Electrodynamical modelling of
bidirectional fuel cell systems for
HIL simulations of combined grid systems
Martin Griese, Thomas Pawlik, Thomas Schulte, Jürgen Maas
Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences
IES – Intelligent Energy Systems
Liebigstraße 87, 32657 Lemgo, Germany
Abstract— For investigating combined grid systems including
electrical, thermal and chemical grids, a scientific approach
based on Hardware-in-the-loop simulation is carried out where
models as virtual energy components are coupled with
experimental facilities. In this contribution, a bidirectional fuel
cell system is described in detail as a virtual energy component
considering the bidirectional fuel cell, the power inverter and the
local management. For modelling the bidirectional cell, the
electrochemical domain is considered by a physical-based
approach in a first step. Common models for unidirectional fuel
cells or electrolysis cells are discussed regarding the applicability
for bidirectional cells. Afterwards, the DC-DC converter as part
of the overall power inverter is considered for modelling. A novel
averaged model for the dual active bridge based on the method
by Sanders and Verghese is presented. Finally, the overall model
and local management of such systems are discussed.
Keywords— Hardware-in-the-loop simulation, modelling of
energy components, bidirectional fuel cell, power electronics,
averaged model
I. INTRODUCTION
The increasing shortage of fossil fuels as well as the
continuing climate change leads to an increasing relevance of
renewable energy. The current energy system will be
transformed from a centralized generation by conventional
power plants to a distributed energy system mainly consisting
of renewable energy generators, [1], [2]. While centralized
energy systems are approved during the past decades, the
control and structural expansion of a decentralized energy
system are rather different due to volatility of the renewable
energy and progressive structural changes.
Small and medium energy suppliers, like municipal energy
supplier, are no longer just operators of local grids, but also
energy producers for electrical and thermal energy.
Furthermore, such small suppliers are already participating in
the balancing energy market. Private households and industries
are also no longer just consumers of energy, but also energy
producers by photovoltaic systems for example. All mentioned
parties are taking new roles in the fast changing, highly
competitive and legally regulated energy market. From the
economic point of view, it becomes obvious that new
marketing and remuneration strategies are required to reach the
l-)))
turnaround in energy policy with an increasing participation of
the involved suppliers and consumers.
From the technical point of view, efficient mechanisms for
compensating the fluctuating energies are required. The direct
storage of electrical energy is limited due to geographical,
topological and geological boundary conditions (e.g. pumped-
storage plants) or high invests and saving costs (e.g. battery
based storage). Therefore, other compensating mechanisms are
also under investigation and partially already utilized. Beside
dynamic controllable power plants in a small-scale, the
coupling between various energy grids and the adaption of the
consumption behavior by smart grids are promising
approaches, [3].
The combined heat and power (CHP) technique is well-
established and used for an efficient utilization of primary
energy carriers (mostly natural gas and biogas). Especially,
small and medium-sized CHP plants are suitable for
compensation effects in electrical grids due to their good
controllability. Since electricity and heat generation of CHP
facilities are coupled, further mechanisms are required for
providing appropriate thermal and electric energy
simultaneously. Beside the conversion of electrical energy in
thermal energy (Power-to-Heat), the bidirectional coupling
between different forms of energy is possible. The conversion
of electrical energy into chemical energy using Power-to-Gas
technologies is a novel and frequently discussed approach, [4].
Power-to-gas (P2G) units usually comprise electrolysis of
water which decomposes water into hydrogen. Two currently
discussed cell types for electrolysis and fuel cells are based on
proton exchange membranes (PEM) and on solid oxide cells
(SOC). PEM cells operate at low temperatures requiring less
thermal energy but offering a lower electrical efficiency. A
higher electrical efficiency can be obtained by using SOC cells
operated at higher temperatures yielding a higher thermal
energy demand, [5]. Considering a combined grid system, the
overall efficiency, comprising the thermal, chemical and
electrical quantities, is relevant and need to be investigated to
compare both cell types, [6]. Basically, a bidirectional
operation of such fuel cells is possible, [7]. In contrast to
battery based storages, such bidirectional cells are promising
energy converters for long-term storages. The produced
hydrogen could be stored directly which requires additional
energy for compression due to the low volumetric energy

density of hydrogen. Alternatively, it can be converted to a
fluid with a higher volumetric density, e.g. methane. In this
case the widely established public gas grid can be used for
storage which provides a very high capacitance.
An additional option for compensation of fluctuations is a
systematic control and adaption of the energy consumption by
private households and industry. On the one hand the total
energy demand is optimized by energetic optimizations of
technical devices while on the other hand the energy peaks are
reduced by using controllable loads and buffers which can be
disconnected or controlled depending on the available energy,
[3]. Therefore, the demand-oriented energy supply system is
developing towards a smart and coupled energy grid with a
strong orientation on the current energy supply.
For investigating and optimizing such smart combined grid
systems, a scientific approach based on Hardware-in-the-Loop
(HIL) simulations is carried out as presented in [8] and
summarized in section 2. This approach comprises models
describing the investigated energy components in combination
with real energy components. As a virtual component, section
3 comprises the modelling of bidirectional fuel cell systems
which includes the fuel cell and the power inverter. Finally, a
conclusion is given in section 4.
II. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
The scientific approach presented herein after and
schematically illustrated in Fig. 1 is a variant of the HIL
simulation. By this approach, various simulated and real
components are combined to a virtual coupled power grid. By a
virtual coupled power grid, all components are considered to
be coupled via information exchange for balancing their power
quantities while the real power flow is connected to locally
available grid structures. In contrast to other approaches [9],
also spatial distributed and high power facilities can be
included without the necessity of electronic loads. However, by
electronic loads, detailed effects of electrical grids on the real
components (e.g. change in voltage) are represented which
allows more detailed investigations in comparison to the
presented approach here. Beside electrical, thermal and
chemical components are considered in this approach, as well.
Simulated components Real components
Control quantities
Simulated
Real facility
environment Measured quantities
(Hardware)
(Model)
Example: CHP unit in the Loop
* gas Heat grid
PCHP
Energy management
Operating data QCHP
* Generator
Virtual consumer PCHP Engine
PCHP
Fig. 1. Structure for a HIL simulation for optimizing a smart
combined grid system.

As an example for the HIL simulation, an experimental
CHP unit could be used as shown in Fig. 1. The CHP unit is
controlled by a simulated energy management system based on
the demands of simulated virtual consumers. While the
generated thermal and electrical energy is physically fed to the
grid, the measured values of electrical and thermal energy as
well as the gas consumption of the CHP unit are used in the
real-time simulation for balancing the power flows and
supplying the virtual consumers.
In order to describe the virtual components, models are
required for the proposed HIL simulation. For modelling of
these energy components different approaches are possible. On
the one hand models based on energy flows result in a simple
parameterization and fast simulation. On the other hand,
models based on state variables (e.g. voltage and current) are
required for a more detailed simulation of both the stationary
and transient behaviour. While high eigenvalues need to be
avoided in real-time simulations, they have to be considered
for more detailed investigations. For a general applicability
regarding offline and HIL simulations as well as different
simulation objectives like optimization of the structure or
optimization of the strategy, it becomes obvious that the
component models should be scalable with respect to the
modelling depth. Furthermore, the component models need to
be real-time capable for the HIL simulation. Methods for
scaling a CHP model which are partly adaptable to other
models were discussed and evaluated in [10].
Based on the proposed simulation method, a realistic study
of smart energy systems is possible. On the one hand, novel
structural concepts can be evaluated, for example a
combination of the mentioned P2G technique with the CHP
technique in addition or in comparison to the usage of biogas
plants. On the other hand an optimization of existing structures
by dimensioning the energy components is also possible. First
of all, we start with the offline simulation of different concepts.
Afterwards potential concepts will be selected and further
optimized and evaluated by means of the proposed HIL
simulation. While a validation of the developed models is
given by the integration of real components, the overall
research approach can be proven by applying it to an
optimization study for a new or existing energy system. As a
first project, the proposed approach is applied to an existing
energy system near by the university. This so called energy
village is also representing a “LivingLab”. As mentioned
before, real-time data from generators and consumers of the
“LivingLab” will be used in combination to the HIL
simulation.
III. MODELLING OF BIDIRECTIONAL FUEL CELL SYSTEMS
The structure of the considered bidirectional fuel cell
system for modelling is shown in Fig. 2 incorporating the
hydrogen fuel cell with the required auxiliary units (e.g. fluid
preparation and heat exchangers) as well as the feeding power
electronic. For investigating such systems in a grid connected
mode, all domains need to be considered. The electrochemical
domain is required to especially model the losses of the fuel
cell as well as of the power electronics while the
thermodynamic and fluid dynamic domains need to be
considered for modeling the dynamic behavior of the system.
In this contribution, section III.A describes the modeling
approach of the fuel cell while the model of the power inverter
is presented in section III.B. Finally, the local management is
discussed in section III.C.
Bidirectional fuel cell
amount of energy. These losses are often named as activation
losses and are dominant for low current densities j . Generally,
this effect is modeled by the Butler-Volmer equation. Only for
symmetrical conditions where the charge transfer coefficients
of the anodic and cathodic process are equal, an analytic

Local management
solution for the Butler-Volmer equation can be derived with
Thermo- and fluid respect to the describing resistance Ract :
dynamics Auxiliary units

Electrochemical Power inverter 2 ˜ R ˜T § j · 1

dynamics DC-DC inverter
Part of the contribution
Grid inverter
Grid
Fig. 2. Overview of the bidirectional fuel cell system.
A. Electrodynamical model of bidirectional fuel cells
For modelling the physical behavior of fuel cells, several
domains need to be considered as shown in Fig. 2. In this
contribution, the electrochemical domain is taken into account
and a physical-based model is derived. By the proposed model,
investigations of fuel cell systems coupled with further energy
generators and consumers shall be carried out. One possible
scenario could be the utilization of such a fuel cell system for
private households where the fuel cell system itself and further
storages are optimized with respect to the dimensioning and
energy management. Therefore, the model needs to describe
the energy and material balances regarding the electrical and
thermal behavior while a detailed modelling of chemical
reactions can be avoided. Afterwards, a common model for
unidirectional fuel cells [11] is discussed and extended for
modelling bidirectional fuel cells.
Considering the stationary behavior, the open-circuit
voltage vOCV and the occurring losses need to be modeled.
Independent of electrolysis or fuel cell mode, the open-circuit
voltage vOCV describes the lossless voltage which can be
modeled by the Nernst equation as follows
R ˜T § p ˜ pO 2 · maximal current of the power inverter is reached, this effect
 vOCV 0
 Ract ˜ arcsinh ¨ ¸˜ ,  
A˜ z ˜ F © 2 ˜ j0 ¹ j
where j0 is the exchange current density and A is the
active cell area. The model by Eq. 2 can be used for first
simulations and investigations while for detailed investigations
the charge transfer coefficients should be identified
experimentally, [12]. In this case, a numerical solution of the
Butler-Volmer equation could be implemented.
A further kinetic inhibition is obtained by diffusion effects
which occur due to the mass transport of the reactants. In
steady-state operation, the mass transport through the porous
gas diffusion layers is limited which mainly occurs at high
current densities. A simple and commonly used model for fuel
cells is obtained by combining Fick’s Law with the Nernst
equation which cannot be simply adapted for the electrolysis
mode. Considering the hydrogen electrode for example, the
diffusion effect changes with the molar fraction of the reactant
gases (e.g. water vapour for SOC electrolyzes and hydrogen for
SOC fuel cells). Such effects are further investigated in [13],
where an extended physical-based model for describing the
stationary diffusion effects of bidirectional cells is proposed
and validated by experimental measurement results.
From a dynamical point of view, the double layer effect
which occurs at the phase boundary between electrode and
electrolyte as well as the mass transport through the porous
electrode need to be considered. The double layer effect can be
simplified modeled by a capacitance CDL which values are up
to several Farads for each cell due to the comparably high
surface of the porous electrodes but in combination with the
comparably low resistances, a moderate time constant is
obtained, [14]. Especially, for large-signal analyses where the
Vrev  ˜ ln ¨ H 2 ¸,   cannot be neglected.
z˜F ¨ pH 2 O ¸
© ¹
The mass transport has dominant influence on the dynamic
behavior of such cells and should therefore be modeled more
which depends on the temperature T of the cell and the partial accurately. Due to the fact that the gas diffusion layer of the
pressures of the oxygen pO 2 , hydrogen pH 2 and water pH 2O . fuel cell has a finite thickness, this effect can be modeled as an
0
Constant parameters are Vrev as the reversible cell potential at impedance of finite diffusion with absorbing boundary
standard temperature and pressure conditions, R as the conditions, called bounded Warburg impedance, [15], and
universal gas constant, F as the Faraday constant and z as the described by
number of electrons involved in the reaction.
Rdiff D § iZ ·
The model is extended by the losses which are on the one  Z BW  i Z  ˜ ˜ tanh ¨¨ ldiff ˜ ¸¸ , 
hand caused by a finite electrical conductivity of the materials ldiff iZ © D ¹
yielding ohmic losses and on the other hand by kinetic
inhibitions as described afterwards. In order to start the where Rdiff is the diffusion resistance according to mentioned
reaction, the charge carriers need to cross the phase boundary
between electrode and electrolyte which requires a specific modelling approach in [13], ldiff is the diffusion layer


thickness and D is the diffusion coefficient of the diffusing for example applied in [18]. In order to include the losses of
species. For transient simulations, such fractional order system the semiconductors as well as of the transformer and the coil, a
cannot be directly discretized by typical simulation tools. more detailed model is required which also considers the
Hence, approximations are required for implementing such semiconductor related current iL and voltages vT 1 and vT 2 (see
diffusion models. Any kind of diffusion model that comprises Fig. 4). In [19], these quantities are approximated by harmonic
equations similar to (3) can be implemented as a so-called oscillations utilizing a quasi-stationary approach. Especially for
transmission line model, combined by several RC-circuits, transient changes, deviations between the model and numerical
[16]. circuit simulations can be observed. Here, a full-dynamical
Beside the modeled effects that occur at the electrodes or model is proposed by utilizing the method by Sanders and
their boundaries, the electrolyte is typically modeled by an Verghese, [20].
ohmic resistance Rohm . Due to the comparably high distance In a first step, the power semiconductors are assumed to be
between the electrodes, the resulting capacitance of the ideal switch devices without losses. Further, the transformer is
electrolyte is usually neglected. In the proposed model, the assumed to be ideal regarding the main inductance, so that the
resistance Rohm further considers the ohmic losses due to the modeled leakage inductances can be summed up with the
finite electrical conductivity of the electrode material and the inductance Ld of the coil. As usual for modelling transformers,
electrical contacts. the quantities of the secondary side are referred to the primary
side considering the turns ratio w . Equally, the ohmic losses
Finally, partial models for each of the electrodes as well as
of the coil and the transformer are summed up and modeled by
for the electrolyte are proposed. Typical unidirectional models
of fuel cells or electrolysis cells consider separate models for a resistance RV as shown in Fig. 4b).
the anode and cathode. By a bidirectional operation, the a)
physical electrodes change their function respectively from iDC icell
anode to cathode during the transition between fuel cell and
electrolysis mode. Instead, the partial models of the electrodes S1 D1 S3 D3 1: w S5 D5 S7 D7
iL Ld
are named and parameterized by their reaction products and
vDC vT 1 vT 2 vcell
their reactants (e.g. hydrogen and oxygen electrodes),
respectively. An overview of the model is given in Fig. 3.
S2 D2 S4 D4 S6 D6 S8 D8

vcell
icell b)
iL LV RV
vDC N1  x, t  vT 1 vTc 2 N 2  x, t  c
vcell
CDL ,1 CDL ,2
Rohm
vOCV W W
Ract ,1 Ract ,2 Fig. 4. Topology of the DAB (a) and simplified equivalent circuit considered
Z BW ,1 Z BW ,2 for modelling (b).
Hydrogen electrode Oxygen electrode
By the phase-shift control, the output current icell of the
Fig. 3. Electrodynamical model of bidirectional fuel cells. fuel cell can be simply controlled by adapting the phase shift
M between the primary and secondary bridge. The functions
B. Bidirectional inverter N1 and N 2 in Fig. 4b) describe the nonlinear behavior of the
One possible concept for supplying bidirectional fuel cells primary and secondary bridges with pulse patterns shown in
is the dual active bridge (DAB) with the common phase-shift Fig. 5 where ZS is the switching frequency of the power
control as modulation scheme, [17]. The topology of this semiconductors in radians.
inverter is shown in Fig. 4a) where the output of the DAB is
a) N  x, t  b) N 2  x, t 
considered to be connected with the fuel cell while the DC link 1

voltage vDC is maintained by an additional grid-connected x x

M
inverter.
t ZS t
For the discussed investigations, the model shall comprise S 2S S 2S
the occurring losses and the transient electrical behavior for an ZS ZS x ZS ZS
x
accurate energy balancing and dynamic investigations. Further,
a real-time capable approach for the discussed HIL simulation
is required. Common models which fulfill these conditions are Fig. 5. Pulse patterns of the primary bridge (a) and the secondary bridge (b).
based on state-space averaging where only the mean values of
all quantities are modeled. Due to the zero-mean inductor The nonlinearities N1 and N 2 in Fig. 5 as well as the
current iL of the DAB, such approaches are only partly current iL as the state variable of the system are approximated
suitable for this application. Instead of the current iL , the by harmonic oscillations. Based on the simplified equivalent
circuit in Fig. 4b), the equation of state is derived and
power flow without losses could be considered for modeling as


harmonically approximated. By utilizing the first occurring
Local M Bidirectional fuel cell system
harmonic oscillation for approximating the nonlinearities N1
management
and N 2 as well as the current iL , the following differential
equations are derived,
vcell icell
Dual Active Bidirectional vcell
diL , S 1 §4 4 · vDC iDC
c ˜ cos M   RV ˜ iL , S ¸  iL ,C ˜ ZS ,
˜ ¨ ˜ vDC  ˜ vcell Bridge fuel cell
dt LV © S S ¹

diL ,C 1 §4 · iDC vDC
c ˜ sin M   RV ˜ iL ,C ¸  iL , S ˜ ZS ,
˜ ¨ ˜ vcell
dt LV ©S ¹ v grid v grid Grid inverter i grid i grid

where iL , S and iL ,C are the slow changing fourier

Fig. 6. Overall electrical model of the bidirectional fuel cell system.
coefficients of the fundamental oscillation of the current iL . In
order to complete the model, the outputs iDC and icell need to The proposed model of a bidirectional fuel cell is
be calculated. For both quantities, the resulting mean values are parameterized and coupled to the model of the DAB. Fig. 7b
considered only which yields shows the cell voltage vcell of the bidirectional fuel cell system
(fuel cell mode) for a step of the DAB output current icell , Fig.
2 7a. The impact of the double layer capacitance CDL is shown in
iDC | ˜ iL , S ,

S   Fig. 7c. It has a significant impact on transient system behavior
2 within the first time period of the step response. When a longer
c |
icell ˜  iL , S ˜ cos M   iL ,C ˜ sin M   . timeline is investigated, the Warburg impedance has a
S
significant impact, as well (Fig. 7d). It shows the typical
The averaged model is finally described by Eqs. 4 and 5 creeping voltage that depends on the porous material of the gas
c and M as well as the output
with the input variables vDC , vcell diffusion layer. Similar effects can be observed for Li-Ion cells,
where porous diffusion effect also occurs, [16], [22].
c . The order of the model depends on the
variables iDC and icell
chosen approximation quality and is calculated by O 2 ˜ N H
where N H is the number of harmonic oscillations considered 30
a)
for the harmonic approximations. The proposed model is 25
in A

discretized by the backward Euler method which guarantees a

cell

20
numerical stable simulation, [21].
i

15
C. Overall electrical model and local management 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000

The overall electrical model is shown in Fig. 8 which 26

considers the electrochemical domain of the fuel cell that based b)
on a proton exchange membrane (PEM), the power inverter 24
in V

and the local management for the electrical quantities (cf. c) d)

cell

22
Fig. 2). The modeled grid inverter contains an averaged model
v

of the inverter as well as a DC link capacitor and an LCL grid 20

filter. The grid voltage v grid and current i grid are described in 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Time in s
the synchronous dq frame, similar to [8]. The modelling and 26 21
c) d)
control of such inverters are investigated in various 24
20.9
in V

in V

publications (e.g. [22]). 20.8

cell

cell

22
The electrical power of the fuel cell cannot be varied
v

20.7
independent from the fluid- and thermodynamic boundary 20 20.6
conditions. Otherwise, an over- or undersupply of the fuel cell 1980 2000 2020 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time in s Time in s
is given during transient changes due to comparabely low
dynamics of the reactant gas, [23]. This effect yields a shorter
lifetime of the cell, [24]. Currently the local management is Fig.7 Step response of the bidirectional fuel cell system (b) at different
extended with respect to the fluid- and thermodynamic DAB output currents icell (a). Physical effect of the double layer
domains. For model validation and investigations of the capacitance (c) and the bounded Warburg impedance (d).
dynamic behavior as well as control concepts, an experimental
Power-to-X process system is planned which concept and
possible investigations are further described in [6].


 IV. CONCLUSION
Within this contribution, a bidirectional fuel cell system
was modelled with respect to the electrical domain for
investigations of combined grid systems including electrical,
thermal and chemical grids. The overall model comprises a
bidirectional fuel cell where activation, diffusion and ohmic
losses are considered. Typical approaches for unidirectional
cells were utilized and partly extended for bidirectional cells.
Further the transient behavior regarding double layer and
diffusion effects were discussed and appropriate models were
chosen. For coupling such cells to electrical grids, a power
inverter is required. In this contribution, the dual active bridge
was considered as part of the overall power inverter and a
novel averaged model was presented and coupled with a model
of a bidirectional fuel cell system. The fuel cell parameters
based on a proton exchange membrane system. Furthermore
simulation results of the bidirectional system were presented
and the physical behavior was described. The system behavior
consisting of both, the bidirectional cell and DC-DC converter
model will be analyzed. Especially the validation of the
bidirectional cell system is required for the fuel cell mode and
further for the electrolyzer mode.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This contribution is accomplished within the research
priority on “Intelligent energy systems (IES)”, funded by the
Ministry for Innovation, Science and Research of the state of
North-Rhine Westphalia (NRW) of Germany.
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