987 1331201 85265 332533973 1364241 144.2 9.2
32X 533 17053 1514573 90948 403557937 1455172 153.8 9.2
32X 566 18118 1709773 96631 484036740 1546103 163.4 9.2
32X 600 19184 1916801 102315 574561200 1637035 173.1 9.2

73 SSD3601/1
Table 9.3 SA Pine Stocklam section properties (cont.)

Nominal Area Section Modulus Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration mm

Size mm mm2
Zxx mm3 Zyy mm3 lxx mm4 lyy mm4 Xaxis Yaxis

45X 100 4500 75000 33750 3750000 759375 28.9 13.0

45X 133 5999 133267 44989 8882224 1012247 38.5 13.0

45X 167 7497 208167 56228 17340286 1265119 48.1 13.0

45X 200 8996 299700 67466 29955022 1517991 57.7 13.0

45X 233 10494 407867 78705 47557269 1770863 67.3 13.0

45X 267 11993 532667 89944 70977861 2023734 76.9 13.0

45X 300 13491 674100 101183 101047635 2276606 86.5 13.0
45X 333 14990 832167 112421 138597426 2529478 96.2 13.0

45X 366 16488 1006867 123660 184458071 2782350 105.8 13.0

45X 400 17987 1198201 134899 239460405 3035222 115.4 13.0

45X 433 19485 1406168 146138 304435264 3288094 125.0 13.0
45X 466 20984 1630768 157376 380213483 3540966 134.6 13.0

45X 500 22482 1872001 168615 467625900 3793838 144.2 13.0

45X 533 23981 2129868 179854 567503349 4046709 153.8 13.0
45X 566 25479 2404368 191093 680676666 4299581 163.4 13.0
45X 600 26978 2695502 202331 807976687 4552453 173.1 13.0
70X 100 7000 116667 81667 5833333 2858333 28.9 20.2
70X 133 9331 207304 108862 13816793 3810158 38.5 20.2
70X 167 11662 323815 136057 26973778 4761983 48.1 20.2
70X 200 13993 466200 163252 46596702 5713808 57.7 20.2

70X 233 16324 634459 190447 73977974 6665633 67.3 20.2

70X 267 18655 828593 217642 110410006 7617458 76.9 20.2
70X 300 20986 1048600 244837 157185210 8569283 86.5 20.2
70X 333 23317 1294482 272032 215595997 9521108 96.2 20.2
70X 366 25648 1566238 299227 286934777 10472933 105.8 20.2
70X 400 27979 1863868 326422 372493963 11424758 115.4 20.2

70X 433 30310 2187372 353617 473565966 12376583 125.0 20.2

70X 466 32641 2536750 380812 591443196 13328408 134.6 20.2
70X 500 34972 29120.02 408007 727418066 14280233 144.2 20.2
70X 533 37303 3313128 435202 882782987 15232058 153.8 20.2
70X 566 39634 3740128 462397 1058830369 16183883 163.4 20.2
70X 600 41965 4193003 489592 1256852624 17135708 173.1 20.2

100X 100 10000 166667 166667 8333333 8333333 28.9 28.9

74 SSD3601/1
Table 9.4 SA Pine Stocklam section properties (cont.)

Area Section Modulus SecondMomentofArea RadiusofGyrationmm

Nominal
Size mm mm 2 Zxx mm3 Zyymm 3 !xx mm4 lyy m m 4 Xaxis Yaxis
100X 133 13330 296148 222167 19738275 11108333 38.5 28.9
100X 167 16660 462593 277667 38533969 13883333 48.1 28.9
100X 200 19990 666000 333167 66566717 16658333 57.7 28.9
100X 233 23320 906371 388667 105682820 19433333 67.3 28.9
100x267 26650 1183704 444167 157728580 22208333 76.9 28.9
100X 300 29980 1498001 499667 224550300 24983333 86.5 28.9
100X 333 33310 1849260 555167 307994281 27758333 96.2 28.9
100X 366 36640 2237483 610667 409906825 30533333 105.8 28.9
100X 400 39970 2662668 666167 532134233 33308333 115.4 28.9
100x433 43300 3124817 721667 676522808 36083333 125.0 28.9
100X 466 46630 3623928 777167 844918852 38858333 134.6 28.9
100X 500 49960 4160003 832667 1039168666 41633333 144.2 28.9
100X 533 53290 4733040 888167 1261118552 44408333 153.8 28.9
100X 566 56620 5343041 943667 1512614813 47183333 163.4 28.9
100X 600 59950 5990004 999167 1795503749 49958333 173.1 28.9
140x100 14000 233333 326667 11666667 22866667 28.9 40.4
140X 133 18662 414607 435447 27633585 30481267 38.5 40.4
140X 167 23324 647630 544227 53947557 38095867 48.1 40.4
140X 200 27986 932400 653007 93193403 45710467 57.7 40.4
140X 233 32648 1268919 761787 147955948 53325067 67.3 40.4
140X 267 37310 1657186 870567 220820012 60939667 76.9 40.4
140X 300 41972 2097201 979347 314370420 68554267 86.5 40.4
140X 333 46634 2588964 1088127 431191993 76168867 96.2 40.4
140X 366 51296 3132476 1196907 573869554 83783467 105.8 40.4
140X 400 55958 3727735 1305687 744987926 91398067 115.4 40.4'
140X 433 60620 4374743 1414467 947131932 99012667 125.0 40.4
140X 466 65282 5073499 1523247 1182886393 106627267 134.6 40.4
140X 500 69944 5824004 1632027 1454836133 114241867 144.2 40.4
140X 533 74606 6626256 1740807 1765565973 121856467 153.8 40.4
140X 566 79268 7480257 1849587 2117660738 129471067 163.4 40.4
140X 600 83930 8386006 1958367 2513705249 137085667 173.1 40.4

These tables were generated on a computer spreadsheet. You can easily produce
your own table in the same way for a number of different reasons. Examples include,
among others, round pole section tables and PAR tables. The more preparatory work
you do now, the less tiresome the exam will be.

75 SSD3601/1
9.5 Design examples

Example 9.1 Six 12 mm bolts form two rows of three parallel to the grain in a
V4 SAP 38 x 114 mm tension member subject to a permanent
load of 8 kN, a short duration load of 5 kN. Will the bolts be strong
enough for the load?
Solution 𝑃𝑃6 = 6 × 2.7 × 1 = 16.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (From Table 21 and 27: SANS 10163-2)
8+5
𝑘𝑘1 = 1×8+0.66×5 = 1.15

𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 2.2 × 1.15 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 2.53 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝐴𝐴 = 38 × 114 = 4332 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

𝑃𝑃 = 4332 × 2.53 × 10−3 = 10.96 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

The allowable joint force 16.2 kN > 10.96 kN load, therefore this
joint will be satisfactory.

Example 9.2 Design a tension splice in a 38 x 114 mm V4 SAP member which

has a permanent load of 4 kN and a short-duration load of 3kN.

Solution Assume that splice plates are 25 mm thick V4 SAP on each face
of the member to be joined, then:
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ = 25 × 2 + 38 = 88 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Use a 4.0 mm diameter nail, 90 mm long

Table 22 SANS, 10163-2:

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0.23𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐷𝐷2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

4+4+3
𝑘𝑘1 = 1×4+0.66×3 = 1.17

𝐴𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓/𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0.23 × 1.17 = 0.269 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒)

∴ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 2 × 0.269 = 0.538 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

76 SSD3601/1
 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 4+3
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0.538 = 13

Say, 14 nails

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 10 × 𝐷𝐷 = 40 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 5 × 𝐷𝐷 = 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Using staggered spacing, the splice needs to be 480 mm long as

illustrated in the sketch below.

This is because there are 6 x 40 mm spaces on each side in order

to achieve the necessary spacing.

Example 9.3 A 152 x 38 mm V4 SAP joist is bolted to a 114 x 38 mm V4 SAP

column. The permanent load is 3.6 kN and an imposed load of 6
kN is applied for eight hours every day in a sheltered area. Design
the bolted joint.

77 SSD3601/1
Solution Assume 4 x 12 mm diameter bolts will be used.
Then, from Table 27 in SANS 10163-2,
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 = 1.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)
3.6+6
𝑘𝑘1 = 1×3.6+0.66×6 = 1.27

𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑘𝑘3 = 𝑘𝑘4 = 𝑘𝑘5 = 1

Allowable force per bolt,

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 × 𝑘𝑘1 = 1.7 × 1.27 = 2.16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Assume steel side-plates are used, then Clause 8.2.2 applies:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃 × 1.25 = 2.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Allowable force on joint from Clause 8.1.5, SANS 10163-2:

𝑃𝑃𝑁𝑁 = 𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 4 × 2.7 × 0.99 = 10.69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Total load on joint,

𝑊𝑊 = 3.6 + 6 = 9.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

The design is satisfactory so far because PN > W

78 SSD3601/1
 Check for shear:

Grade shear stress parallel to grain, 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 0.7 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (Table 3)

Allowable shear stress,

𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 . 𝑘𝑘1 = 0.7 × 1.27 = 0.889 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Shear force,

𝑉𝑉 = 1 × 3.6 + 0.66 × 6 = 7.56 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 = 80 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 38 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Shear stress,

1.5×7.56×103
𝑡𝑡 = = 3.73 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
38×80

The actual shear stress exceeds the allowable, so the joint will fail because the column
is loaded parallel to the grain and it will not withstand the applied load. In addition,
owing to the restrictions on bolt spacing, it is not possible to put any more bolts into
the connection. Some other method of connection will have to be tried on this joint or
the column and/or beam sizes, and possibly the grade will have to be changed.
Changing the grade alone would not provide a sufficient (high enough) allowable shear
stress for this load.

79 SSD3601/1
 Notes

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

80 SSD3601/1
 Study unit 1 10

Formwork

Shuttering is that part of the formwork which is in contact with the concrete. Formwork
is the framework supporting the shuttering. Falsework is the framework supporting the
formwork. However, the terms “formwork” and “shuttering” are generally used inter-
changeably to describe all three terms. Overseas publications refer to sheathing when
referring to the sheathing used in formwork, but we call it shuttering or shutter-panels
or shutter-boards in Southern Africa.

10.1 Loads acting on the formwork

SANS 10160 does not make any recommendations for loads on formwork; however,
both Parts 1 and 2 of SANS 10163 do mention formwork and scaffolding in their
respective duration-of-load modification factors.

There seems to be little consensus on what design method to use for formwork in
South Africa. A common trend is merely to use safe-load tables published by
scaffolding and formwork suppliers. These tables were originally designed by empirical
and allowable stress methods. There seems to be little choice but to follow established
practice overseas and adapt these methods to local conditions. Meuwese produced a
comprehensive book on formwork design, for in-house use by Murray & Roberts, using
allowable stress design principles and drawing heavily on American Concrete Institute
recommendations. Unfortunately this work has not been updated and the timber
grades referred to in the book do no longer exist.

81 SSD3601/1
The following factors affecting pressure on formwork have been adapted from Hurst
(1983):

Densities can vary from 10 kN/m3 for lightweight concrete to as much as 40 kN/m3 for
heavy aggregate concretes. Most concrete poured in Southern Africa is in the order of
24 kN/m3. Note that density has no influence on hydrostatic pressures.

Height of discharge could have an influence on the formwork but if good concreting
practice is adhered to, this should not become an issue.

The temperature of concrete should be in the range of 15 – 300C. When no precautions

are taken to control concrete temperature (which is generally the case), the concrete
pressure and the hydrostatic pressure must be increased by 3% for every 10C below
150C, and decreased by 3% (with a maximum of 30%) for every 10C above 150C.

Rates of placing concrete influence pressure on the shuttering and the pressure
depend on the fluidity of the concrete where:

pressure on shuttering, 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠ℎ = 5𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 + 21 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

pressure on shuttering, 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠ℎ = 10𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 + 19 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

pressure on shuttering, 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠ℎ = 14𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 + 18 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

Where 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 is the rate of placing in a wall in vertical m/hr, setting time is 5 hours,
temperature is 150C, concrete density is 24 kN/m2 and internal vibration is used for
compaction. See Figure 10.1

82 SSD3601/1
 FIGURE 10.1
Formwork pressure diagram (Hurst, 1983)

Workability of concrete has a similar influence on pressure to the rate of placing.

Factors affecting workability include mix design, admixtures, fillers such as PFA, and
so forth.

Imposed loads will include the 24 kN/m2 of the concrete, a 2,5 kN/m2 load for the
workmen, the self-weight of the formwork, wind loads and any abnormal loads such
as additional machinery or vehicles which may be used on the formwork during
construction.

Vibration should only be from internal poker vibrators used for compaction. External
vibrators should not be used, in the interests of good concrete practice. Figure 10.1
assumes that vibration ceases when compaction is achieved.

Hydrostatic of concrete ,𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐 × ℎ𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

Where:

𝐷𝐷𝑐𝑐 = concrete density in kN/m3

ℎ𝑠𝑠 = height from top surface of concrete downwards in m

83 SSD3601/1
Note: The height is NOT the top of the shutter!

This is the highest possible value for hydrostatic pressure from the concrete and is
only used when all other values are higher. The lowest value for pressure due to the
concrete is always used in the design. See the examples in section 10.5.

10.2 Timber formwork materials

Although formwork can be made entirely of wood, it is common practice to have a
combination. For example, the shutter-board is plywood, soldiers are fabricated
proprietary steel units and walers are scaffold tubes. The plywood is mounted in a
steel frame which is compatible with the soldiers using gutter-bolts (which are not
subject to any forces of consequence); this makes it easy to replace the plywood when
it is damaged.

Usually five more pours are possible with each set of shutters, depending on how
much care is taken when erecting and stripping the formwork. The steel units and
scaffolding can be used for 30 or more pours. Obviously the industry gravitates
towards the most economical solution.

We will consider both the design of timber formwork and combinations of tubular
scaffolding with timber formwork.

Brace or strut – A diagonal prop stabilising the formwork.

Button – A round (mushroom-shaped) piece of plastic used to blank off unwanted

holes that may have been drilled in shuttering in previous pours.

Deck or decking – The horizontal shuttering boards used for the soffit of a slab.

Double waler – Two walers used as a set where the members are not more than 30
mm apart between which ties are fixed.

Joist – A horizontal member serving as a beam to support slab formwork.

Kicker or sill – A strip of wood nailed or spiked to the blinding or foundation to hold
the base of the shuttering in place.

Prop – A timber column used to support soffit formwork.

84 SSD3601/1
Shutter – Boarding or planking used, at the interface with the concrete to be poured,
to form the shape of the structure.

Soldier – A vertical member providing stiffening and bearing for shuttering.

Spreader – A temporary piece of wood used in wall formwork to keep the shutters the
correct distance apart.

Stud – A horizontal soldier.

Tie – A metal device for holding shuttering in position and capable of withstanding
hydrostatic pressures. Some ties are sleeved and recoverable with only the sleeve
remaining in the concrete. Others remain cast in the concrete with only the bolt portion
being recoverable.

Twin soldier – A double waler used in vertical position when studs rather than soldiers
are used.

Waler or wailing – A horizontal member which supports the soldier and through which
ties are fastened.

Shutter-boards are usually made of plywood, the grade and thickness being a
combination of personal choice and load requirements. Plywood or batten-board or
similar board products are used for “off-shutter” finishes where appearances are
important.

Where work is not exposed to view, such as the back of retaining walls, 25 mm thick
planking may be used. In practice however, this is quite an expensive option and
contractors would be more inclined to use old, damaged boards which still have
strength but which are too warped or holed from use to be used for good finishes.

The common shutter-board used to be 5-ply treated plywood, 22 mm thick (marine

ply) but these tend to be expensive. There is a trend towards using lumber-boards,
which is 19 mm thick with a core of 16 mm thick solid timber strips of wood glued
together; faced on both sides with a veneer. Contractors seal the board with a
polyurethane sealant for the first pour and then use shutter-oil for subsequent pours.

85 SSD3601/1
There are other thicknesses of lumber-boards that are also known by other names
such as batten-board and “VP boards”. (See SANS 929 – Plywood and composite
board and Tables 35 – 37, SANS 10163-2).

Another choice of material for shuttering is planed 25 x 228 mm SAP which is either
butt-jointed or tongued and grooved, but this also tends to be expensive and is only
really viable in small work or for filling awkward areas.

Soldiers are the vertical members directly behind the shutter-board, placed at spacings
determined by design. Typically soldiers are made from V4 timber and dimensions
start at 50 x 50 mm.

Walers or waling refers to the horizontal members that carry the bulk of the load and
ensure that the formwork stays in place during construction. Two (typically 50 x 114
mm) walers are placed 20 – 30 mm apart (double walers) and serve as a set through
which ties are fastened. When a single waler is used, its strength is compromised by
having to drill holes through it for the ties.

Ties are available in a greater variety of types but the simple threaded rod type with a
hexagonal nut and a 50, 75 or 100 mm square washer (6 mm thick) is one of the most
effective and easiest to use with timber shuttering. These ties come in different
diameters from 10 to 30 mm, but the most commonly used is a 16 mm diameter high
tensile rod, which has a permissible tensile load of about 90 kN. The rod is separated
from the concrete by placing it in a 20 mm-diameter plastic tube which in turn acts as
a control for the width of the panel being cast. It is advisable to use spreaders to
prevent these plastic sleeves from buckling.

10.3 Timber formwork design

10.3.1 Wall formwork

According to Stalnaker and Harris the procedure (adapted for Southern African
conditions) for designing formwork for walls is as follows:
i. Calculate the design lateral pressure.

86 SSD3601/1
 ii. Check the shutter-board for bending, deflection and shear. (According to Hurd,
1981), shear normally does not need to be checked). Either the thickness of the
shutter-board or the spacing of its soldiers may be adjusted. Availability of
materials will determine which is adjusted. The deflection limit of  / 360 applies
to both shutter-board and supporting members. If the shutter-board dimensions
are fixed then the maximum allowable span of the shutter-board will equal the
soldier spacing. If the soldiers are fixed then the bending check will need to
determine the required section modulus of the shutter-board based on the
bending stresses.

iii. Design soldiers considering bending, shear and deflection.

iv. Design walers for bending, shear and deflection.

v. Choose ties and spacing.

vi. Check bearing stresses of soldiers on walers and tie-holders on walers.

vii. Design the lateral bracing of the formwork.

viii. Design the falsework if required.

More details are explained in an example under section 10.5.

10.4 Falsework

Timber falsework is rarely used owing to the cost of timber and labour in Southern
Africa. Proprietary scaffolding systems are generally cheaper to hire, quicker to erect
and strip, and have the added advantage of being lightweight and durable. They also
have sets of design tables for quick and accurate specification of the requirements of
the project. Timber falsework does still seem to have a place in the USA for certain
applications.

87 SSD3601/1
In the Far East bamboo scaffolding is still commonplace. In 1996, bamboo scaffolding
was erected to renovate a church in Singapore; the structure was about 50 m high.

In South Africa the most common usage would be pine or gum pole bracing and props
under small deck slabs, where empirical methods of sizing are used. It is unlikely that
timber falsework would be used in any heavy construction.

Some factors to bear in mind when designing falsework, irrespective of the material
being used, are shown in Table 10.1 (Ratay, 1984).

Table 10.1: Interrelated falsework items

Item Size and spacing Depends on

Shutter-board Optimum Joist spacing

Joist spacing Optimum Joist pan between cap beams*
Cap beams* Optimum Span between props
Props # Spacing Finite maximum load / prop #
Sills Size and length Prop # loads
Footings Size and length Loads & bearing capacity of soil

Note: *Cap beams = Ledgers or main bearers

Prop # = Frame legs or trestles (standards for scaffolding-tubing)

Failure to optimise any one of the items in Table 10.1 could have an adverse effect on
the design of other components of the system. For example, thinner shutter-board
would result in more closely-spaced joists. The consequence of this is that joists are
more expensive and additional handling increases both time of erection and stripping,
which in turn costs the contractor and the developer more money. From this it may be
concluded that the entire formwork and falsework system should be designed as an
entity.

88 SSD3601/1
 FIGURE 10.2
Falsework trestle

Figure 10.2 shows the sort of standard used for heavy-duty falsework for slab
construction subjected to heavy loadings. Only a single trestle set (without joist and
shuttering) is shown for clarity. The joist would be perpendicular to the cap beams.
Trestle sets would be spaced at centres determined by the loads and the joist design.
Additional cross-bracing between trestle sets would be necessary to provide stability.
Footings may need to be more closely spaced than illustrated to avoid settlement into
the ground. For heavy traffic loads the members could be 300 x 300 mm except that
footings, side plates and bracing could be as big as 300 x 100 mm sections. Decking
would consist of two layers, perpendicular to each other with the bottom 100 mm
planking and the top 50 mm planks.

The considerations applicable to formwork design also apply to falsework. The

recommendations by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) include an imposed load
of 2.4 kN/m2 horizontally for the weight of labour, equipment and impact (Hurd, 1981).
This is increased to 3.6 kN/m2 when concrete dumpers are used. Some authorities in
the USA specify a minimum combined load of 4.8 kN/m2 horizontally. The ACI also

89 SSD3601/1
recommends that 1.46 kN/m or 2% of the slab total permanent load is taken as a UDL
acting horizontally on the edge of the slab, whichever is the greater.

A loaded 1 360 kg concrete dumper travelling at 10 km/hr and stopping in 2 seconds

will impose a horizontal force of 1.824 kN, and at 20 km/hr the force will be 3.65 kN.
Retay recommends that for lengths (spans) from 0 to 12 m, the imposed loads should
be increased by 30% to allow for impact loads.

Table 10.1: Safety requirements

Description Limits

Slope of scaffolding ramps 1: 1,5 max

Factor of safety for scaffolding ramps 2

Guardrail height for scaffolding > 2 m high 900 – 1 000 mm

Spacing wooden scaffolding standards 3 m c/c max

Dimension of any component of wooden scaffold 75 mm φ or equivalent

Height of wooden framework for scaffolding 10,0 m max

Dimensions of scaffold plank 38 x 275 mm min

In addition to normal design considerations, the requirements of the National

Occupational Safety Association (NOSA) and the Occupational Health and Safety Act
No. 85 of 1993 (OHS) should also be taken into consideration (See Table 10.2). The
actual design is carried out using SANS 10163 (either Part 1 or Part 2), but bearing in
mind the overseas practice mentioned above.

SANS 10100: The structural use of concrete specifies that untreated timber must not
be used for formwork and that cambers should be introduced to ensure that tolerances
of the finished concrete are met. As far as falsework is concerned the SANS state that
designs should be such that if one member breaks or is damaged, the adjacent one
will be strong enough to carry the load – thus preventing further damage or a domino
effect collapse.

90 SSD3601/1
10.5 Design examples

Example 10.1 Formwork load calculation

If a soft mix concrete, at 13oC, is poured at a rate of 3 m/hr for a
4 m high wall, what hydrostatic pressure can be expected?
Solution From Figure 10.1 (or by calculation):
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠ℎ = 10 × 3 + 19 = 49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)

49 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2
ℎ𝑠𝑠 = 24 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 = 2.04 𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑠𝑠 = 24 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 × 4 = 96 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)

The consistency limit is the lowest value, so it becomes the design

pressure.

Temperature adjustment of 6% increase is needed in this case,

therefore the design pressure is (0.06 x 49 + 49) 51, 94 kN/m2
and is distributed equally from the bottom of the shutter to a point
2.04 m below the top of the concrete. From this point to the top of
the concrete the value reduces to zero at the top surface.

Example 10.2 Wall formwork design

A 3.6 m high wall is to be cast at 1 m/hr with a soft mix of concrete
at 15 oC. Poker vibrators will be used to achieve compaction.
There is no wind and only three labourers will be placing the 25
kN/m3. Ties used have a permissible tensile load of 80 kN. V4
SAP members are to be used for soldiers and walers.
The shuttering will be sealed 19 mm lumber-board (batten-board)
which has elastic modulus E = 4.6 kN/mm2 and allowable bending
stress of 4.7 N/mm2 parallel to the grain.
(Table 36, SANS 10163-2.)

91 SSD3601/1
 Note: The dry strength (10% moisture content) of plywood is
about 30% greater than its saturated strength, therefore, if
shuttering is not sealed the modulus of elasticity should be
reduced by 30%.

Solution Wall formwork design is as follows:

i. Design lateral pressure:

𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠ℎ = 10 × 1 + 19 = 29 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)

29
ℎ𝑠𝑠 = 25 = 1.16 𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑃ℎ𝑠𝑠 = 25 × 3.6 = 90 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)

𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 29 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2 (𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)

ii. Check shutter-board for bending:

Assume that bending stresses are parallel to the face grain and
that the board is continuous over three or more spans.

𝑤𝑤. 𝐿𝐿2
𝑀𝑀 = = 0.1 × 29 × 𝐿𝐿2 = 2.9 𝐿𝐿2 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
10

29
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.66 ×29 = 1.515

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 × 𝑘𝑘1 × 𝑘𝑘2 × 𝑘𝑘3 × 𝑘𝑘4 = 4.7 × 1.515 × 1 × 1 × 1

= 7.12 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑2 1000×192
𝑍𝑍 = = = 60 167 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3
6 6

𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 × 𝑍𝑍 = 7.12 × 60167 × 10−6 = 0.428 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

92 SSD3601/1
To solve for L, 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟

2.9𝐿𝐿2 = 0.428

∴ 𝐿𝐿 = 384 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)

Assume a 38 mm wide soldier will be used, then the clear span

will be

𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 𝐿𝐿 − 38 = 346 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

iii. Check shutter-board for deflection:

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑3 1000×193
𝐼𝐼 = = = 571 583 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 3𝐿𝐿/1000

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.003𝐿𝐿 = 1.153 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

0.0064×𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ×𝐿𝐿4𝑐𝑐 0.0064×29×3464
∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 1.012 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4600×571583

Therefore, deflection is satisfactory.

iv. Check shutter-board for shear:

For rolling or interlaminar shear,

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 0.67𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 36 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 10163 − 2)

When used on the flat the induced shear in a board should not
exceed the allowable interlaminar shear. Boards are treated as
beams as far as formulae are concerned.

𝑉𝑉
∴ 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 (𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝑏𝑏 = 1000𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑏𝑏. 𝑑𝑑

93 SSD3601/1
 Where, 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 𝑤𝑤𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
∴ 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 × 29 × 0.346 = 6.02 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

6.02×103
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 × 1000×19 = 0.48 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 < 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣

v. Check soldiers for bending:

A width of 38 mm has already been assumed for the soldier and

the spacing L = 384 mm c

c

The imposed load on each soldier,

𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 29 × 0.384 = 11.147 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ×𝐿𝐿2 11.147×3842

𝑀𝑀 = = = 0.1644 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
10 10

11.147
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.66×11.147 = 1.515

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 4 × 1.515 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 6.06 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Assume a depth for the soldier of 114 mm

𝑏𝑏×𝑑𝑑2 38×1142
𝑍𝑍 = = = 82 308 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3
6 6

𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 × 𝑍𝑍 = 6.06 × 82308 × 10−6 = 0.4988 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑀𝑀 < 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 ∴ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

vi. Check soldiers for deflection:

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑3 38×1143
𝐼𝐼 = = = 4 691 556 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12

Assume that V4 walers are to be placed at 0.9 m c , which

c
means that five sets of walers are needed, and four spans.

94 SSD3601/1
 3𝐿𝐿
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1000

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.003𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 = 0.003 × 0.9 × 1000 = 2.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

0.0064×𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ×𝐿𝐿4𝑠𝑠 0.0064×11.147×9004
∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= 6000×4691556
= 1.66 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Therefore, deflection is satisfactory.

vii. Check soldiers for shear:

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 0.4𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 3 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 10163 − 2)

Hurd recommends that the allowable shear is multiplied by a load-

duration factor of 1.5 and a “two-beam” factor of 1.5.

∴ 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 0.4 × 1.25 × 1.5 = 0.75 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑉𝑉
∴ 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 (𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝑏𝑏 = 38 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑏𝑏. 𝑑𝑑

Where 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)

Assuming double waler with 50 mm-wide members, 30 mm apart:

𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 = 900 − 130 = 770 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

∴ 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 × 11.147 × 0.77 = 5.15 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

5.15×103
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 × = 0.26 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 < 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣
38×770

viii. Check walers for bending:

A width of 50 mm has already been assumed for the double waler,

now assume a depth of 114 mm and a spacing of 30 mm between
the two 50 mm-wide members.

95 SSD3601/1
 The imposed load on each waler,

𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 0.77
𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × = 29 × = 11.17 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚
2 2

𝑤𝑤𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ×𝐿𝐿2𝑠𝑠 11.17×0.772

𝑀𝑀 = = = 0.662 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
10 10

11.17
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.66×11.17 = 1.515

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 × 𝑘𝑘1 × 𝑘𝑘2 × 𝑘𝑘3 × 𝑘𝑘4 = 4 × 1.515 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 6.06 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑2 100×1142
𝑍𝑍 = = = 216 600 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
6 6

𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 × 𝑍𝑍 = 6.06 × 216600 × 10−6 = 1.31 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 > 𝑀𝑀

ix. Check walers for deflection:

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑3 100×1143
𝐼𝐼 = = = 12 346 200 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12

3𝐿𝐿
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 1000

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.003𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 = 0.003 × 0.9 × 1000 = 2.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

0.0064×𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ×𝐿𝐿4𝑠𝑠 0.0064×11.147×9004

∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 0.63 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 6000×12346200

Therefore, deflection is satisfactory.

x. Check ties:

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 𝐿𝐿 × 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 = 29 × 0.384 × 0.9 = 10.03 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

96 SSD3601/1
Compressive strength perpendicular to the grain, 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1.6 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
Required bearing area under washer = = 6270 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

A standard size washer of 100 mm square less the space gives a

bearing area = 100 (100 − 30) = 7 000𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 80
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = = 7.16 𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 11.17

This is obviously out of the question because the wall is only 3.6
m high. The tie is therefore too strong for the application, either
use a smaller tie or place ties at 900 mm c/c vertically and 1 152
c/ to suit the waler and soldier spacings.
c

xi. Check bearing stresses:

Compressive stress between waler and soldier,

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙×𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 0.5×11.147×900

= = 1.32 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 < 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙×𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 38×100

xii. Lateral bracing:

Adequate lateral bracing is very important for stability and safety

considerations – it is better to have too much than too little. An
unexpected gust of wind could easily blow the formwork down if
it is not braced. The following method (Hurd, 1981) is based on a
modified Euler formula and does not conform to SANS 10163.
However, it is a safe method.

Slenderness value = L / d ≤ 50

where

L = Unsupported length in mm (ignoring effective length)

97 SSD3601/1
 d = Least dimension of the bracing member in mm (not the
radius of gyration as given in SANS 10163)

0, 3 ⋅ E
The allowable load P = PB / A = ≤ σ (Safety factor
(L ÷ d ) c
= 3)

Where P = Total load on the bracing in kN.

A = Net cross-sectional area in mm2.

E = Modulus of elasticity in MPa.

(Table 3, SANS 10163-2)

Table 4.1: Allowable load for formwork bracing based on unsupported length
for v4 sap

Size 50 x 114 76 x 114 114 x 114 50 x 152 76 x 152

A 5700 8664 12 996 7600 11 552
mm2
L P L/d P L/d P L/d P L/d P L/d
mm kN kN kN kN kN
100 25,6 20 90,0 13,1 304 8,7 34,2 20 120 13,1
1500 11,4 30 40,0 19,7 135 13,1 15,2 30 53,3 19,7
2000 6,4 40 22,5 26,3 76,0 17,5 8,5 40 30,0 26,3
2500 4,1 50 14,4 32,8 48,6 21,9 5,4 50 19,2 32,8
3000 10,4 39,4 33,7 26,3 13,3 39,4
3500 7,3 46,0 24,8 30,7 9,8 46,0
4000 19,0 35,7
4500 15,0 39,4
5000 12,1 43,8
5500 10,0 48,2

(ONLY VALUES OF L/d ≤ 50 SHOWN)

98 SSD3601/1
Care must be taken when applying the values given in Table 4.1 to ensure that the
bracing is adequately fixed to the formwork and in the ground (either to a concrete
kicker-block or to a heavy stake).

The allowable bearing stress must not be exceeded if there is a wood-to-wood contact.
If stresses are in this order of magnitude then the load may be transferred by means
of other devices, such as metal brackets bolted to the brace and to the waling.

Example 10.3 Slab formwork design

A 280 mm-thick reinforced concrete slab 3.0 m above level
ground is to be cast with a high slump mix of concrete at 150 C,
and poker vibrators will be used to achieve compaction. The plan
size of the slab is 20 x 15.5 m. There is no likelihood of wind and
only labourers will be placing the concrete. V4 SAP members will
be used for the falsework.

The shuttering will be the sealed 19 mm lumber-board (batten-

board) that has E = 4.6 kN/mm2 and an allowable bending stress
of 4.7 N/mm2 parallel to the grain. (Table 36, SANS 10163-2)

Design the formwork and falsework using timber for the soffit, joist
and cap beams and steel scaffolding frames for the falsework.

Scaffolding standard can carry a permissible load of 2 000 kg

each and the system allows for either 1.2 m or 1.5 m horizontal
bracing to form towers.

Solution Slab formwork design follows much the same set of rules as wall
formwork, except that soldiers and walers would be replaced by
cap beams (ledgers or bearers) and joists; ties would not be
needed and lateral bracing might apply to props under the beams.

99 SSD3601/1
 i. Design load

Load due to concrete, 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 0.281 × 1 × 2400 × 9.81 = 6.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

Imposed load due to workers, 𝑃𝑃1 = 1.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = 1.5 + 6.6 = 8.1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

ii. Check shutter-board for bending

Assume that bending stresses are parallel to the face grain and
that the board is continuous over three or more spans.

𝑤𝑤. 𝐿𝐿2
𝑀𝑀 = = 0.1 × 8.1 × 𝐿𝐿2 = 0.81𝐿𝐿2
10

8.1
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.66 ×8.1 = 1.515

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 × 𝑘𝑘1 × 𝑘𝑘2 × 𝑘𝑘3 × 𝑘𝑘4 = 4.7 × 1.515 × 1 × 1 × 1

= 7.12 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑2 1000×192
𝑍𝑍 = = = 60 167 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3
6 6

𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 × 𝑍𝑍 = 7.12 × 60167 × 10−6 = 0.428 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

To solve for L, 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟 → 0.81𝐿𝐿2 = 0.428

Therefore L = 727 mm c/c (max. allowable span based on bending)

Assume a 38 mm wide joist will be used, then the clear span will
be:

𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 𝐿𝐿 − 38 = 689 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

100 SSD3601/1
 iii. Check shutter-board for deflection

𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑3 1000×193
𝐼𝐼 = = = 571 583 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4
12 12

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 3𝐿𝐿/1000

∆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 0.003𝐿𝐿 = 1.153 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

0.0064×𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ×𝐿𝐿4𝑐𝑐 0.0064×8.1×6894
∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 4.44 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4600×571583

Therefore, deflection is satisfactory.

This deflection is excessive. Try a shorter span Lc, say 462 mm

then L = 462 + 38 = 500 mm which is a module of a standard

scaffold frame’s 1 500 mm width.

0.0064 × 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 𝐿𝐿4𝑐𝑐 0.0064 × 8.1 × 4624

∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 0.898 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4600 × 571583

Therefore, deflection is now satisfactory.

iv. Check shutter-board for shear

For rolling or interlaminar shear,

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 0.67𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 36 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 10163 − 2)

𝑉𝑉
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 𝑏𝑏.𝑑𝑑 ≤ 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 (𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝑏𝑏 = 1000𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

Where, 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 𝑤𝑤𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)

∴ 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 × 8.1 × 0.462 = 2.25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.25×103
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 × 1000×19 = 0.18 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 < 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣

101 SSD3601/1
 v. Check joists for bending

A width of 38 mm has already been assumed for the joist and the
spacing L = 500 mm c/c

The imposed load on each joist, 𝑤𝑤𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 8.1 × 0.5 = 4.05 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

𝑤𝑤𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 .𝐿𝐿2 4.05×0.52

𝑀𝑀 = = = 0.1013 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
10 10

4.05
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.66×4.05 = 1.515

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 4.0 × 1.515 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 6.06 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Assume a depth for the joist of 114 mm

b ⋅ d2 38 ⋅ 114 2
Z = = = 82 308 mm 3
6 6

Mr = fb . Z = 0.4988 kNm

Therefore M ≤ Mr (A 38 x 76 mm would work but the minimum

preferred size is114 mm)

vi. Check joist for deflection:

b . d3 38.114 3
I = = = 4691556mm 4
12 12

Assume that cap beams are spaced at 1.5 m c/c to suit scaffold
frames.

Deflection is limited to 3LJ / 1000

∆ allowable = 0,003. LJ = 4,50 mm

102 SSD3601/1
Note that this allowable deflection is excessive for the
required tolerances of the finished concrete. In most cases
this will happen because tolerances for off-shutter concrete
are quite small.

𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑤𝑤𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 4.16 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚

0.0064 × 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 𝐿𝐿4𝐽𝐽 0.0064 × 4.05 × 15004

∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 4.66 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4600 × 4691556

Once again the deflection is excessive. Try a 38 x 152 mm joist.

0.0064 × 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 𝐿𝐿4𝐽𝐽 0.0064 × 4.05 × 15004

∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 1.97 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4600 × 11120725

This deflection is within acceptable tolerances for the slab soffit.

vii. Check joist for shear

Grade stress = Pv = 0,4 MPa (Table 3, SANS 10163-2)

Hurd recommends that the allowable shear is multiplied by a load

duration factor of 1,5 and a “two-beam” factor of 1,5.

Therefore, allowable shear stress,

𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣 = 0.4 × 1.25 × 1.5 = 0.75 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Shear stress for continuous beams, 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 𝑤𝑤𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 . 𝐿𝐿𝐽𝐽

LJ = 1 500 mm

∴ 𝑉𝑉 = 0.6 × 4.05 × 1.5 = 3.645 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

3.645×1000
∴ 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 1.5 1500×38
= 0.096 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 < 𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣

103 SSD3601/1
 viii. Check cap beams (ledgers) for bending

The imposed load on each cap beam is in effect two-point load

acting at the third points of the length and a point load directly
over each support. These loads are the total load per joist span
for the length of the cap beam span, plus the self-weight of the
joists and shuttering.

9.81
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 1.5 × 0.5 × 0.019 × 460 × 1000 = 0.064 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

9.81
𝑊𝑊𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 1.5 × 0.152 × 0.038 × 460 × 1000 = 0.039 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1.5 × 0.5 × 8.1 = 6.075 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Although the self-weights are small in this case, it is a good

practice to always include them. The point load imposed by joist
becomes:

𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0.064 + 0.039 + 6.075 = 6.18 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Maximum bending moment: continuous beam point load at third

points.

𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.119 × 2 × 𝑊𝑊𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 × 𝐿𝐿𝐽𝐽 = 0.119 × 2 × 6.18 × 1.5 = 2.206 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.206
𝑘𝑘1 = 0.66×2.206 = 1.515

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 . 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑘𝑘2 . 𝑘𝑘3 . 𝑘𝑘4 = 4.0 × 1.515 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 6.06 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Assume cap beams are 50 x 225 mm members. (This is a

common size.)

b ⋅ d2 50 ⋅ 225 2
Z = = = 421 875 mm 3
6 6

Mr = fb . Z = 2.557 kNm

104 SSD3601/1
Therefore M ≤ Mr

ix. Check cap beams for deflection

b . d3 50 . 225 3
I = = = 47 460 937 mm 4
12 12

Deflection is limited to 3 . LJ / 1000

∆ allowable = 0,003 . LJ = 4,50 mm

0.0064×𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ×𝐿𝐿4𝑠𝑠 0.0064×12.36×15004

∆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 1.41 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 4600×47460937

Therefore, deflection is satisfactory.

x. Check bearing stresses

Compressive stress between cap beam and joist,

𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 6.18×1000

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗×𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
= 38×50

= 3.25 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 > 1.6 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉4

Either increase grade to M8 or use two 50 x 225 mm members

back-to- back as cap beams.

xi. Load on scaffolding

Three of the four loads mentioned in viii) above plus the self-
weight of the cap beam will make up the load on each prop.

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 3 × 6.18 + 2 × 0.05 × 0.225 × 1.5 × 460 × 9.81 × 10−3

= 18.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

105 SSD3601/1
 Allowable load per leg of the scaffolding is

2000×9.81
1000
= 19.62 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 > 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∴ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

The final solution is:

Scaffolding: 1.5 x 1.5 m braced towers with 1.5 m

spacing in both directions between
towers.

Cap beams: 2 No. 50 x 225 mm V4 SAP@1.5mc/c

Joist: 38 x 152 mm V4SAP@500mmc/c

Soffit: 19 MM SEALED BATTEN-BOARD

106 SSD3601/1
References

SANS 1783: Sawn softwood timber.

SANS 10100: The structural use of concrete.

SANS 10163-2: The structural use of timber. Part 2: Allowable stress design.

Baird JA & Ozelton EC: Timber designer’s manual. (2nd edition). Blackwell Science
Ltd, Oxford, 1995.

Breyer DE: Design of wood structure. McGraw-Hill, London, 1988.

Hurd MK: Formwork for concrete. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981.

Hurst MP: Formwork. Construction Press, Longman Group Ltd, Harlow, 1983.

Meuwese RFA: Form design. Murray & Roberts (Cape) Ltd, 1974.

Peurifoy RL: Construction planning, equipment and methods. (3rd edition). McGraw-
Hill, 1979.

Ratay RT: Handbook of temporary structures in construction. McGraw-Hill, 1984.

Richardson JG: Formwork construction and practice. Viewpoint, 1960

Stalnaker JJ & Harris EC: Structural design in wood. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, 1989 (Imperial units).

South African Lumber Millers Association: SALMA Timber Manual. SALMA, Isando,
1995.

107 SSD3601/1