Structural Eng

Structural
Engineering
Handbook
00_Mahamid_FM_pi-xxii.indd 1 26/03/20 4:41 PM

The photos on the front cover are courtesy of Thornton Tomasetti (Chicago office) and Jacobs
(New York office). Mustafa Mahamid is grateful to the two firms for their contributions.

Structural
Engineering
Handbook
MUSTAFA MAHAMID
EDWIN H. GAYLORD, JR.
CHARLES N. GAYLORD
Fifth Edition
New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London

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About the Editors
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., P.Eng., F.SEI, F.ASCE, F.ACI, is a clinical associate
professor in the Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois—
Chicago and is a member of the AccessEngineering Faculty Advisory Board. He previously
worked as a practicing structural engineer at GRAEF and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and
currently is a consultant for various structural engineering firms in the United States and
abroad. He is a Fellow of ASCE, a Fellow of ACI, and a Fellow of ASCE’s Structural Engineering
Institute (SEI) and is active on various ACI and ASCE/SEI technical committees.
The late Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr. was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Illinois—
Urbana-Champaign.
The late Charles N. Gaylord was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Virginia.

Contents
Contributors xv
Preface xix
Chapter 1. Structural Loads Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Rain Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Soil Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Snow and Ice Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8 Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.9 Flood and Tsunami Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.10 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 2. Structural Analysis Aly M. Said, Anas S. Issa,

M. Shahria Alam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
PART A FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS TO STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORKS . . . . . 61
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2 Fundamentals of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3 Energy Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4 Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.6 Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.7 Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
PART B ARCHES AND RIGID FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.8 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.9 Analysis of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.10 Design of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.11 Design of Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.12 Special Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.13 Construction and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Chapter 3. The Finite-Element Method Craig D. Foster,

Sheng-Wei Chi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.1 Overview of Theory of Finite-Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2 Outline of Steps in a Finite-Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3 Types of Structural and Mechanical Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.4 Elements and Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.5 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.6 Applying Loads and Displacement Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.7 Material Models and Other Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.8 Solving the Quasi-Static Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
vii

viii Contents
3.9 Postprocessing—Solving for Strain, Stress, and Other Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

3.10 Dynamic Finite-Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.11 Nonlinear Finite-Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.12 Verification and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.13 Issues and Pitfalls in Finite-Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.14 Introduction to Finite Elements for Thermal, Thermomechanical,
and Other Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Chapter 4. Computer Applications in Structural Engineering

Raoul Karp, Bulent N. Alemdar, Sam Rubenzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.2 Computer Structural Analysis Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3 Structural Finite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.4 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.5 Verifying Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.6 Building Information Modeling and Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Chapter 5. Earthquake-Resistant Design S. K. Ghosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2 Nature of Earthquake Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3 Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.4 Seismic Design Requirements of the 2018 IBC/ASCE 7-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Chapter 6. Fracture and Fatigue Kedar S. Kirane, Zdeněk P. Bažant,

J. Ernesto Indacochea, Vineeth Kumar Gattu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
PART A CONCRETE AND COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.1 Introduction to Quasibrittle Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3 Fiber-Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
PART B STRUCTURAL STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4 Fracture of Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.5 Fatigue of Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter 7. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Joseph W. Schulenberg,

Krishna R. Reddy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.1 Soil Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.2 Shallow Foundation Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.3 Deep Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.4 Retaining Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.5 Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.6 Soil Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.7 Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter 8. Design of Structural Steel Members Jay Shen,

Bulent Akbas, Onur Seker, Charlies J. Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.1 Design of Steel and Composite Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.2 Seismic Design of Steel Members in Moment and Braced Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.3 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Chapter 9. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

Nabil A. Rahman, Helen Chen, Cheng Yu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.1 Shapes and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Contents ix
9.3 Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

9.4 Member Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.5 Structural Stability in Determining Member Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.6 Member Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.7 Assemblies and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.8 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Chapter 10. Aluminum Structural Design J. Randolph Kissell . . . . . . . . . 321

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
10.2 Design Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.3 Determining Required Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.4 Axial Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
10.5 Axial Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10.6 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.7 Shear and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
10.8 Combined Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10.9 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10.10 Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.11 Fabrication and Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.12 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Chapter 11. Design of Reinforced-Concrete Structural Members

Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
11.3 Specifications, Codes, and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.4 General Requirements for Strength and Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
11.5 General Principles of the Strength Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.6 General Principles and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
11.7 One-Way Slabs, Two-Way Slabs, and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
11.8 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
11.9 Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.10 Members Subjected to Flexure and Axial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.11 Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
11.12 Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
11.13 Two-Way Slab Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
11.14 Seismic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Chapter 12. Design of Prestressed-Concrete Structural Members

Sri Sritharan, Maryam Nazari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
12.2 Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
12.3 Analysis Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
12.4 Design for Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
12.5 Design for Shear, Bond, and Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
12.6 Design of Continuous Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
12.7 Design for Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
12.8 Design for Seismic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Chapter 13. Masonry Construction Richard Bennett,

Sam Rubenzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
13.1 Masonry Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
13.2 Masonry Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
13.3 Unreinforced Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
13.4 Reinforced Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

x Contents
13.5 Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

13.6 Specifying Masonry and Testing Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
13.7 Masonry Fire Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Chapter 14. Timber Structures Thomas Williamson,

Mustafa Mahamid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.1 Wood as an Engineering Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
14.2 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) vs. Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
14.3 Structural Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
14.4 Member Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
14.5 Connection Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
14.6 Lateral Load Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Chapter 15. Bridge Engineering Soliman Khudeira, Tony Shkurti,

Eric Stone, James Carter III, Jamshid Mohammadi, Bora Jang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
PART A STEEL AND CONCRETE BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
15.3 Steel Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
15.4 Bearing and Expansion Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
15.5 Beam and Plate-Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
15.6 Truss Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
15.7 Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
15.8 Slab Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
15.9 T-Beam Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
15.10 Box-Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
15.11 Prestressed-Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
15.12 Bridge Railings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
15.13 Administration of a Bridge System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
PART B STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
15.14 Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
15.15 Internal Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
15.16 Limit States and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
15.17 Analysis of Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
15.18 Design of Box-Section Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
15.19 Internal Element Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
15.20 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
PART C CURVED STEEL I-GIRDER BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
15.21 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
15.22 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
15.23 Curved Girder Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
PART D CURVED STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
15.24 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
15.26 Box-Girder Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
PART E CURVED CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
15.27 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
15.28 Concrete Box-Girder Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
15.29 Significance of Structural Configuration and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
15.30 Review of Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

Contents xi
Chapter 16. Railroad Bridge Design Mohsen Issa,

Ahmad Hammad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
16.2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
16.3 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
16.4 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
16.5 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
16.6 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Chapter 17. Industrial Buildings Jules Van de Pas, John Rolfes . . . . . . . . . 559
17.1 Planning Industrial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
17.2 Code Requirements and Industrial Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
17.3 Framing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Chapter 18. Tall Buildings Charles Besjak, Brian McElhatten,

Preetam Biswas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.1 Definition of Tall Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.2 General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.3 Structural Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
18.4 Serviceability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
18.5 Structural Systems for Tall Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
18.6 System Conceptualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
18.7 System Parameters and Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
18.8 Analysis Parameters and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
18.9 Performance-Based Design for Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
18.10 Performance-Based Design for Seismic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
18.11 Creep and Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
18.12 High-Rise Building Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
18.13 Additional Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Chapter 19. Thin-Shell Concrete Structures Edmond Saliklis,

Mustafa Mahamid, David P. Billington, Julian A. Dumitrescu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
19.1 Introduction and Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
19.2 Shells of Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
19.3 Domes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
19.4 Cylindrical Barrel Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
19.5 Folded Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
19.6 Translation Shells of Double Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
19.7 Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
19.8 Stability and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
19.9 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
19.10 Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Chapter 20. Cable-Supported Roofs Paul A. Gossen,

Keith M. MacBain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
20.2 Cable Materials and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
20.3 Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
20.4 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
20.5 Analysis and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
20.6 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

xii Contents
Chapter 21. Reinforced-Concrete Silos Ramez B. Gayed,

Mustafa Mahamid, Amin Ghali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
21.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
21.2 Design of Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
21.3 Design of Bottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Chapter 22. Design of Steel Tanks Leslie D. Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
22.3 Design of Reservoirs and Standpipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
22.4 Elevated Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
22.5 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
22.6 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
22.7 Commercially Available Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
22.8 The Engineer’s Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Chapter 23. Electrical Transmission and Substation

Structures Michael D. Miller, Robert E. Nickerson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
23.2 Referenced Standards and Manuals of Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
23.3 Transmission Line Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
23.4 Substation Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
Chapter 24. Chimneys Shu-Jin Fang, Victor Bochicchio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
24.2 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
24.3 Steel Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
24.4 Reinforced-Concrete Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
24.5 Liners and Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
24.6 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
Chapter 25. Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing

Didem Ozevin, Farhad Ansari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
25.2 Components of NDE Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
25.3 Waveform-Based NDE Methods and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
25.4 The Applications of Waveform-Based NDE Methods to
Infrastructure Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Chapter 26. Building Information Modeling (BIM) for

Structural Engineering Nawari O. Nawari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
26.2 BIM Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
26.3 BIM Processes in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
26.4 Structure and Architecture Synergy (SAS) Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
26.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
Chapter 27. Structural Fire Engineering V. K. R. Kodur, M. Z. Naser . . . . . 789

27.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
27.2 Designing Structures for Fire Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
27.3 Fire Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
27.4 Properties of Construction Materials at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
27.5 Fire Resistance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
27.6 Prescriptive-Based Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796

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27.7 Rational Design Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

27.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Chapter 28. Disproportionate Collapse and Blast-Resistant

Design Shalva Marjanishvili, Robert Smilowitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
PART A STRUCTURAL ROBUSTNESS AND DISPROPORTIONATE COLLAPSE . . . . . . . . 801
28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
28.2 Disproportionate Collapse Mitigation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
28.3 Progressive Collapse Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
28.4 Progressive Collapse Analysis Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
PART B BLAST-RESISTANT DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
28.5 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
28.6 Blast Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
28.7 Dynamic Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
28.8 Structural Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
28.9 Primary Structure: Material Selection and Design for
Blast Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
28.10 Secondary Structure: Material Selection and Design for
Blast Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
28.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
Chapter 29. FRP Strengthening of Reinforced-Concrete

Members Hayder A. Rasheed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
29.1 FRP Properties for Strengthening Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
29.2 Flexural Strengthening Design for Beams and Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
29.3 Shear Strengthening Design for Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
29.4 Confinement Strengthening Design for Circular Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Chapter 30. Structural Glass and Glazing Rui de S. Camposinhos . . . . . . 833

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
30.2 Glass: Production and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
30.3 Glass as a Structural Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
30.4 Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
30.5 Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
30.6 Plate Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
30.7 Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
30.8 Glass Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
Chapter 31. Machine Foundations O. Salem Ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

31.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
31.2 Classification of Machine Based on Machine Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
31.3 Classification of Machine Based on Type of Excitation Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
31.4 Classification of Machine Based on Foundation Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
31.5 Classification of Machine Load Transfer Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
31.6 Design Limits for Machine Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
31.7 Effect of the Supporting Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
31.8 Energy Transfer Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
31.9 Effect of Embedment of Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
31.10 Reduction in Permissible Soil Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
31.11 Damping in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
31.12 Modeling Techniques for Machine Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
31.13 Block-Type Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
31.14 Mat Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
31.15 Elevated Machine Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

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31.16 Three-Dimensional Finite-Element Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868

31.17 Soil Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
31.18 Current Approach of Soil Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
31.19 Methods to Compute Dynamic Impedance Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
31.20 Foundations Supported on Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
31.21 Piles Subjected to Lateral Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
31.22 Elastic Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
31.23 Piles Subjected to Vertical Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
31.24 Pile Group Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Chapter 32. Value Methodology Muthiah Kasi,

Charles A. Bartlett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
32.2 VM Job Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
32.3 The Key Features of VM Job Plan: Function Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
32.4 Example 1: Parapet Joint Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
32.5 Evaluation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
32.6 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
32.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
Chapter 33. Stone Cladding Rui de S. Camposinhos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

33.1 Introduction: Natural Stone Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
33.2 Natural Stone Depiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
33.3 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
33.4 Cladding Systems and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
33.5 Limit States Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
33.6 Dowel Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
33.7 Kerf Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
33.8 Undercut Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Index 919

Contributors
Bulent Akbas, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8)
M. Shahria Alam Professor, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna,
British Columbia, Canada (Chap. 2)
Bulent N. Alemdar, Ph.D., PE Principal Research Engineer, Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
(Chap. 4)
O. Salem Ali, Ph.D., PE Engineering Manager, Structural Technologies (Chap. 31)
Farhad Ansari Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois
at Chicago (Chap. 25)
Charles A. Bartlett, PE, CVS (Chap. 32)
Zdeněk P. Bažant McCormick Institute Professor and Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Material Science and Engineering,
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois (Chap. 6)
Richard Bennett Professor and Director of Engineering Fundamentals, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee (Chap. 13)
Charles Besjak, PE, SE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
David P. Billington Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Princeton University (Deceased)
(Chap. 19)
Preetam Biswas, PE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
Victor Bochicchio Executive Vice President, Hamon Custodis, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey (Chap. 24)
Rui de S. Camposinhos Coordinator Professor with Aggregation, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
(Chaps. 30, 33)
Charlies J. Carter, Ph.D., PE, SE American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 8)
James Carter III Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Helen Chen, Ph.D., PE American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C. (Chap. 9)
Sheng-Wei Chi, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Julian A. Dumitrescu Consulting Structural Engineer, Raytheon Engineers and Constructors
(Retired) (Chap. 19)
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (Chaps. 1, 11)
Shu-Jin Fang Consultant, and Former Associate and Senior Manager, Sargent & Lundy, Chicago,
Illinois (Chap. 24)
Craig D. Foster, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Vineeth Kumar Gattu Chemical and Fuel Cycle Technologies, Argonne National Laboratory
(Chap. 6)
Ramez B. Gayed Adjunct Professor, University of Calgary, and Senior Structural Engineer,
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (Canada) Inc. (Chap. 21)
xv

xvi Contributors
Amin Ghali Professor Emeritus, University of Calgary (Chap. 21)

S. K. Ghosh S. K. Ghosh Associates LLC, Palatine, Illinois (Chap. 5)
Paul A. Gossen, PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Ahmad Hammad, Ph.D., PE, SE Assistant Vice President and Senior Engineering Manager, WSP
USA (Chap. 16)
J. Ernesto Indacochea Professor Emeritus, Civil and Materials Engineering, University of
Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 6)
Anas S. IssaPostdoctoral Fellow, Applied Laboratory for Advanced Materials & Structures
(ALAMS), University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada (Chap. 2)
Mohsen Issa, Ph.D., PE, SE Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 16)
Bora Jang Sharma and Associates, Inc. (Chap. 15)
Raoul Karp, PE, SE Vice President of Design Engineering Analysis, Bentley Systems, Inc.,
Carlsbad, California (Chap. 4)
Muthiah Kasi, PE, SE, CVS-Life (Chap. 32)
Soliman Khudeira Illinois Institute of Technology and Chicago DOT (Chap. 15)
Kedar S. Kirane Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony
Brook, New York (Chap. 6)
J. Randolph Kissell, PE (Chap. 10)
V. K. R. Kodur, Ph.D., P.Eng. University Distinguished Professor and Chairperson, Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
(Chap. 27)
Keith M. MacBain, Ph.D., PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., SE, PE, P.Eng. Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Civil and
Materials Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago (Chaps. 1, 11, 14, 19, 21)
Shalva Marjanishvili, D.Sc., PE, SE Technical Director, Hinman Consulting Engineers, Inc.,
San Francisco, California (Chap. 28)
Brian McElhatten, PE, SE Arup (Chap. 18)
Michael D. Miller, PE, P.Eng. VP Engineering, SAE Towers (Chap. 23)
Jamshid Mohammadi Illinois Institute of Technology (Chap. 15)
M. Z. Naser, Ph.D., PE Assistant Professor, Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University, Clemson, South Carolina (Chap. 27)
Nawari O. Nawari, Ph.D., PE School of Architecture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
(Chap. 26)
Maryam Nazari Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Geomatics Engineering, California
State University, Fresno, California (Chap. 12)
Robert E. Nickerson, PE Consultant (Chap. 23)
Didem Ozevin Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 25)
Nabil A. Rahman, Ph.D., PE FDR Engineers, Raleigh, North Carolina (Chap. 9)
Hayder A. Rasheed, Ph.D., PE Professor, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (Chap. 29)
Krishna R. Reddy Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 7)
John Rolfes Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Chap. 17)
Sam Rubenzer, PE, SE Founder and Structural Engineer, FORSE Consulting, Eau Claire, Wisconsin
(Chaps. 4, 13)
Aly M. Said Associate Professor, Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania (Chap. 2)

Contributors xvii
Edmond Saliklis California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo (Chap. 19)
Joseph W. Schulenberg Assistant Clinical Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois
at Chicago (Chap. 7)
Leslie D. Scott Chief Engineer, Tank Industry Consultants, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana (Chap. 22)
Onur Seker, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8)
Jay Shen, Ph.D., PE, SE Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa (Chap. 8)
Tony Shkurti Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Robert Smilowitz, Ph.D., PE Senior Principal, Thornton Tomasetti (Chap. 28)
Sri Sritharan Wilkinson Chair of Interdisciplinary Engineering and Professor of Structural
Engineering, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa (Chap. 12)
Eric Stone Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Jules Van de Pas Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Greenwood Village, Colorado (Chap. 17)
Thomas Williamson, PE Retired Vice President of Quality and Technical Services, APA–The
Engineered Wood Association (Chap. 14)
Cheng Yu, Ph.D., PE University of North Texas, Denton, Texas (Chap. 9)

Preface
As a practicing structural engineer and as an educator, I have always believed that structural
engineers and architects should have knowledge of the design of the various types of structures
and of their components, various analysis and design methods, the technologies used in this
analysis, and the design and production of engineering drawings. The Structural Engineering
Handbook provides established engineers, young engineers preparing for license exams, archi-
tects, and civil engineering students a comprehensive reference on the planning and design of
a variety of engineered structures. It also gives the designer the information likely needed for
all design phases.
The handbook covers various types of structures, such as tall buildings, industrial buildings,
bridges including railroad bridges, thin-shell structures, arches, cable-supported roofs, steel
tanks for liquids, retaining structures, blast-resistant structures, bins and silos for granular
material, steel transmission towers and poles, and chimneys. Structural loads for the various
types of structures are also covered, and there is comprehensive coverage of classical structural
analysis methods, finite-element analysis, and computer applications in structural engineering.
Additionally, earthquake-resistant design has been covered based on the most recent codes
and standards. Design of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, structural steel, cold-formed
steel, masonry, wood, and aluminium are covered. A chapter on soil mechanics, soil exploration,
and foundation design is also provided. Design against fatigue and fracture is covered for concrete,
composites, and steel.
In this fifth edition, all chapters have been rewritten, some chapters in previous versions
of the handbook have been removed due to recent developments in design or construction
practices, and 12 new chapters have been added. The new chapters cover structural loads,
fracture mechanics of concrete and composites, railroad bridges, health monitoring of struc-
tures, building information modeling (BIM), structural fire engineering, progressive collapse
and blast-resistant design, strengthening of concrete using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP),
structural glass, design of foundations for machines, value engineering, and stone cladding.
The 33 chapters of the handbook have been written by 66 contributors. They have pre-
sented their material in a ready-to-use form with flowcharts to show step-by-step procedures
wherever possible. Therefore, derivations of formulas are omitted in all but a few instances,
and many worked-out examples are given. Background information, descriptive matter, and
explanatory material have been condensed or omitted. Because each chapter treats a subject
that is broad enough to fill a book by itself, the contributors have had to select the material that,
in their judgment, is likely to be the most useful to the greatest number of users. References
and sources of additional material are noted for most of the topics that could not be treated
in sufficient detail.
I am very grateful to the contributors for their tremendous efforts in writing, reviewing,
and editing their work, and for their patience during the time it has taken to complete the
fifth edition.
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., P.Eng.
University of Illinois at Chicago
xix

Structural
Engineering
Handbook

Chapter 1
Structural Loads
BY
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE, PE, P.Eng. University of Illinois at Chicago
DAVID A. FANELLA, Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
1.1 INTRODUCTION a building or structure and do not include construction loads, environ-
mental loads (such as wind loads, snow loads, rain loads, earthquake
Applicable nominal loads on a structure are determined from the
loads, and flood loads), or dead loads (IBC 202).
general building code under which the project is to be designed and
IBC Table 1607.1 contains nominal design values of uniformly dis-
constructed. Chapter 16 of the IBC (Ref. 1) contains the minimum mag-
tributed and concentrated live loads Lo as a function of occupancy or
nitudes of some nominal loads and references ASCE/SEI 7 (Ref. 2) for
use. The occupancy description listed in the table is not necessarily
others. For a specific project, the governing local building code should
group-specific (occupancy groups are defined in IBC Chapter 3). For
be consulted for any variances from the IBC or ASCE/SEI 7.
example, an office building with a Business Group B classification may
It is common for nominal loads to be referred to as service loads.
These loads are multiplied by load factors in the strength design
method. Exceptions are the wind load effect W and the earthquake load Table 1.1 Summary of Loads Addressed in the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7
effect E: Both are defined to be strength-level loads where the load fac-
Notation Load Code section
tor is equal to 1.0.
Table 1.1 contains a list of loads from the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7. D Dead load IBC 1606
Comprehensive information on the determination of structural loads Di Weight of ice Chap. 10 of ASCE/SEI 7
can be found in Ref. 3. E Combined effect of horizontal and IBC 1613 and
vertical earthquake-induced forces ASCE/SEI 12.4.2
as defined in ASCE/SEI 12.4.2
1.2 DEAD LOADS
Em Maximum seismic load effect of IBC 1613 and
Nominal dead loads D are the actual weights of construction materials horizontal and vertical forces as ASCE/SEI 12.4.3
and fixed service equipment that are attached to or supported by the set forth in ASCE/SEI 12.4.3
building or structure. Specific examples of such loads are listed under F Load due to fluids with well-defined -------
the definition of “dead load” in IBC 202. pressures and maximum heights
Dead loads are considered to be permanent loads because their mag- Fa Flood load IBC 1612
nitude remains essentially constant over time. H Load due to lateral earth pressures, IBC 1610 (soil lateral loads)
Superimposed dead loads are permanent loads other than the weights ground water pressure, or pressure
of the structural members and include the following: floor finishes of bulk materials
and/or topping; walls; ceilings; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning L Live load, except roof live load, IBC 1607
(HVAC) and other service equipment; fixed partitions; and cladding. including any permitted live
Minimum design dead loads for various types of common con- load reduction
struction components are provided in ASCE/SEI Table C3.1-1a, and Lr Roof live load including any IBC 1607
minimum densities for common construction materials are given in permitted live load reduction
ASCE/SEI Table C3.1-2. In cases where information on dead load is R Rain load IBC 1611
unavailable, values of dead loads used in design must be approved by S Snow load IBC 1608 and Chapter 7
the building official (IBC 1606.2). of ASCE/SEI 7
T Cumulative effects of self-straining See ASCE/SEI 2.3.4 and
forces and effects 2.4.4
1.3 LIVE LOADS W Load due to wind pressure IBC 1609 and Chapters 26
1.3.1 General to 31 of ASCE/SEI 7
Live loads are transient in nature and vary in magnitude over the life Wi Wind-on-ice load IBC 1614 and Chapter 10
of ASCE/SEI 7
of a structure. These loads are produced by the use and occupancy of
01_Mahamid_ch01_p001-060.indd 1 26/03/20 4:50 PM

2 CHAPTER ONE
also have storage areas that may warrant live loads of 125 or 250 psf (6.0 or In SI Units
12.0 kN/m2) depending on the type of storage, which are greater than
 4.75 
the prescribed office live loads. Structural members are designed on the L = Lo  0.25 +
basis of the maximum effects due to application of either a uniform load  K LL AT 
or a concentrated load and need not be designed for the effects of both In this equation, KLL is the live load element factor given in IBC
loads applied at the same time. The building official must approve live Table 1607.11.1, and AT is the tributary area supported by the member
loads that are not specifically listed in the table. in square feet (square meters).
Partitions that can be relocated (i.e., those types that are not perma- The live load element factor KLL converts the tributary area AT into
nently attached to the structure) are considered to be live loads in office an influence area, which is considered to be the adjacent floor area from
and other buildings. A live load equal to at least 15 psf (0.72 kN/m2) which the member derives its load. In other words,
must be included for movable partitions if the nominal uniform floor
live load is less than 80 psf (3.8 kN/m2). KLL = influence area/tributary area
IBC Table 1607.1 prescribes a minimum roof live load of 20 psf
(0.96 kN/m2) for typical roof structures; larger live loads are required Figure 1.1 illustrates how the reduction multiplier 0.25 + 15 / ( K LL AT )
for roofs used as gardens or places of assembly. varies with respect to the influence area KLLAT. Included in the figure
ASCE Table 4.3-1 also contains minimum uniform and concentrated are the minimum influence area of 400 square feet and the limits of 0.5
live loads, and some of these values differ from those in IBC Table and 0.4, which are the maximum permitted reductions for members
1607.1. ASCE Tables C4.3-1 and C4.3-2 can be used as a guide in estab- supporting one floor and two or more floors, respectively.
lishing live loads for some commonly encountered occupancies. One-Way Slabs
1.3.2 Reduction in Live Loads Live load reduction on one-way slabs is permitted provided that the
Because live loads are transient in nature, the probability that a struc- tributary area, AT, does not exceed an area equal to the slab span times a
tural member will be subjected to the full effects from nominal live width normal to the span of 1.5 times the slab span (i.e., an area with an
loads decreases as the area supported by the member increases. Except aspect ratio of 1.5). The live load will be somewhat higher for a one-way
for uniform live loads on roofs, the minimum uniformly distributed live slab with an aspect ratio of 1.5 than for a two-way slab with the same
loads Lo in IBC Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced in accordance aspect ratio. This recognizes the benefits of higher redundancy that
with the methods in IBC 1607.11.1 or 1607.11.2. The general method results from two-way action.
of live load reduction in IBC 1607.11.1 is also given in ASCE/SEI 4.7. ASCE/SEI 4.7.6 has the same requirements for live load reduction on
Reduction of roof live loads must conform to IBC 1607.13.2. one-way slabs as that in IBC 1607.11.1.1.
1.3.3 General Method of Live Load Reduction Heavy Live Loads

IBC Equation (16-23) can be used to obtain a reduced live load L for According to IBC 1607.11.1.2, live loads that are greater than 100 psf
members that support an area KLLAT ≥ 400 ft2 (37.2 m2): must not be reduced except for the following:
1. Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permit-
 15  ted to be reduced by a maximum of 20 percent, but L must not be less
L = Lo  0.25 +
 K LL AT  than that calculated by IBC 1607.11.1.
2. In occupancies other than storage, additional live load reduction
≥ 0.50 Lo for members supporting one floor is permitted if it can be shown by a registered design professional that
≥ 0.40 Lo for members supporting two or more floors such a reduction is warranted.
Figure 1.1 Reduction multiplier for live load in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1.

STRUCTURAL LOADS 3
In buildings that support relatively large live loads, such as storage Group A (Assembly) Occupancies
buildings, several adjacent bays may be fully loaded; as such, live loads Due to the nature of assembly occupancies, there is a high probability
should not be reduced in those situations. Data in actual buildings that the entire floor is subjected to full uniform live load. According to
indicate that the floor in any story is seldom loaded with more than Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1, live load reduction is not permitted in
80 percent of the nominal live load. Thus, a maximum live load reduc- assembly areas, except for follow spot, projection, and control rooms,
tion of 20 percent is permitted for members that support two or more unless specific exceptions of IBC 1607.11 apply.
floors, such as columns and walls. Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 1.2 can be used to determine basic uniform
Passenger Vehicle Garages live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1.
The live load in passenger vehicle garages is not permitted to be reduced,
except for members supporting two or more floors; in such cases, the 1.3.4 Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction
maximum reduction is 20 percent, but L must not be less than that An alternative method of uniform live load reduction, which is based on
calculated by IBC 1607.11.1 (IBC 1607.11.1.3). Thus, live load reduction provisions in the 1997 Uniform Building Code (Ref. 4), is given in IBC
is not permitted except for members that support two or more floors. 1607.11.2. IBC Equation 16-24 can be used to obtain a reduction factor
FLOWCHART 1
Basic Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)
No Yes
Is Lo > 100 psf?
Live load reduction is not permitted*
No Is the member a one-way Yes

slab?
AT ≤ 1.5(slab span)2
No Is the structure a passenger Yes

vehicle garage?
Live load reduction is not permitted**
No Is the structure classified as a Yes

Group A occupancy?
Live load reduction is not permitted†
A
* See IBC 1607.11.1.2 for two exceptions to this requirement.
** Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be
reduced by a maximum of 20 percent (IBC 1607.11.1.3).
†
Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control
rooms are permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1.2 Basic uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1 (Flowchart 1).

4 CHAPTER ONE
FLOWCHART 1
Basic Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)
(continued)
No Is the member a roof Yes

member?
Live load reduction is not permitted

except as specified in IBC 1607.13.2
No Yes
Is KLLAT < 400 sq ft?
15
L = Lo 0.25 +
KLLAT
≥ 0.50Lo for members supporting one floor

≥ 0.40Lo for members supporting two or more floors
Figure 1.2 (Continued)
R for members that support an area greater than or equal to 150 square 1 for At ≤ 200 square feet
feet where the live load is less than or equal to 100 psf. 
Flowchart 2 shown in Fig. 1.3 can be used to determine alternative R1 =  1.2 − 0.0001At for 200 square feet < At < 600 square feet
uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2.  0.6 for At ≥ 600 square feet

1.3.5 Roof Loads
1 for F ≤ 4
In general, roofs are to be designed to resist dead, live, wind, and, where 
applicable, rain, snow, and earthquake loads. A minimum roof live load R2 =  1.2 − 0.05 F for 4 < F < 12
of 20 psf is prescribed in IBC Table 1607.1 for typical roof structures,  0.6 for F ≥ 12

while larger live loads are required for roofs used as gardens or places
of assembly. At = tributary area (span length multiplied by effective width) in
IBC 1607.13.2 permits nominal roof live loads on flat, pitched, and square feet supported by a member
curved roofs and awnings and canopies other than fabric construction F = the number of inches of rise per foot for a sloped roof
supported by a skeleton frame to be reduced in accordance with IBC = the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32 for an arch
Equation 16-26: or dome
Lr = Lo R1R2 ; 12 ≤ Lr ≤ 20 No live load reduction is permitted for members supporting less than
or equal to 200 square feet as well as for roof slopes less than or equal
where Lo = unreduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof to 4:12. In no case is the reduced roof live load to be taken less than
projection supported by the member 12 psf. The minimum load determined by this equation accounts for
Lr = reduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof occasional loading due to the presence of workers and materials during
projection supported by the member repair operations.

STRUCTURAL LOADS 5
FLOWCHART 2
Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)
No Yes
Is Lo > 100 psf?
Live load reduction is not permitted*
No Is the member a one-way Yes

slab?
A ≤ 0.5(slab span)2
No Is the structure a passenger Yes

vehicle garage?
Live load reduction is not permitted**
No Is the structure classified as a Yes

Group A occupancy?
Live load reduction is not permitted†
A
* Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced
by a maximum of 20 percent [IBC 1607.11.2(1); also see exception in that section].
** Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by
a maximum of 20 percent [IBC 1607.11.2(2)].
†
Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control rooms are
permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1.3 Alternative uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2 (Flowchart 2).
Live loads are permitted to be reduced on areas of occupiable roofs elements must also be designed for the combined effects of snow and
using the provisions of IBC 1607.11 for floor live loads (IBC 1607.13.3). wind loads in accordance with IBC 1608 and 1609.
Live loads that are greater than or equal to 100 psf at areas of roofs
that are classified as Group A (assembly) occupancies are not permit-
ted to be reduced unless specific exceptions of IBC 1607.11 apply (see 1.3.6 Crane Loads
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1). Design provisions for runway beams that support moving bridge cranes
A minimum roof live load of 20 psf is required in unoccupied land- and monorail cranes are given in IBC 1607.14. In general, the sup-
scaped areas on roofs (IBC 1607.13.3.1). The weight of landscaping port structure of the crane must be designed for the maximum wheel
material is considered a dead load and must be determined based on load, vertical impact, and horizontal impact as a simultaneous load
the saturation level of the soil. combination.
A minimum roof live load of 5 psf is required for awnings and A typical top-running bridge crane is depicted in Fig. 1.4. The trol-
canopies in accordance with IBC Table 1607.1 (IBC 1607.13.4). Such ley and hoist move along the crane bridge, which is supported by the

6 CHAPTER ONE
FLOWCHART 2
Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)
(continued)
No Yes
Is A < 150 sq ft?
L = Lo[1 – (R/100)]
R = 0.08(A – 150)
40 percent for horizontal members

≤ smallest of 60 percent for vertical members
23.1(1 + D/Lo)
Figure 1.3 (Continued)
is maximum; generally, this occurs when the trolley is moved as close to

the supporting members as possible.
The maximum wheel loads must be increased by the percentages
given in IBC 1607.14.2 to account for the vertical impact force that is
caused by the starting and stopping movement of the suspended weight
from the crane and by the movement of the crane along the rails.
A lateral force that acts perpendicular to the crane runway beams is
generated by the transverse movement of the crane, that is, by move-
ment that occurs perpendicular to the runway beam (see Fig. 1.5).
According to IBC 1607.14.3, the magnitude of this load on crane
Figure 1.4 Top-running bridge crane.
runway beams and support columns. The entire crane assemblage can
also move along the length of the runway beams.
The maximum wheel loads that are to be used in the design of the
supporting members are due to the weight of the bridge plus the sum
of the rated capacity and the weight of the trolley. The trolley is to be
positioned on its runway at the location where the resulting load effect Figure 1.5 Crane loads on a runway beam.

STRUCTURAL LOADS 7
runway beams with electronically powered trolleys is to be taken equal 2. The additional depth of water on the undeflected roof above the
to 20 percent of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and the weight inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design flow (dh).
of the hoist and trolley. It is assumed that this load acts horizontally at The static head ds is the distance from the primary drain to the sec-
the traction surface of the runway beam and that it is distributed to the ondary drain and is determined in the design of the combined drainage
runway beam and supporting structure (such as columns) based on the system.
lateral stiffness of the members. The rainwater depth dh (which is also referred to as the hydraulic
A longitudinal force is generated on a crane runway beam by acceler- head) is a function of the rainfall intensity i at the site, the area of roof
ation, deceleration, and braking of the crane bridge beam (see Fig. 1.5). A that is serviced by that drainage system, and the size of the drainage
This load is taken as 10 percent of the maximum wheel loads of the system.
crane and is assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface of the IBC Figure 1611.1 provides the rainfall rates for a storm of 1-hour
runway beam in either direction parallel to the beam (IBC 1607.14.4). duration that has a 100-year return period. These rates have been deter-
Bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges are exempt from this provision. mined by a statistical analysis of weather records. Both the primary and
Reference 5 contains additional information on the determination of the secondary drainage systems must be designed for the prescribed
crane loads for industrial buildings. rainfall rate (see Section 1108 of the IPC on how to size secondary
drainage systems). It is always good practice to check with local build-
1.3.7 Interior Walls and Partitions ing authorities to ensure that the proper rainfall rate is used in design.
Interior walls and partitions (including their finishing materials) that are In general, dh depends on the type and size of the secondary drainage
greater than 6 feet in height are required to be designed for a horizontal system and the flow rate Q it must handle. The following equation from
load of 5 psf (IBC 1607.15). This requirement is intended to provide C8.5 can be used to determine the flow rate through a single secondary
sufficient strength and durability of the wall framing and its finished drainage system:
construction when subjected to nominal impact loads, such as those
from moving furniture or equipment and from HVAC pressurization. Q = 0.0104 Ai
Requirements for fabric partitions that exceed 6 feet in height are In this equation, Q is in gallons per minute, A is in square feet, and i is
given in IBC 1607.15.1. A horizontal load equal to 5 psf is to be applied in inches per hour. The constant 0.0104 is obtained based on the units
to the partition framing. Additionally, a 40-pound load must be applied associated with the variables in the equation:
over an 8-in.-diameter area of the fabric face at a height of 54 in. above
the floor. This condition is meant to simulate the load caused by a per- in. 1 ft 7.48 gal 1 hr
Constant = ft 2 × × × × = 0.0104
son leaning against the fabric using their hand as the point of contact. hr 12 in. ft 3 60 min
The following equations relate the flow rate Q in gallons per minute to
1.4 RAIN LOADS the hydraulic head dh in inches for channel- and closed-type scuppers
1.4.1 General (see Fig. 1.6 and Ref. 7):
IBC 1611 and ASCE/SEI Chapter 8 contain requirements for design Channel-type scuppers : Q = 2.9 bdh1.5 when h ≥ dh
rain loads. The nominal rain load R is determined based on the amount
of water that can accumulate on a roof assuming that the primary roof Closed-type scuppers : Q = 2.9 b dh1.5 − (dh − h)1.5  when h < dh
drainage system is blocked. When this occurs, water will rise above the
primary roof drain until it reaches the elevation of the roof edge or the where b and h are the width and depth of the scupper, respectively, in
secondary drainage system. The depth of water above the primary drain inches. Note that the channel-type scuppers equation is also applicable
at the design rainfall intensity is based on the flow rate of the secondary to closed-type scuppers when h ≥ dh.
system, which varies widely depending on the type of secondary system
that is used.
The type and location of the secondary drains and the amount of
rainwater above their inlets under design conditions must be known
in order to determine R. Coordination among the design team (archi-
tectural, structural, and plumbing) is very important when establishing
rain loads.
Chapter 11 of the International Plumbing Code® (IPC®) contains
requirements on the design of roof drainage systems, including the
required size and number of drains based on the area that is serviced
(Ref. 6). Rainfall rates are given for various cities in the United States
in Appendix B of the IPC. These rates are based on the maps in IPC
Figure 1106.1, which have the same origin as the maps in the IBC (see
the following discussion).
1.4.2 Design Rain Load

IBC Equation 16-35 or ASCE/SEI Equation 8.3-1 is used to determine
the rain load R:
R = 5.2(ds + dh )
The constant in this equation is equal to the unit load per inch depth
of rainwater, that is, the density of water divided by 12 in. per foot:
62.4/12 = 5.2 psf per inch.
The total depth of rainwater on a roof that is to be used in determin-
ing R consists of two parts:
1. The depth of water on the undeflected roof up to the inlet of
the secondary drainage system when the primary drainage system is
blocked (ds). Figure 1.6 Roof scuppers.

8 CHAPTER ONE
Figure 1.7 Water depths, ds and dh, in accordance with IBC 1611 for typical perimeter scuppers.
ASCE/SEI Table C8-1 gives flow rates in gallons per minute and cor- 1.4.4 Controlled Drainage
responding hydraulic heads for circular drain, channel-type scupper, In some jurisdictions, the rate of rainwater flow from roofs into storm
and closed-type scupper drainage systems. drains is limited. Controlled-flow drains are typically utilized in such
Figure 1.7 illustrates the rainwater depths ds and dh that are to be used cases and are designed in accordance with IPC 1110 (Ref. 6). The drain-
in determining R for the case of a scupper secondary drainage system, age flow rate provided by the primary drainage system (controlled-flow
while Fig. 1.8 illustrates these water depths for a typical interior circular drains) is less than the rainfall rate and water intentionally accumulate
secondary drainage system. on the roof.
Where buildings are configured such that rainwater will not collect According to IBC 1611.3 and ASCE/SEI 8.5, a secondary drainage
on the roof, no rain load is required in the design of the roof, and a sec- system at a higher elevation must be provided when controlled-flow
ondary drainage system is not needed. What is important to note is that drains are used as the primary drainage system; this is meant to limit the
the provisions of IBC 1611 and ASCE/SEI Chapter 8 must be considered accumulation of water on the roof above that elevation. Note that con-
wherever the potential exists that water may accumulate on the roof. trolled drainage hardware must not be used on the secondary drainage
1.4.3 Ponding Instability
system because the secondary system is the backup in case the primary
system is blocked.
In situations where roofs do not have adequate slope or have insufficient Roofs must be designed in such cases to support the stormwater
and/or blocked drains to remove water due to rain or melting snow, temporarily supported on them, similar to traditional roof drainage
water will tend to pond in low areas, which will cause the roof structure systems.
to deflect. These low areas will subsequently attract even more water, Ponding instability in accordance with IBC 1611.2 or ASCE/SEI 8.4
leading to additional deflection. Sufficient stiffness must be provided must also be checked.
so that deflections will not continually increase until instability occurs,
resulting in localized failure.
The provisions in ASCE/SEI 8.4 are provided to help ensure that 1.5 SOIL LATERAL LOADS
susceptible bays have adequate stiffness to preclude progressive deflec-
1.5.1 General
tion and adequate strength to resist the ponding load plus the applicable
design rain load (IBC 1611.2). Susceptible bays are defined in ASCE/SEI Foundation walls of a building or structure and retaining walls must be
8.4 and illustrated in ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-1. designed to resist the lateral loads caused by adjacent soil. A geotechni-
ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-2 shows a roof with interior primary drains cal investigation is usually undertaken to determine the magnitude of
and perimeter overflow (secondary) drains. All bays are suscep- the soil pressure. In cases where the results of such an investigation are
tible in this situation regardless of the roof slope because water can be not available, the lateral soil loads in IBC Table 1610.1 are to be used
impounded on the roof when the primary drainage system is blocked. (similar design lateral loads are provided in ASCE/SEI Table 3.2-1).
Figure 1.8 Water depths, ds and dh, in accordance with IBC 1611 for typical interior drains.

STRUCTURAL LOADS 9
The design lateral soil load, H, depends on the type of soil and the In certain parts of the United States, atmospheric ice loads must be
boundary conditions at the top of the wall. Walls that are restricted to considered in the design of all structures and structural elements that
move at the top are to be designed for the at-rest pressures tabulated in are exposed to the elements. Chapter 10 of ASCE/SEI 7-16 contains
IBC Table 1610.1, while walls that are free to deflect and rotate at the top provisions on how to determine ice loads due to freezing rain on a
are to be designed for the active pressures in that table. variety of structural shapes, objects, and configurations as a function of
Foundation walls that do not extend more than 8 feet below grade the design ice thickness.
and are laterally supported at the top by flexible diaphragms are permit-
ted to be designed for the active pressure values given in the table. 1.6.2 Flat Roof Snow Loads
Lateral soil pressures are not provided for the expansive soils identi- Once a ground snow load has been established, a flat roof snow load, pf ,
fied by Note b in IBC Table 1610.1 because these soils have unpredict- is determined by Equation 7.3-1 of ASCE/SEI 7:
able characteristics. These soils absorb water and tend to shrink and
swell to a higher degree than other soils. As these soils swell, they are pf = 0.7CeCt Is pg
capable of exerting relatively large forces on the soil-retaining structure. The 0.7 factor in the equation above is a conservative ground-to-roof
As such, expansive soils are not suitable as backfill (see Note b). snow load conversion factor. Ce is the exposure factor, accounts for the
In addition to lateral pressures from soil, walls must be designed wind at the site, and is related to the type of terrain and the exposure of
to resist the effects of hydrostatic pressure due to undrained backfill the roof. Values of Ce are given in ASCE/SEI 7 Table 7.3-1 as a function
(unless a drainage system is installed) and to any surcharge loads that of the surface roughness category and the type of roof exposure. Surface
can result from sloping backfills or from driveways or parking spaces roughness categories B, C, and D are defined in 26.7 for wind design
that are close to a wall. Submerged or saturated soil pressures include (see Table 1.2).
the weight of the buoyant soil plus the hydrostatic pressure.
ASCE/SEI 3.2.2 contains requirements for the design of any hori- Table 1.2 Surface Roughness Categories
zontal element supported directly on soil, such as slabs on grade and
basement slabs. Full hydrostatic pressure must be applied over the entire Surface roughness
area of such elements where applicable. Elements that are supported by category Description
expansive soils must be designed to accommodate the upward loads B Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
caused by the expansive soil, or the expansive soil is to be removed or with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the
stabilized around and beneath the structure. size of single-family dwellings or larger
C Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
generally less than 30 feet; this category includes flat
1.6 SNOW AND ICE LOADS open country and grasslands
1.6.1 Introduction D Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces; this category
includes smooth mudflats, salt flats, and unbroken ice
Structural members that are a part of roofs, balconies, canopies, and
similar structures that are exposed to the environment must be designed
for the effects of snow loads in those geographic areas where snowfall Roof exposures are defined as fully exposed, partially exposed, and
can occur. sheltered (see Footnote a in Table 7.3-1). A fully exposed condition
Loads on buildings and other structures due to snow are determined exists where a roof is exposed on all sides with no shelter provided by
based on the anticipated ground snow load, the occupancy of the build- adjoining terrain, higher structures, or trees. Roofs with large mechani-
ing, the exposure, the thermal resistance of the roof structure, and the cal equipment, parapets that extend above the height of the balanced
shape and slope of the roof. Partial loading, unbalanced snow loads snow load, or other similar obstructions are not considered to be fully
due to roof configuration, drift loads on lower or adjacent roofs and on exposed because such conditions can provide some shelter to the wind.
projections such as parapets and mechanical equipment, sliding snow Obstructions are defined as providing shelter when they are located
loads, and rain-on-snow loads must also be considered when designing within a distance of 10ho from the roof, where ho is the height of the
for the effects from snow. obstruction above the roof (see Footnote b in Table 7.3-1). The conifers
IBC 1608.1 requires that design snow loads be determined by the pro- depicted in Fig. 1.9 provide shelter to the building roof if the distance,
visions of Chapter 7 of ASCE/SEI 7. In-depth information is given in the x, between the centerline of the building and the tree line is less than or
following sections on these provisions along with pertinent background equal to 10ho. In cases where deciduous trees that are leafless in winter
information on the methodologies that are utilized. surround the site, the fully exposed category is applicable.
Figure 1.9 Sheltered roof exposures for snow loads.

10 CHAPTER ONE
Partially exposed roof exposures are to be used where fully exposed 1.6.4 Sloped Roof Snow Loads
and sheltered conditions do not apply. This is generally the most common Design snow loads for all structures are based on the sloped roof snow
roof exposure. load, ps, which is determined by the equation
Similar to surface roughness categories, a roof exposure condition must
represent the conditions that are expected during the life of the building. ps = Cs pf
Ct is the thermal factor; it accounts for the amount of heat loss
through the roof. Values of Ct are given in ASCE/SEI 7 Table 7.3-2 as a The slope factor, Cs, depends on the slope and temperature of the roof,
function of the thermal condition. Like terrain categories and exposure the presence or absence of obstructions, and the degree of slipperiness
conditions, the thermal condition that is chosen must represent the of the roof surface.
anticipated conditions during winters for the life of the building. Figure 7.4-1 of ASCE/SEI 7 contains graphs of Cs for warm and cold
Is is the importance factor; it adjusts the snow load based on the roof conditions, and C7.4 contains equations for Cs. Flowchart 4 in
occupancy of the structure. Risk categories for buildings and other Fig. 1.11 shows the procedure for finding the roof slope factor snow
structures are defined in IBC Table 1604.5, and values of Is are given in load, and Flowchart 5 in Fig. 1.12 shows the procedure for finding the
ASCE/SEI Table 1.5-2. sloped roof snow load.
1.6.3 Minimum Snow Loads for Low-Slope Roofs 1.6.5 Partial Loading
ASCE/SEI 7.3.4 contains provisions for minimum snow loads, pm, for The partial loading provisions of 7.5 of ASCE/SEI 7 must be satisfied
low-slope roofs, which are defined as follows: for continuous roof framing systems and all other roof systems where
• Monoslope, hip, and gable roofs with slopes less than 15 degrees. removal of snow load on one span (by wind or thermal effects) causes
• Curved roofs where the vertical angle from the eaves to the crown an increase in stress or deflection in an adjacent span. For example, an
is less than 10 degrees. increase in bending moment and deflection will occur in the span of a
Flowchart 3 shown in Fig. 1.10 shows the procedure for finding the cantilevered roof member that is adjacent to the cantilever span where
flat roof snow load. half the snow load is removed.
FLOWCHART 3
Flat Roof Snow Load, pf *
Determine ground snow load pg

from Fig. 7.2-1 or Fig. 1608.2 for
conterminous U.S. and Table 7.2-1
or Table 1608.2 for Alaska**
Determine exposure factor Ce from

Table 7.3-1 (7.3.1)
Determine thermal factor Ct from

Table 7.3-2 (7.3.2)
Determine importance factor Is

using IBC Table 1604.5 and
Table 1.5-2 (7.3.3)
Determine flat roof snow load

pf = 0.7CeCt Is pg by Eq. 7.3-1†
* A flat roof is defined as a roof with a slope that is less than or equal to 5 degrees.
** “CS” in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to
determine pg. Numbers in parentheses represent the upper elevation limit in feet for
the ground snow load values given below. Site-specific studies are required at
elevations not covered in the maps.
†
Minimum snow loads for low-slope roofs pm are specified in 7.3.4. Low-slope roofs are
defined in 7.3.4.
Figure 1.10 Flat roof snow load (Flowchart 3).

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00_Mahamid_FM_pi-xxii.indd 1 26/03/20 4:41 PM

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New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London

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Structural Engineering Handbook, Fifth Edition

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Sponsoring Editor Copy Editors

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Chapter 1. Structural Loads Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2. Structural Analysis Aly M. Said, Anas S. Issa,

Chapter 3. The Finite-Element Method Craig D. Foster,

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3.9 Postprocessing—Solving for Strain, Stress, and Other Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Chapter 4. Computer Applications in Structural Engineering

Chapter 5. Earthquake-Resistant Design S. K. Ghosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Chapter 6. Fracture and Fatigue Kedar S. Kirane, Zdeněk P. Bažant,

Chapter 7. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Joseph W. Schulenberg,

Chapter 8. Design of Structural Steel Members Jay Shen,

Chapter 9. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

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9.3 Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Chapter 10. Aluminum Structural Design J. Randolph Kissell . . . . . . . . . 321

Chapter 11. Design of Reinforced-Concrete Structural Members

Chapter 12. Design of Prestressed-Concrete Structural Members

Chapter 13. Masonry Construction Richard Bennett,

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13.5 Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Chapter 14. Timber Structures Thomas Williamson,

Chapter 15. Bridge Engineering Soliman Khudeira, Tony Shkurti,

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Chapter 16. Railroad Bridge Design Mohsen Issa,

Chapter 18. Tall Buildings Charles Besjak, Brian McElhatten,

Chapter 19. Thin-Shell Concrete Structures Edmond Saliklis,

Chapter 20. Cable-Supported Roofs Paul A. Gossen,

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Chapter 21. Reinforced-Concrete Silos Ramez B. Gayed,

Chapter 22. Design of Steel Tanks Leslie D. Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

Chapter 23. Electrical Transmission and Substation

Chapter 24. Chimneys Shu-Jin Fang, Victor Bochicchio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741

Chapter 25. Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing

Chapter 26. Building Information Modeling (BIM) for

Chapter 27. Structural Fire Engineering V. K. R. Kodur, M. Z. Naser . . . . . 789

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27.7 Rational Design Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798

Chapter 28. Disproportionate Collapse and Blast-Resistant

Chapter 29. FRP Strengthening of Reinforced-Concrete

Chapter 30. Structural Glass and Glazing Rui de S. Camposinhos . . . . . . 833

Chapter 31. Machine Foundations O. Salem Ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

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31.16 Three-Dimensional Finite-Element Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868

Chapter 32. Value Methodology Muthiah Kasi,

Chapter 33. Stone Cladding Rui de S. Camposinhos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

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Amin Ghali Professor Emeritus, University of Calgary (Chap. 21)

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1.3.3 General Method of Live Load Reduction Heavy Live Loads

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