KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

HYDERABAD REGION

QUESTION BANK MATERIAL

CLASS-XII 2015-16

Class: XII
Sub: PHYSICS

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA KHAMMAM

 QUESTION BANK FOR CLASS XII PHYSICS

CONTENTS OF THE QUESTION BANK

NAME OF THE TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. DERIVATIONS

2. FACTORS ON WHICH ----------------- DEPENDS

3. PROPERTIES & CONDITIONS

4. IMPORTANT DEVICES AND INSTRUMENTS

5. IMPORTANT LAWS

IMPORTANT DERIVATIONS & DIAGRAMS

 ELECTOSTATICS
1. Electric field due to a dipole at a point along perpendicular bisector or Equatorial
line.
2. Electric field due to a dipole at a point along axial line.
3. The torque, Potential Energy possessed by dipole placed in uniform electric field.
4. Electric potential due to a dipole at a point along the axial line.
5. Electric potential due to a dipole at a point along perpendicular bisector.
6. State and prove Gauss Theorem.
7. Electric field due to an infinitely long straight uniform charged wire.
8. Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
9. Electric field die to uniformly charged thin spherical shell (hollow sphere) at a
point (a)outside the shell (b) inside the shell (c) on the surface of the shell
10. Electric field due to two infinite plane parallel sheets of charge (a) to the left of
the sheets (b) to the right of the sheets (c) between two sheets.
11. Electric field due to a uniformly charged solid sphere at a point (a) on the solid
sphere (b) outside the sphere (c) inside the solid sphere
12. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
13. The energy stored in the parallel plate capacitor and energy density
14. The equivalent capacitance of three capacitors in series and parallel
combination.
15. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab between two
plates.
16. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab between two
plates.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. The electric current in terms of drift velocity, number density of the electrons.
2. The internal resistance of the cell in terms of Electromotive force and Terminal
potential difference.
3. The equivalent resistance of three resistors in the series combination
4. The equivalent resistance of three resistors in the parallel combination
5. Proving Ohm’s law or resistivity in terms of the number density and relaxation
time.
6. Condition for Wheatstone Bridge
7. Comparison of the emf’s of two cells in terms of the lengths in potentiometer.
8. The internal resistance of the cell by using the potentiometer.
9. The resistance of given conductor by using meter bridge.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF THE CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

1. Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular loop carrying current by using
Biot Savart law
2. State and Prove Ampere’s circuital law
3. Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular wire of infinite length using
Ampere’s circuital law.
4. Magnetic field due to a solenoid carrying current using Ampere’s circuital law
5. Magnetic field due to a toroid carrying current using Ampere’s circuital law
6. Fore between two infinitely long straight parallel conductors carrying currents
and definition of Ampere
7. Torque on a current carrying rectangular loop placed in uniform magnetic field
and the potential energy
8. The Orbital magnetic moment of an electron in the current loop in terms of the
angular momentum or Bohr Mageton
9. Current in the galvanometer in terms of the angular deflection
10. Conversion of the Galvanometer to Voltmeter
11. Conversion of the Galvanometer to Ammeter
12. Gyro frequency or frequency of a charged particle in the magnetic field
13. Radius of the orbit of the electron in cyclotron
14. Kinetic energy of charged particle in the cyclotron
15. Torque experienced by a magnetic dipole placed in the uniform magnetic field
and Potential energy.
16. Magnetic field at a point on the axial line of the bar magnet
17. Magnetic field at a point on the perpendicular bisector of a bar magnet
18. Hysterisis

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

1. Induced emf or motional emf across a coil when a coil is dragged out from the
uniform magnetic field and Force applied in dragging it.
2. Mutual inductance of two long solenoids
3. Self Inductance of a solenoid
4. Magnetic energy stored in an inductor
5. Power delivered in an inductor
6. Power delivered in a capacitor
7. Power delivered in a resistor
8. Current is in phase with ac voltage across a resistor
9. Current lags voltage by 90 degrees in an inductor
10. Current leads voltage by 90 degrees in a capacitor
11. Impedance of a LR series circuit
12. Impedance of RC series circuit
13. Impedance of LCR series circuit
14. Current leads voltage in a capacitative LCR series circuit
15. Current lags voltage in an inductive LCR series circuit
16. Resonance conditions and resonance frequency
17. Power consumed in a LCR series circuit
18. The alternating voltage in an ac generator
19. Ratio of the voltages across Primary and Secondary coils in terms of the no of
turns in Primary and Secondary coil
20. Energy possessed by LC series circuit

OPTICS

1. Relation between Radius of Curvature and focal length of a mirror

2. Relation between Image distance, object distance and focal length of a mirror or
Mirror formula
3. Relation between Image distance, Object distance and focal length of a Lens or
Lens Formula
4. Refraction through a Glass Slab or Prove that angle of incidence is equal to angel
of emergence
5. Refraction at a convex refracting surface
6. Lens Maker’s Formula
7. Magnifying power of a Compound Microscope
8. Magnifying power of Refracting telescope
9. Ray Diagram of Compound Microscope when the image is at normal adjustment
10. Ray Diagram of Compound Microscope when the image is at least distance of
distinct vision
11. Ray Diagram of Refracting Telescope or Astronomical Telescope when the image
is at least distance of distinct vision
12. Ray Diagram of Refracting Telescope or Astronomical Telescope when the image
is at normal adjustment
13. Ray diagram of Newtonian Telescope
14. Ray diagram of Cassegrain Telescope
15. Refraction through a Glass Prism
16. Huygen’s wavefront construction
17. Verification of laws of refraction by using Huygen’s Principle
18. Verification of laws of reflection by using Huygen’s Principle
19. The amplitude of a resultant wave when two waves interfere
20. The intensity of a resultant wave when two waves interfere
21. Fringe width in Young’s double Slit Experiment
22. The intensity distribution in Single Slit diffraction
23. Brewster Law
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

1. de-Broglie wavelength of a photon

2. de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of energy E
3. de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential difference
of V
4. Graphical Analysis of The salient features of Photo-electric effect
5. Davisson –Germer Experiment
6. Einstein’s Photo electric effect equation

ATOMS AND NUCLEI

1. Rutherford’s Atomic Model

2. Distance of Closest Approach or Size of Nucleus)
3. Nuclear radius in terms of Mass Number
4. Density of Nucleus
5. Radius of nth Orbit in an atom
6. The velocity of electron in an orbit
7. The Potential energy, Kinetic energy and total energy possessed by an electron in
Hydrogen atom
8. Rydberg Formula
9. Energy level diagram of Hydrogen atom-transitions
10. Mass Defect
11. Binding Energy –Binding energy curve
12. Radioactive decay law
13. Half Life of a radioactive substance
14. Mean life or average life of radioactive substance
15. Alpha decay
16. Beta decay
17. Gamma decay
18. Nuclear Fusion
19. Nuclear Fission
20. Nuclear Reactor
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. The current in a semiconductor

2. The circuit and characteristics of a pn junction diode – Forwards and Reverse
Bias
3. Half wave rectifier
4. Full wave rectifier
5. The circuit and the characteristics of Photodiode
6. The circuit and the characteristics of Light Emitting Diode(LED)
7. The circuit and the characteristics of Solar cell
8. The circuit and the characteristics of Zener diode
9. The current in a transistor
10. The action of npn Transistor
11. The action of pnp tranistor
12. The circuit and the characteristics of a common emitter configuration by using
npn transistor
13. The circuit and the characteristics of a common emitter configuration by using
pnp transistor
14. Common emitter amplifier by using npn transistor
15. Common emitter amplifier by using pnp transistor
16. Realization of OR gate
17. Realization of AND gate
18. Realization of NOT gate
19. Obtaining OR, AND and NOT gates by using NAND gate
20. Obtaining OR, AND and NOT gates using NOR gate

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1. Block Diagram of Communication system

2. Waveforms of Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation, Phase Modulation
3. Block Diagrams of Transmitter, Receiver
4. Bock Diagram of simple Modulator for obtaining an AM signal
5. Block Diagram of detector for AM signal
 FACTORS ON WHICH DEPENDS:
ELECTROSTATICS
1. Capacitance Of Capacitor
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. Resistance
2. Resistivity
3. Meter Bridge: Material of wire

4. Potentiometer: Material of wire

05. Galvanometer - Magnetic field Soft iron core Sensitivity
Low torsion constant Properties of the coil of material of wire:
5. Ammeter
6. Voltmeter
07. Emf of Cell Emf doesn’t depend
08.Internal Resistance:
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM
01. Magnetic field due to straight conductor:
02. Magnetic field of circular coil:
03. Magnetic field in side a solenoid
04. Cyclotron:
(i) Time period (ii) Radius of circular orbit (iii)Angular frequency
6. Material of Electromagnet

7. Material of Permanent Magnet

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, AC CIRCUITS

01. Induced emf

02. Magnetic Flux
03. Motional emf
04. Self Inductance
05. Mutual Induction
06. Transformer Nature of transformer
07. AC Generator
 WAVE OPTICS

01. The shape of the wave front :

02. The angular width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction
03. The width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction
04. The fringe width in interference
05. Interference pattern when the whole apparatus is dipped in water
06. The focal length of a convex lens and wavelength of the light.
Convex lens is held in water - Focal length:
07. Angular width in Interference
.
RAY OPTICS

01. The refractive index of a medium:

2. The critical angle
03. The focal length of concave mirror when the incident violet light on
them is replaced with red light :
04. The focal length of convex lens when the incident violet light on
them is replaced with red light
05. The angle of deviation:
06. Angle of Deviation
07. Dispersive Power:
08. Magnifying power and Resolving power of Telescope and Microscope
 PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS

ELECTROSTATICS

1. Electric Charge
2. Electric field Lines
3. Electric dipole in Equilibrium
4. Equi potential Surfaces
5. Conductors in Electrostatic field

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

1. Wheatstone Bridge Condition

2. Ohm’s Law

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

1. Magnetic field lines

2. Ferro, Para and Dia magnetic substance
3. Resonance Condition in cyclotron
4. Moving coil galvanometer-Concave poles, Nature of the coil, Iron Core
5. Conversion of galvanometer to Voltmeter and Ammeter
6. Ammeter
7. Voltmeter

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CIRCUITS

1. Resonance conditions
2. Energy losses in transformer
3. Quality factor

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Electromagnetic waves
2. Electromagnetic spectrum
3. Displacement Current
4. Maxwelll’s Equations
 OPTICS
1. Path difference & Phase difference
2. Interference
3. Constructive Interference & Destructive Interference
4. Coherent Sources
5. Diffraction
6. Intensity distribution
7. Polarization
8. Brewster’s Law
9. Total Internal Reflection
10. Rainbow
11. Scattering of Light-Sky Color, Clouds Color
12. Rayleigh Scattering of Light
13. Angle of Minimum Deviation
14. Compound Microscope
15. Astronomical Telescope
16. Newtonian Telescope
17. Cassegrain Telescope
18. Good telescope
19. Advantages of Reflecting telescope
20. Resolving power of Telescope
21. Resolving power of microscope

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

1. Photoelectron emission
2. de-Broglie wavelength
3. Photoelectric effect
ATOMS AND NUCLEI

1. Thomson’s Atomic Model – Important points and Limitations

2. Rutherford Atomic Model – Important points and Limitations
3. Bohr’s Atomic Model – Important Points and Limitations
4. Alpha Particle scattering experiment
5. Nuclear Force
6. Binding Energy Curve
7. Alpha, Beta and Gamma Decay
8. Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays properties
9. Controlled Nuclear Fission
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. Energy Band diagrams-Conductors, Insulators and semiconductors

2. Intrinsic Semiconductors
3. Doping of semiconductors
4. Extrinsic semiconductors
5. p-type and n-type semiconductors
6. Biasing of semiconductor-Forward and Reverse
7. Forward Biased Diode-Circuit, Characteristics, Important points related to depletion
region, Resistance, Current and Knee voltage
8. Reverse Biased Diode-Circuit, Characteristics, Important points related to depletion
region, Resistance, Current and Reverse Breakdown voltage
9. Rectification
10. Zener Diode-Characteristics
11. Light emitting diode-properties of the material and characteristics
12. Solar cell-Properties of the material and characteristics
13. Photodiode –Characteristics of the material
14. Transistor
15. Transistor –Input, Output and Transfer characteristics
16. OR, AND, NOT, NOR, NAND-Logic symbol, Logic formula, Truth table, Realization and
waveforms

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1. Modulation

02. Ground wave, Sky wave and Space wave propagations

 IMPORTANT DEVICES AND INSTRUMENTS
PRINCIPLE. CONSTRUCTION, WORKING, USES, ADVANTAGES OF THE FOLLOWING:

1. Van de graff Generator

2. Meter Bridge- To find the resistance of unknown conductor
3. Potentiometer-To find the internal resistance of a cell
4. Potentiometer-To compare the emf’s of two cells
5. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
6. Moving Coil Galvanometer
7. Cyclotron
8. AC generator
9. Transformer
10. Compound Microscope
11. Astronomical Telescope
12. Newtonian Telescope
13. Cassegrain Telescope
14. Human Eye-Defects of Vision
15. Photoelectric effect
16. Davission and Germer Experiment
17. Rutherford Atomic Model
18. Bohr’s Atomic Model

19. Nuclear Reactor

 IMPORTANT LAWS
1. Coulomb’s law in Electrostatics
2. Gauss’s Theorem
3. Superposition Principle in Electricity
4. Ohm’s Law
5. Kirchhoff’s Rules
6. Meter Bridge
7. Potentiometer
8. SNOW RULE Ampere Swimming Rule Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule
9. Right Hand Thumb Rule
10. Fleming’s Left hand Rule
11. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
12. Biot- Savart Law
13. Ampere’s Circuital Law
14. Moving coil Galvanometer
15. Cyclotron
16. Coulomb’s law in Magnetism
17. Gaus’s Theorem in Magnetism
18. Curie Law
19. Tangent’s Law
20. Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction
21. Lenz’s Rule
22. Maxwell’s Equations
23. Laws of Reflection Laws of Refraction-Snell’s Law
24. Huygen’s Principle
25. Malus Law
26. Brewster Law
27. Principle of Reversibility
28. Superposition Principle in Optics
29. Total Internal Reflection
30. Raleigh Scattering of Light
31. de-Broglie hypothesis
32. Einstein’s Photoelectric effect
33. Mass Energy Law
34. Thomson’s Atomic Model
35. Rutherford’s Atomic Model
36. Bohr Atomic Model
37. Radioactive decay law
 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

BASIC MODES OF COMMUNICATION:

1. Point-To-Point Communication: Telephone
2. Broadcast Communication: Radio and Television.
Basic Terminology:

Transponder Signal Noise Transmitter

Receiver Attenuation Amplification Range
Band width Repeater Baseband Upink
Downlink Transducer Carrier wave Modulating
signal
Modulation Demodulation Modulation index Side bands

Elements of Communication System:

1. Transmitter (e.g., Mouth, Microphone, Transmission tower/Antenna, etc.)
2. Communication Channel (e.g., Air, Cable, free space, etc.)
3. Receiver (e.g., Ear, Speaker, Receiving Tower/Antenna, etc.)

Types of Communication Systems:

1. Based on Mode of Transmission Signal
Analog Communication Systems; e.g., Telegraphy, Telephone, radio network,
radar, TV Network, Tele printing, Telex, etc
Digital Communication Systems; e.g., Fax, Mobile Phone, e-mail,
teleconferencing, Satellite Communication, Global Positioning Systems, etc

2. Based on Transmission Channel

Line Communication Systems (2-wire; Co-axial; Optical)
Space Communication Systems (Ground; Sky; Space)

3. Based on Nature of Source

Audio Communication Systems (Speech Transmission); Video
Communication Systems (Picture Transmission); Facsimile Communication Systems (Fax,
Document Transmission); Data Communication Systems (Modem, Digital Data
Transmission)
4. Based on Type of Modulation
Amplitude Modulated CS (AM)
Frequency Modulated CS (FM)
Phase Modulated CS (PM)
Propagation of Electromagnetic waves:

1. Ground wave: The range of the frequency less than 2 MHz .

2. Sky wave: The range of frequency is 2 MHz to 40MHz

3. Space wave: The frequency > 40 MHz. Line-of-sight (LOS) communication,

Examples: Television broadcast, microwave links and
Satellite communication
.
Range of TV antenna Dt = √2Rht
Range of Receiver TV antenna Dr = √2Rhr
Maximum line-of-sight distance is Dm = Dt + Dr = √2Rht + √2Rhr

Need for Modulation:

1. Size of Antenna ( At least λ/4)

2. Effective Power radiated by an antenna (P α (l/ λ) 2 where l =
length of antenna and λ is wavelength.
3. Mixing up of signals from different transmitters.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION: In this process, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
accordance with the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

FREQUENCY MODULATION: In this process, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied
accordance with the frequency of the
modulating signal.

PHASE MODULATION: In this process, the phase of the carrier signal is varied
accordance with the phase of the modulating
signal.

IMPORTANT FORMULAE

1. Side band frequencies in AM wave are υSB = υc ± υmwhere υm is frequency of modulating

(audio) signal.
2. Modulation index, m a = Em / Ec
Modulation index, ma= Emax – Emin / Emax + Emin
3. Coverage range (d) for a given height (h) of antenna
d = √2hR where R = radius of earth.
 d = √2Rhr + √2RhR, where hT , hR are the heights of transmitter and receiver antennas.
4 Population covered = population density x area covered.
5. Number of channels: N = Total band width of channels / Band width per channel

IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS:

1. GENERAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2. MODES OF COMMUNICATION

3. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
AMPLITUDEVER VERSUS ANGULAR FREQUENCY FOR AM SIGNAL

This output signal has frequencies wm , 2wm , wc, 2 wc, wc - wmwc + wm

Block Diagram of Modulator for obtaing AM signal:

DETECTION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE OR DEMODULATOR:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSMITTER:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RECEIVER:

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. A photo decoder is made from a semiconductor with ionisation level E g = 0.73 eV.
What is the maximum wavelength that it can detect? Eg = 0.73 x 1.6 x 10-19J
2. Why are micro wave used in radars?

3. Why sky waves are not used in the transmission of television signals
4. Audio signal cannot be transmitted directly in to the space why?

5. A T.V. tower has a height of 100m. How much population is covered by the T.V.
broadcaste if the average population density around the tower is 1000/km 2
6. A transmitting antenna at the top of the tower has a height 32m and the height of the
receiving antenna is 50m. What is the maximum distance between them for satisfactory
communication in LOS mode? The radius of the earth is 6.4 x106m
D1 = √2Rht D1 = √2Rhr
D= D1 + D2
7. A message signal of frequency of 10kHz and peak voltage of 10V is used to modulate
a carrier frequency of 1MHz and peak voltage of 20V . Find modulation index and side
bands produced.

8. Identify A, B. in the given block diagram.

9. Identify X, Y in the below diagram.

10. Identify X, Y in bleow diagram. Write their functions.

11. The graph shown in the figure represents a plot

of current vs voltage for a given semi conductor. Identify the
region, if any, over which the semi conductor has a
negative resistance.
12. The equation for below diagram is C(t) = 3 Sin 8π t. Find modulation index.

CURRENT ELECTRICTY
IMPORTANT LAWS/PRINCIPLES
1. Ohm’s Law: At constant temperature, the potential difference across a conductor
is directly proportional to current across it.
V  I at constant temp.
2. Kirchhoff’s Rules:
a. JUNCTION RULE OR CURRENT RULE: The algebraic sum of the
currents at a junction is zero.
b. LOOP RULE OR VOLTAGE RULE: The algebraic sum of the products
of currents and resistances and the emfs of the cells is zero in a closed
loop.
3. Wheat Stone Bridge Principle:
When there is no current across galvanometer, P/Q = R/S
4. Metre Bridge: For same material of wire, uniform cross section

The resistance of wire is directly proportional to length. R

L
5. Potentiometer: For same material of wire, uniform cross sectional area and same
current across it, the potential difference is directly proportional to length of wire.
V  L provided that A, , and L constant
PROPERTIES & CONDITIONS:
1. Ohm’s Law : (i) Physical conditions are constant, (ii) Temperature is constant
2. Series connection: Current or Charge is constant
3. Parallel Connection: Voltage is constant
4. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit: Current across Galvanometer is zero or NULL
METHOD
5. Meter Bridge: For uniform area of cross section and same material, R  l.
Material of wire : (i) Made of Manganin or Constantan
(ii) Low temperature coefficient
(iii) High resistivity
6. Potentiometer: For uniform area of cross section and same material, V  l.
Material of wire : (i) Made of Manganin or Constantan
(ii) Low temperature coefficient
(iii) High resistivity
 7. If the length of the resistor l is increased n times, new resistance becomes n2R. If
1
2
R
A is increased n times, new resistance becomes n .
8. Colour coding :
Black Brown Red OrangeYellowGreenBlue Violet Gray White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tolerance (i) Gold 5% (ii) Silver 10% (iii) No Color 20%
DEFINITIONS:
1. Electric current: The rate of flow of charge flowing through any cross section
of a substance is called electric current. I = q / t where q = charge, t = time
2. Ampere: I Ampere is that current which if maintained in two infinitely
long parallel conductors of negligible cross sectional area separated by 1
meter in vacuum causes a force of 2 x 10-7N on each meter of other wire.
3. Current density: It is the ratio of current to area. j = I / A
4. Drift velocity: It is the average velocity with which free electrons in a
conductor get drifted in a direction opposite to the direction of applied electric
field.
vd=- (eE) / m where  = relaxation time
5. Ohmic Elements; The elements which obey Ohm’s Law are called Ohmic
Elements. Ex: Resistance
6. Relaxation time: The small interval of time between two successive
collisions between electrons and ions in the lattice is called relaxation time.
7. Resistance: The property of the substance, which opposes the flow of current
through it, is called resistance.
8. Internal resistance: The opposition offered by a cell to the flow of current
through it is called internal resistance.
9. Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
C = 1 /R
10. Resistivity or Specific resistance: The resistance of the material of a
conductor is defined as the resistance of unit length and unit area of the
conductor. R = ρl/A
11. Conductivity or Specific Conductance: The reciprocal of resistivity is called
conductivity.

12. Super conductivity; The property by virtue of which a metal, alloy, oxide, or
a poor conductor shows almost zero resistance at very low temperature is
called Super conductivity.
13. Transition temperature or Critical temperature: The temperature at which
a material becomes super conductor is called transition temperature.
14. Null Method: If the current through the galvanometer is zero, then the
method is called Null method.
15. Potential Gradient: The potential difference per unit length is called potential
gradient.
 16. Mobility (μ) of a charge carrier is the ratio of its drift velocity to the applied
V
 d
electric field E

FORMULAE
1. Potential difference in terms of current and resistance V = IR
2. Resistance in terms of length and area R = ρl/A
3. Conductance C = 1 / R where R = resistance
4. Conductivity  = 1 /  where  = resistivity
5. Current in terms of Drift velocity I = n e A vd where n = no.density = Number of
electrons per unit volume = N/ V, e = Charge of electron, A = area of cross
section, vd = Drift velocity
6. Drift velocity in terms of Electric field E Vd = (eE/m)τ where as  = relaxation
time
7. Resistivity in terms of relaxation time ρ = m/ne2τ
08. Current in terms of current density j : I = j A where A =cross sectional area
9. Terminal potential difference V =  – ir where  = electromotive force
I = current, r=internal resistance
10. Internal resistance r in terms of emf, terminal potential difference . r =

( VE −1) R
1 1 1 1
   ...
11. Combination of the resistors:
Rseries  R1  R2  ...Rn , RParallel R1 R2 Rn
12. Grouping of cells :
nE
Is 
i) In series grouping circuit, current is given by R  nr ,
mE
Ip 
ii) In parallel grouping circuit, current is given by r  mR where n, m are
number of cells in series and parallel connection respectively.
R2−R 1
13. Temperature coefficient of resistance  in terms of temperature: α =
R1 [ t 2−t 1 ]
14. Wheatstone Bridge Principle : When there is no current across Galvanometer,
P/Q =R/S

15. Meter Bridge:

s= (100−l
l )
R

16. Potentiometer Principle : V/l = constant = Potential Gradient

ε1 l1
=
(i) Compare emfs of two cells ε 2 l2
l1 −l2

(iii) Internal resistance of the cell r=

( ) l2
R
,
17. Heat energy or electrical energy Q = I2 R t where t= time
 18. Electric Power P = V I

19. RATIO OF POWERS CONSUMED IN TWO RESISTORS IN SERIES

If P1 and P2 are the powers consumed in R 1 and R2, respectively,
P1=I1R1, P2=I2R2 since current is same across both resistors in series,
P 1/ P2 = R 1/ R 2
20. RATIO OF POWER CONSUMED IN TWO RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
THE POWER IS GIVEN BY P = V 2/R
P1 = V2/R1 P2 = V2/R2
IN PARALLEL COMBINATION, THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS
BOTH RESISTORS IS SAME, SO P1/ P2 = R2/ R1

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS:
1. A steady current is flowing in a metal conductor of non-uniform cross-section.
Which of these quantities is constant along the conductor: current, current
density, electric field, drift speed?

2. Manganin or Eureka is used for making standard resistance coils. Why?

3. Two wires A and B are of same metal, have the same area of cross-
section and have their lengths in the ratio 2 : 1 . What will be the ratio of
currents flowing through them when the same potential difference is applied
across the length of each of them
4. Why does the resistivity of semi-conductors and insulators decrease with the rise
is temperature?
5. Out of metals and alloys, which has higher value of temperature coefficient
of resistance
6. A potentiometer of longer wire is more sensitive. Explain.

07. Why do we prefer potentiometer to measure the e.m.f.of a cell rather than a
voltmeter?

08. In a potentiometer used to measure the internal resistance of a cell, explain

(i) When key connecting standard resistance R is open, how does the balance point
change, if the current from driver cell decreases?
(ii) When the said key is closed, how does the balance point change if R is
increased, keeping the current from the driver cell constant?
09. Why are the connections between resistors in a Wheatstone or meter bridge
made of thick copper strips?
10. When current flows through a coil of heater, heat Q 1 is produced. Now the coil
is cut into two equal halves and only one half is connected to the same power

Q1
supply. Heat produced now is Q 2. What is the ratio of Q2
11. A 60 W bulb connected in parallel with a room heater is further connected
across the mains. If 60 W bulb is now replaced by a 100 W bulb, will heat produced
by heater be smaller, remain the same or be larger? Explain why?
12. Will the drift velocity of electrons in a metal increase or decrease with the increase in
temperature.
13. What is the effect of temperature on the relaxation time of the free electrons in a
metal.
14, Why manganin or constantan are chosen for making standard resistances
15. Two wires A and B of the same material and having same length have their cross
sectional area in the ratio1:4. What would be the ratio of heat produced in these wires
when same voltage is applied across each?
16. Two wires of the same material having lengths in the ratio 1:2 and diameters in the
ratio 2:3 are connected in series with an accumulator. Compute the ratio of p.d across the
two wires.
17. Two metallic wires of the same material and same length but of different
cross sectional areas are joined together. 1) in series2) in parallel to a source of emf.
In which of the two wires will the drift velocity of electron be more in each of the
two cases and why?

18. Current voltage graphs for a given metallic wire at different temperatures T1 and T2
are shown in figure. Which of the temperatures T1 and T2 is greater?

19. V-I graphs for two resistors and their series combination are as shown in
figure. Which one of these graphs represents the series combination of the other
two? Give reasons for your answer.
20. A wire of length l is stretched to two times of its original length. How does its
resistance change?
21. A wire of length l is attached with another wire of same length and same cross
sectional area. How does the resistance change?
22. The resistivity is changing with the temperature across some substances in the
following ways. Identify the nature of the substances
(a) The resistivity increases as the temperature increases.
(b) The resistivity decreases with the increase in temperature.
23. The resistivity of two substances A and B increases as the temperature
increases.But in the case of the substance A, increase in resistivity is less
compared to substance B with respect to temperature. The temperature
coefficient of substance B is comparatively higher than the Substance A. Identify
the nature of substances.
24. The resistivity of three substances A, B decreases as the temperature increases. The
resistivity becomes infinity at absolute zero for substance A, but it is finitevalue for
substance B. The temperature coefficient of the Substance A is negative and for B it is
positive. Identify the substances A and B.
25. There are two substances A and B. The substance A has a positive coefficient of
resistance, but the substance B has negative value. The substance A is used in preparing
the standard resistance, whereas the substance B is used in preparing non-ohmic
elements. Write the names of the substances A and B.
26. What happens to the internal resistance as
(a) The distance between two electrodes is increases
(b) The area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte decreases
(c) Decreases of the temperature
(d) Increase of the concentration of the electrolyte
(e) As the conductivity of the electrolyte is less
(f) As the cell is used for a long time
27.Two wires, one of copper and the other of manganin, have equal lengths and
equal resistances. Which wire is thicker?
28. A potential difference V exists across a copper wire of length l and diameter d.
How will the drift velocity affected if V is doubled, (ii) l is doubled and (iii) d is
doubled.
29. If a student by mistake connects voltmeter in series and ammeter in parallel, what
will happen?
30. How does the resistivity of (i) conductors (ii) alloys (iii) insulators(iv) electrolytes
and (v) semiconductors? Give reasons.
31. A potential difference V is applied to the conductor of the length l and radius r. How
are the electric field E, the drift velocity and the resistance affected as
(i) Potential difference V is doubled (ii) length l is doubled and (iii) the radius r is
doubled.
32. The specific resistance of copper, constantan and silver are 1.7 x 10-6 ohm- meter,
33.1 x 10-6ohm- meter and 10-6 ohm-meter respectively. Which is a better conductor.
Why?
34. Explain why copper wire is not used in potentiometer?
35. Explain why the connecting wires are made of copper?
36. In the potentiometer circuit shown, the balance point is at X. State with reason where
the balance point will be shifted when
(i)Resistance R is increased, keeping all parameters unchanged.
(ii)Resistance S is increased keeping R constant.
(iii)Cell P is replaced by another cell whose emf is lower than that of that cell Q.
37. How does the balancing point of a Wheatstone bridge get affected (2)
i) Position of cell and Galvanometer are interchanged?
ii) Position of the known and unknown resistances is interchanged?
38. Two different wires X and Y of same diameter but of different materials are joined in
series and connected across a battery. If the number density of electrons in X is
twice that of Y, find the ratio of drift velocity of electrons in the two wires.
39. Two conducting wires X and Y of same diameter but different materials are joined in
series across a battery. If the number density of electrons in X is twice that in Y, find the
ratio of drift velocity of electrons in the two wires.
40. The variation of potential difference V with length l
in case of two potentiometers X and Y as shown. Which one of
these will you prefer for comparing emfs of two cells and why?

41. Nichrome and Cu wires of the same length and same diameter are
connected in series in an electric circuit. In which wire will the heat be
produced at a higher rate? Give reason.
42. An electric bulb rated for 500W at 100V is used in circuit having a 200V supply. Calculate the
resistance R that must be put in series with the bulb, so that the bulb delivers 500W.
43. Two bulbs are marked 220V-100W and 220V-50W. They are connected in series to
220V mains. Find the ratio of heat generated in them.
44. Factors on which Emf Of Cell depends (i) Nature of electrodes (ii) Electrolyte
(iii) internal resistance. Emf doesn’t depend on quantity of electrodes, size of
electrodes.
45. Factors on which the Internal Resistance depends: (i) Nature of electrodes (ii)
Electrolytes (iii)Distance between two electrodes (iv) Cross sectional area
46. In the meter bridge experiment, balanced point was observed at J with AJ = L.
(a) The values of R and X are doubled and then interchanged. What would be the new
position of the balance point?
(b) If the galvanometer and battery are interchanged at the balanced position, how will the
balanced point gets affected.
47. Why is it important to obtain the balance point near the mid point of the wire in the
meter bridge experiment?
48. Two students ‘X’ and ‘Y’ perform an experiment on potentiometer
separately using the circuit given:
(a) Keeping other parameters unchanged, how will the position of
the null point be affected it
(i) ‘X’ increases the value of resistance R in the set-up by keeping
the key K1 closed and the key K2 open?
(ii) ‘Y’ decreases the value of resistance S in the set-up, while the key K2 remain open
and the
key K1 closed? Justify.
49. A cell on emf E and internal resistance r is connected to two external resistances R1
and R2 and a parallel ammeter. The current in the circuit is measured in four different
situations:
(a) without any external resistance in the circuit (b) with R1 only
© with R1 and R2 in series combination (d) with R1 and R2 in parallel
combination
The currents in the four cases are 0.42A, 1.05A, 4.2A and 1.4A, but not necessarily in
that order. Identify the currents corresponding to the four cases mentioned above.
50. A wire of resistance 8 R is bent in the form of a
circle. What is the effective resistance between the
ends of a diameter AB ?

51. A potential difference V is applied to a conductor of length L. How is the drift

velocity affected when V is doubled and L is halved?
52. Two heating elements of resistance R1 and R2 when operated at a constant supply of
voltage, V, consume powers P1 and P2 respectively. Deduce the expressions for the power
of their combination when they are, in turn, connected in (i) series and (ii) parallel across
the same voltage supply.
53. When electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential, does it mean that all
the free
electrons of the metal are moving in the same direction?
54. Two students ‘X’ and ‘Y’ perform an experiment on potentiometer separately using
the circuit given:
Keeping other parameters unchanged, how will the position of the null point be affected
it
(i) ‘X’ increases the value of resistance R in the
set-up by keeping the key K1 closed and the
key K2 open?
(ii) ‘Y’ decreases the value of resistance S in the
set-up, while the key K2 remain open and the
key K1 closed? Justify

55. Figure shows two circuits each

having a galvanometer and a battery of
3 V.
When the galvanometers in each
arrangement do not show any
deflection, obtain the ratio R1 / R1
56. In the circuit shown in the figure, the galvanometer ‘G’
gives zero deflection. If the batteries A and B have
negligible internal resistance, find the value of the resistor R.

57. A resistance of R Ohm draws current from a potentiometer

as shown in the figure. The potentiometer has a total resistance
Ro Ohm. A voltage V is supplied to the potentiometer. Derive
an expression for the voltage across R when the sliding contact
is in the middle
of the potentiometer.

58. The plot of the variation of potential difference

across a combination of three identical cells in series,
versus current is as shown below. What is the emf of
each cell ?

59. A potentiometer wire of length 1 m is connected to a driver cell of emf 3 V as shown

in the figure. When a cell of 1.5 V emf is used in the secondary circuit, the balance point
is found to be 60 cm. On replacing this cell and using a cell of unknown emf, the balance
point shifts to 80 cm.
(i) Calculate unknown emf of the cell.
(ii) Explain with reason, whether the circuit works, if the driver cell is replaced
with a cell of emf 1 V.
(ii) Does the high resistance R, used in the
secondary circuit affect the balance point ?
Justify your answer.

60. A resistance R =5 ohm is connected to one of the gaps in a metre bridge,

which uses a wire of length 1 m. An unknown resistance X >5 ohm is
connected in the other
gap as shown in the figure. The balance point is noticed at
‘l’ cm from the positive end of the battery. On
interchanging R and X, it was found that the balance point
further shifts by 20 cm away from end A. Neglecting the end
correction, calculate the value of
unknown resistance X used.

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

IMPORTANT FORMULAE:
1. Energy possessed by photon of frequency E = hν = (h c)/λ
where h = Plank’s constant = 6.62 x 10-34 J-s, ν = Frequency
of emitted light
2. Einstein’s photo-electric effect equation
The energy of Incident Light = The work function (φ ¿+ The Kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons
hν = φ + ½ m v2
3. Work function: φ= hν0 where ν0 = threshold frequency
4. de-Broglie wave length λ = h/p where p = momentum
5. 1 Angstrom (1A0) = 10-10 m, 1 Electron Volt(1 eV) = 1.6 x 10-19 J
6. Kinetic energy in terms of charge (q) of particle and Potential Difference (V)
K.E. = q V
7. Kinetic energy in terms of Momentum(p) and mass(m) of particle: K.E. = p 2/2m
8. Momentum(p) of particle in terms of mass (m), charge(q) of particle and
potential difference (V)
p =√ 2m qV
9. de-Broglie wavelength in terms of mass (m), charge(q) of particle and potential
difference (V) λ = h/p = h/ √ 2m qV
10. de -Broglie wavelength in terms of mass(m), charge(q) of particle and potential
difference (V)
λ = h/p = h/ √ 2m eV
OR λ = 12.27 A0/ √ V
11. de -Broglie wavelength in terms of mass(m), Boltzmann’s constant (k) and the
Temperature (T) in Kelvin:
λ = h/p = h/ √ 3m kT
IMPORTANT STUDIES OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT EXPERIMENT:
(a) The variation of the current with the intensity of the radiation
(b) The variation of the current with the frequency of the incident radiation
(c) The variation of the current with the potential difference between the plates.
(d) The variation of the current with the nature of the material of plate C.
GRAPHS IN PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT EXPERIMENT:
1. EFFECT OF INTENSITY ON PHOTOCURRENT BY KEEPING THE
FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT RADIATION AND THE
ACCELERATING POTENTIAL FIXED:

2. EFFECT OF THE POTENTIAL ON PHOTO CURRENT FOR DIFFERENT

INTENSITIES BY KEEPING THE FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT RADIATION
FIXED:

3. EFFECT OF FREQEUCIES OF THE INCIDENT RADIATION ON STOPPING

POTENTIALS FOR DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES AND FIXED INTENSITY:

4. VARIATION OF THE STOPPING POTENTIAL WITH THE FREQUENCY

OF THE INCIDENT RADIATION FOR A GIVEN PHOTOSENSITIVE
MATERIAL

1. The saturation photo electric current iI

2. The stopping potential is independent of the intensity of the incident
light.
3. The stopping potential depends on the frequency of the incident light.
4. The value of stopping potential increases with the frequency of the incident light.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE ABOVE CONCLUSIONS:

1. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of
the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
2. For a frequency of the incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency, no photo-
emission is possible even the intensity is large.The minimum cut-off frequency is called
Threshold frequency.

5. THE GRAPH BETWEEN

KINETIC ENERGY AND FREQUENCY:

IMPORTANT POINTS FROM THE GRAPH

1. The stopping potential varies linearly with the frequency
of the incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
2. There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency for which the stopping
potential is zero.

The salient features of Photoelectric effect:

1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of the incident radiations
(above the threshold frequency), the number of the photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light, i.e. the photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the intensity. The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
independent of the intensity of the light.
2. For a given photosensitive material and the frequency of the incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of the intensity of the
radiation, where as the stopping potential is independent of the intensity of
incident radiation.
3. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off
frequency of the incident radiation, called Threshold frequency, below which no
 emission of the photoelectrons take place, now matter how intense the incident
light.
4. Above threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increase linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation, nut independent of its intensity.
5. Photoelectrons emission is an instantaneous emission.
Properties of Photon:
1. In interaction of radiation with the matter, the radiation behaves as it is made up
of particles called Photons.
2. Each photon has an energy and momentum Energy of photon, E=h=

hc
λ
Momentum of photon, p = E/c = h/ c = h/𝜆
3. The rest mass of the Photon is zero.
04. Photon is a packet of energy. They move with speed of light in vacuum.
05. The energy of the photon is independent of the intensity of the radiation.
06. The photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric field and
magnetic fields.
07. In a photon-electron collision, the total energy and the total momentum are
conserved.
08. The number of the photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may
be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
 1. Work Function: The minimum amount of energy required for the emission of
the electrons from the surface of the metal is called Work Function. It is
denoted by φ0 = h v0 where v0 is called threshold frequency.
2. Ultraviolet light causes photo electric emission from any metal surface, while visible
light causes photo emission from the alkali metals Alkali metals have low value of
work function.
3. Threshold frequency (0)is the minimum frequency of incident light that causes
photo emission with zero K.E. of photoelectrons. The corresponding wavelength of
light is called threshold wavelength (0).
CONDITIONS FOR PHOTO ELECTRON EMISSION:
From Einstein’s Photo electric equation:
The energy of Incident Light = The work function (φ ¿+ The Kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons
1 mv 2
hϑ=h ϑo +
2
hc hc 1 m v 2
= +
λ λ0 2
Where = Frequency of incident radiation, λ = Wavelength of incident radiation
0 = Threshold Frequency, λ0 = Threshold wavelength
1. The energy of the incident radiation > The work Function
2. The frequency of incident radiation > The threshold frequency
3. The wavelength of the incident radiation < The threshold wavelength

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. Light from a bulb is falling on a wooden table but no photoelectrons are emitted.
Why?
2. Why is alkali metals most suited as photo- sensitive materials?

3 Do all the photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface possess the same energy?
4. Does the maximum energy with which electrons is emitted from a metal surface
depend upon intensity or frequency of the incident light?

5. Is photoelectric emission possible at all frequencies? Give reasons for your answer.

6. Does threshold frequency depends on the nature of the emitter?

7. The stopping potential for some material is 1.2 V. What is the energy range of the
emitted photoelectrons?
8. The frequency of radiations (>o) incident a material is doubled. How is stopping
potential affected?
9. If the intensity of the incident radiation in a photocell is increased, how does the
stopping potential vary?
10. The frequency () of incident radiation is greater than threshold frequency (q) in a
photocell. How will the stopping potential vary if frequency () is increased, keeping
other factors constant?
11. Draw a graph giving variation of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons with
frequency of incident radiations. What is the slope of this
graph?

12. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is doubled.

What will happen to the energy of the photons ?
13. Is photoelectric effect an instantaneous phenomenon"
14. If E is the total energy of radiation of frequency, what is the number of
photoelectrons present

15. The wavelength of radiations incident on a material is decreased. Does the maximum
velocity of photoelectrons increase or decrease?
16. The graph between the stopping potential, V, and frequency V of the
incident radiation, on two different metal plates P and Q are shown in the
figure.
(a) Which metal out of P and Q has the greater value of the work function?
(b) What does the slope of the lines depict?
17. How are photoelectrons effected by the frequency of incident radiation?

18. Sodium is subjected to action of ultraviolet and infra-red radiations one by one and
stopping potential determined. Which radiations will have a higher value of stopping
potential?
19. By what factor does the maximum velocity of the emitted photoelectrons change
when the wavelength "the incident radiation is increased four times? (Given that the
initial frequency used is five times the threshold frequency)
20. Two metals A and B were illuminated with appropriate radiations so as to cause
photoemission. The work function of metal A is less than that ofB. Which metal will
have higher value for threshold frequency?
21. If the frequency of incident light on a metal surface is doubled for the same
intensity, what change would you observe in :(i) K.E. of photoelectrons emitted,(ii)
Photoelectric current and(iii) Stopping potential. Justify your answer in each case.

22 State the dependence of work function on the kinetic energy of electrons emitted in a
photocell. If the intensity of incident radiation is doubled, what changes occur in the
stopping potential and the photoelectric current?
23. Why is de-Broglie waves associated with a moving football not visible?
2mλc
24. Show that the energy of the photon is h times the kinetic energy of the
electron, where m, c, and h have their usual meanings.
25. Name a phenomenon, which illustrates particle nature of light.
26. Which photon is more energetic-violet or red one?
27 Alkali metals are most suitable for photoelectric emission, why?
28. Out of microwaves, ultraviolet rays and infrared rays, which radiation will be most
effective for emission of electrons from a metallic surface?
29. Blue light can eject electrons from a photosensitive surface while orange light does
not. Will violet and red lights eject electrons from the same surface?
30. Can X-rays cause photoelectric effect?
31 What is the effect on the velocity of photoelectrons, if the wavelength of incident light
is decreased?
32. It is easier to remove an electron from sodium than from copper, Which metal has a
higher value of threshold wavelength?
33. Every metal has definite work function. Why do all the photoelectrons not come out
with the same energy, if incident radiation is monochromatic? Why is there an energy
distribution of photoelectrons?
34. Radiation of frequency 1015 Hz is incident on two photosensitive surfaces P and Q.
Following observations are recorded
Surface P. No photoemission occurs.
(ii) Surface Q. Photoemission occurs but photoelectrons have zero K.E.
Based on Einstein’s photoelectric equation, explain two observations.
35. What is the value of stopping potential between the cathode and anode of
photocell? If the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted is 5ev?
36. An electron and photon possessing the same amount of K.E. which one of the
two have greater wavelength?
37. Give the effect of increase of frequency of the incident radiation on the number
of photoelectrons emitted by a phototube.
38. An electron and photon have the same de-Broglie wavelength (say A) which one
possesses more K.E.?
39. Determine the wavelength of a photon of energy 1010eV.1eV = 1.6 x 10-19
J
40. Calculate the longest wavelength of radiation that will eject an electron
from the surface having work function 1.9 eV, h = 6.625 x 10 -34Js.
41.Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an electron beam accelerated through a potential
difference of 60 V.
42. de-Broglie wavelength of a proton is 2 A. What is its (i ) velocity and (ii) kinetic
energy ? Given mass of proton = 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
43.Calculate the energy of an electron which has de-Broglie wavelength 1 A.
Given h= 6.6 x 10-34Js.
44. A source of light (1000 W) is emitting light of wavelength 6000 Å. Calculate the
number of photons emitted per second.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

IMPORTANT LAWS:
01. Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction:
The induced emf () produced in a coil is equal to the negative rate of
change of magnetic flux with it.
d ∅B
¿−
dt
- ve sign indicates the direction of induced emf.
2. Lenz’s Rule: The direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the cause which
produces it.
3. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule (Generator Rule): Direction of induced emf or current
is explained.
Stretch the right hand such that the fore finger, the central finger and
thumb mutually perpendicular to each other.
Fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field,
Thumb represents the direction of induced emf,
And then, Central finger represents the direction of Induced emf or current.
 4. Foucault Currents or Eddy currents: The direction is explained by Lenz’s Rule.
The currents produced in a metal itself due to change in magnetic
flux with the metal are called eddy currents.
5. Self Induction: It is the property of a coil by the virtue of which it opposes the
change in current flowing through it.
The phenomenon of inducing the emf in a coil due to the change in flux in a coil.
6. Mutual induction: The phenomenon of inducing the emf in a coil due to the rate
of change in magnetic flux or current in a nearby coil.
7. Transformer:
It is based on the principle of mutual induction.
The phenomenon of inducing the emf in a coil due to the rate of change in current in a
nearby coil.
It is a device used to convert low ac voltage at high ac current into high ac voltage at low
ac current and vice versa at constant power.

Es N s i p
  K
E p N p is
Pre-assignment factor or Transformation ratio
Where Np = no. of turns in primary coil, Ns = No. of turns in Secondary coil,
p = emf across primary coil, s = emf across Secondary coil
ip = Current across Primary, ip = current across secondary coil

STEP UP TRANSFORMER STEP DOWN

TRANSFORMER
RELATION BETWEEN NO. OF Ns  Np NP  NS
TURNS IN SECONDARY AND
PRIMARY
RELATION BETWEEN VOLTAGE Vs  Vp Vp  Vs
ACROSS SECONDARY AND
PRIMARY
TRANSFORMATION RATIO Ns / Np  1 NP / NS  1

AC Generator:
It is based on the electromagnetic Induction.
Whenever a magnetic flux liked with a coil changes, an emf is induced in the coil.
Direction of induced emf or current is explained by Fleming’s Right Hand rule.
DEFINITIONS:
1. Electromagnetic Induction: When a magnet is moved either towards or away
from a coil, an emf is induced in a coil. This phenomenon is called
Electromagnetic Induction. The emf produced in the coil is called induced
emf.
 2. Motional emf: The induced emf produced by changing the area of closed
circuit by the movement of the coil or a part of it through a uniform magnetic
field is called as Motional emf.
 = B l v where B = magnetic field, l = length of the coil, v = velocity of the
coil
3. Eddy currents: The inducing circulating currents produced in a metal itself
due to change in magnetic flux with the metal are called eddy currents.
4. Self Induction: It is the property of a coil by the virtue of which it opposes
the growth or decay of the current flowing through it.

5. Coefficient of self Induction: Coefficient of self induction of a coil is defined

as the magnetic flux with the coil when unit current flows through it.
6. Mutual Induction: The phenomenon of induction of emf in a coil due to the
change in current or magnetic flux linked with a neighboring coil is called
Mutual induction.

7. Coefficient of Mutual Induction: The coefficient of Mutual induction is

defined as the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil due to the flow of
unit current in the primary coil.

8. Resistance, Reactance, Impedance:

Resistance Reactance
The property of The property of the inductor or
material to oppose the capacitor to oppose the flow of
flow of current is current is called Reactance.
called Resistance
It is denoted by R It is denoted by X.
For inductor
Inductive reactance XL = wL
For capacitor, Capacitative
reactance XC = 1/ wC
Current I = V/R For inductor, I = V / XL
For capacitor I = V / XC
The graph between V The graph between V and I is a
and I is a straight line straight line through origin.
Impedance
The property of the combination of resistance
and inductor or resistance and capacitor or
resistance, inductor, capacitor to oppose the
flow of the current is called Impedence.
It is denoted by Z.
For LR circuit Z =R2 + XL2
For RC circuit Z =R2 + XC2
For LRC circuit Z =R2 + (XL – XC)2
Current I = V/Z for LR, RC, LCR circuit
The graph between V and I is a straight line
through origin.
through origin.

PROPERTIES & CONDITIONS:

01.Transformer
It is a device used to convert low ac voltage at high ac current into high ac voltage
at low ac current and vice versa at constant power.
Sl.no Power loss Minimised by
.
01. Flux leakage or loss Using a closed core shaped to follow field lines to
avoid flux losses
02. Copper loss Thick wire to avoid heat energy losses
03. Hysteresis loss Soft iron to avoid low hysterisis
04. Eddy currents or Heating of core is avoided by using an isulated
iron loss laminated core.

02. Resonance conditions

Resistive or Resonance circuit (XC = XL)
V = Vo Sin wt I = Io Sin wt
(i) Both Current and voltage are in phase. = 0
(ii) Phase angle  = 0, Power factor = cos  =1
(iii) Impedence Z =  R2 + (XC - XL)2 = R
(iv)Voltage across inductor = Voltage across Capacitor. VL = VC
(v) Resonance Frequency XL = XC, wL = 1/ wC
r= 1/  LC
(vi) Max. Current Io = V0 / Z = V0 /R = maximum
(vii) Power P = (Vr m s)2 / Z = (Vr m s)2/R
Power is maximum.
03. Bar Magnet and Solenoid:
(i) A current carrying straight solenoid behaves like a bar magnet.
(ii) Magnetic field inside a solenoid is stronger than bar magnet.
Magnetic field inside solenoid is uniform and outside it is non-
uniform.

FACTORS ON WHICH ----------- DEPENDS:

01. Induced emf: (i) No. of turns of coil (ii) Magnetic field (iii) Area of coil
02. Magnetic Flux : It is induced by (i) Changing the intensity of magnetic field
(iii)Angle between coil and magnetic field (iii) Area
03. Motional emf : E = Blv (i) Magnetic field (ii) length (iii) velocity of the coil
04.Self Inductance: L = 0 n2 A L = 0 N2 A /L
where 0 = magnetic permeability= 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
A = area of cross section, L= length of wire
n = number density = Number of turns/ length = N/L
(i) No. of turns (ii)Area of cross section
(ii) Nature of medium (iv)Length of coil
05. Mutual Induction : M = 0 n1 n2 AL = (0 N1 N2 A) /L
 l
Where 0 = magnetic permeability= 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
A = area of cross section, L= length of wire
n1 = number density = Number of turns/ length = N1/L
n2 = number density = Number of turns/ length = N2/L
(i) No. of turns (ii)Area of cross section
(ii) Nature of medium (iv)Length of coil
(iii) Geometrical arrangement of the coils
6.Transformer: Nature of transformer: (i)No. of turns of coil(ii) Efficiency of
transformer
07. AC Generator: Flux  = N B A cos t Emf  = NBA  sin
t
Max emf 0 = NBA  where N = no. of turns, A = area of cross
section B = magnetic field  =
angular frequency
IMPORTANT FORMULAE:
1. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Change in flux 2 - 1 d
Induced emf =  = - -------------------- = - --------- = - ---
Change in time t2 – t 1 dt
2. Magnetic flux = B = NB.A
= N B A Cos  where N = no. of turns
B = magnetic field, A = area of coil
 = angle between plane of coil and magnetic field
3. Motional emf  = B l v where B = magnetic field,l = length of the coil
v = velocity of the coil
Force required to pull a conductor F= (B2l2v)/R
4. Emf between center and far end of the rod which is rotating in magnetic field of
B
 = ½ B  l2 where B = magnetic field  = angular speed
l = radius of rod
5. Self Inductance L
(i) In terms of magnetic flux and current L= Magnetic flux / current = B / I
(ii) In terms of emf and rate of change in current ε = L (dI/dt)

(iii) in terms of no. of turns, area and length L = on2 A L = oN2 A /L

Where 0 = magnetic permeability= 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
A = area of cross section, l= length of wire
n = number density = Number of turns/ length = N/l
(iv)If L1 and L2 are self inductances, Series L = L1 + L2
Parallel 1/L = (1/L1)+ (1/L2)
6. Mutual Induction M
(i) In terms of magnetic flux and current M = 2/I1
 = Magnetic flux in second coil/ current in
first coil
(ii) In terms of emf and rate of change in current 2= M (dI1)/dt
(iii) in terms of no. of turns, area and length M = on1 n2AL = (oN1N2 A) /L
Where 0 = magnetic permeability= 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
A = area of cross section, l= length of wire
n1 = number density = Number of turns/ length = N1/L
n2 = number density = Number of turns/ length = N2/L

7. Transformer:
N2 2 I1
---- = ---- = ----- = Pre-assignment factor or Transformation ratio
N1 1 I2
Where N1 = no. of turns in primary coil, N2 = No. of turns in Secondary coil,
1 = emf across primary coil, 2 = emf across Secondary coil
I1 = Current across Primary, I2 = current across secondary coil

8. AC Generator: Flux  = N B A cos t Emf  = NBA  sin t

Max emf 0 = NBA  where N = no. of turns,
A = area of cross section B = magnetic field,
 = angular frequency
9. Magnetic energy in terms of Inductance
UB = ½ L i2 where L = self inductance I = current

ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

01. AC voltage = V = Vo Sin wt OR V = V0 Cos wt

02. AC current = I = Io Sin wt OR I = I0 Cos wt
where V = instantaneous voltage at time t, Vo = max. voltage
I= instantaneous current at time t, Io = max. current
w= angular frequency = 2 where  = frequency
03. The relation between maximum and root mean square(rms) values:
Max. Voltage = Vo = Vr m s 2 Max. Current = Io = Ir m s 2
3. The relation between Mean (average) and Max. values:
Mean current Iav = 2 Io /  Mean voltage Vav = 2 Vo / 
4. Power delivered across component
P = Vr m s I r m s cos  where  = phase angle cos  = Power factor
06.
Resistance Reactance (X) Impedance (Z)
It is denoted by For inductor LR circuit Z =R2 + XL2
R Inductive reactance XL = wL RC circuit Z =R2 + XC2
 For capacitor, LRC circuit Z =R2 +
Capacitative reactance XC = 1/ wC (XL – XC)2
Current I = V/R For inductor, I = V / XL Current I = V/Z for LR,
For capacitor I = V / XC RC, LCR circuit

5. RMS value of current across resistance I r m s = V r m s /R

RMS value of current across Inductor I r m s = V r m s / XL
RMS value of current across capacitor I r m s = V r m s /XC

RESISTANCE CAPACITOR INDUCTOR

VOLTAGE V = Vo Sin wt V = Vo Sin wt V = Vo Sin wt
CURRENT I = Io Sin wt I = Io Sin (wt + 900) I = Io Sin (wt -900)
PHASE Both current and Current leads voltage Current lags voltage
RELATION voltage by 900 behind by 900
are in phase with each
other.
CURRENT I o = V0 / R I o = V0 / X c I o = V0 / X L
(MAX.) where Xc = 1/wc Where XL = wL
PHASE ANGLE =0  =900  = 900
POWER FACTOR Cos  = 1 Cos  = 0 Cos  = 0
POWER 0
(Vrms)2/R 0

09. AC voltage across LR circuit or choke

V = Vo Sin wt , I = Io Sin (wt - )
Current lags voltage by  or Voltage leads by current by 
Phase angle  Tan  = XL / R Power factor = cos  = R / Z
Impedence Z =  R + XL
2 2
Max. Current Io = V0 / Z
Inductive reactance XL = L where  = 2

10. AC voltage across RC circuit

V = Vo Sin wt , I = Io Sin (wt + )
Current leads voltage by  or Voltage lags by current by 
Phase angle  Tan  = XC / R Power factor = cos  = R / Z
Impedence Z =  R2 + XC2 Max. Current Io = V0 / Z
Capacitative reactance XC = 1/(C) where  = 2
11. AC voltage across LCR circuit
(i) Capacitative circuit (XC  XL)
V = Vo Sin wt I = Io Sin (wt + )
Current leads voltage by  or Voltage lags by current by 
Phase angle  Tan  = (XC - XL) / R Power factor = cos  = R / Z
Impedence Z =  R + (XC - XL)
2 2

Inductive reactance XL = L, Capacitative reactance Xc = 1/ wC

Max. Current Io = V0 / Z
(ii) LCR CIRCUIT: Inductive circuit (XL  XC)
V = Vo Sin wt I = Io Sin (wt - )
Current lags voltage by  or Voltage leads by current by 
Phase angle  Tan  = (XL – XC) / R Power factor = cos  = R / Z
Impedence Z =  R + (XL – XC)
2 2
Max. Current Io = V0 / Z
Inductive reactance XL = L, Capacitative reactance Xc = 1/ wc where  =
2
(iii) LCR CIRCUIT: Resistive or Resonance circuit (XC = XL)
V = Vo Sin wt I = Io Sin wt
Both Current and voltage are in phase. = 0
Phase angle  = 0 Power factor = cos  =1
Impedence Z =  R + (XC - XL)2 = R
2

Inductive reactanceXL=L, Capacitative reactanceXc=1/ wC

Voltage across inductor = Voltage across Capacitor. VL = VC
Resonance Frequency XL = XC r=1/  LC
Max. Current Io = V0 / Z = V0 /R = maximum
Power P = (Vr m s)2/Z = (Vr m s)2/R Power is maximum.
12. Quality Factor(Q.F.) =( r L)/R = (Voltage across L or C)/Voltage across R
13. Energy across LC oscillations U = Q2/2 C
14. Admittance = 1 / Impedence = 1/ Z
IMPORTANT CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS:
 1. Give the direction in which the individual current flows in the wire loop
,when the magnet moves towards it as shown in fig.
According to henry’s law induced E.M.F. is
produced in the wire loop with s pole at the face of
the loop towards the magnet. Therefore the direction
of induced
Current is clockwise in the loop when run from
the side of a magnet.

2. Why is self induction called inertia of electricity?

Because it opposes the growth of electric current.
3. In which of the cases shown in fig. Will the mutual induction of two coils be
maximum, if the no of turns remain same?

In (b)because the Flux of

primary is linked with the
secondary.

4. A rectangular
loop of wire is
parallel to
right away
from the long st. wire through which a steady current I flows. Give the
direction of individual current?

According to thumb rule magnetic field inside the loop is directed

into the plan of the paper.When the loop is paralled away the flum
direction.But according to henry,s law thw magnetic field
produced by the loop must oppose the direction of magnetic
flum.so current in the loop must flow in the clockwise direction.
5. How does the mutual inductance of a Pair of coil
change when the distance between them is increased?

A )Mutual inductance decreases. Reason –flux linked with the secondary coil decrease
Bi) the no. of turns in each coil is decreased? Justify your answer?
Mutual inductance decreases. Reason-M  N

6. SELF-INDUCTANCE OF CIRCULAR COIL

Consider a circular coil of radius rand number of turns N. If current Ipasses in the coil,
μ0 NI
B=
Then magnetic field at centre of coil 2r
The effective magnetic flux linked with this coil
μ 0 NI
φ = NBA = N
2R ( )
A
φ
L=
Since, by definition I
2 2 2 2
μ 0 N A μ0 N π r μ0 N π r
⇒L = = ⇒L =
2r 2r 2
7. CALCULATION OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

A. FOR A TWO COIL SYSTEM: Consider two co-axial coils having

number of turns Niand N2and radii Rj and R2respectively. If I1 is current in
outer coil, then magnetic field at its centre,
μ0 N 1 I 1
B 1=
2 R1
μ0 N 1 I 1

The flux linked with inner-coil φ2 =N 2 B1 A2

⇒ φ2=N 2
( 2 R1 )A2

φ 2 μ0 N 1 N 2 I 1 A 2 μ0 N 1 N 2 I 1 ( πR 22 )
⇒ M= = =
I1 2 R1 2 R1
B FOR A SOLENOID-COIL SYSTEMLet n, be number of turns per metre length of a long
solenoid S2. Let a coil S1 of n2turns per unit length and of area A is placed within it. If I1 is
current in solenoid, then magnetic field within it,
B1=μ 0 n1 I 1 Since no magnetic field exists inside the annular region (region between S
1
and S2), so magnetic flux linked with coil,
f2=N2B1A = (n2l) B1A
φ2 =n 2 ( μ0 n1 I 1 ) A
φ2
M= =μ 0 n1 n 2 Al
I1
8. MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO CLOSE COILS & COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
If two coils of self-inductances L1and L2 are placed near each other, then mutual
inductance
M.=K √I1 I2 where K is a constant, called coefficient of coupling
If flux linkage between coils is 100% then K = 1 and soM.= √I1 I2
9. INDUCTANCES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
A. SERIES :If two coils of self-inductances L1and L2 having mutual inductance are in series
and are far from each other, so that the mutual induction between them is negligible,
then net self inductance
LS =L1 +L2
When they are situated close to each other, then net inductance LS=L1+L2± 2M
B. PARALLEL
If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having mutual inductance are connected in
parallel and are far from each other, then net inductance L is
1 1 1
= +
L P L 1 L2
L1 L2−M 2
LP =
When they are situated close to each other, then L1 +L2 ±2 M
10. An induced e.m.f. has no direction of its own. Comment.

The direction of induced e.m.f. is always opposite to the cause which produces it (Lenz's
law). So the direction of the induced e.m.f. is determined by the cause of it. Hence, an
induced e.m.f. has no direction of its own.
11. Give the direction in which the induced current flows in the wire loop,
when the magnet moves towards it as shown in Figure
According to Lenz's law, induced e.m.f. is produced in the wire loop with S pole at the
face of the loop towards the magnet. So the direction of induced current is clockwise in
the loop when seen from the side of the magnet.
12. No induced e.m.f. is produced in the conductor when it is moved parallel to the
magnetic field. Explain why?

Induced e.m.f. is produced only when magnetic flux linked with it changes. Since there
is no change in the magnetic flux linked with a conductor moving parallel to the
magnetic field, hence no induced e.m.f. is produced in it.
13. Two identical magnets are moved towards a closed coil one by one. One of the
magnets is moved faster and the other is moved slowly. In which case more
induced e.m.f. will be produced in the coil? Explain.

We know, induced e.m.f. produced is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic
flux linked with the coil changes. When the magnet is moved faster towards the coil, the
rate of change of magnetic flux will be more and hence large induced e.m.f. is produced
in the coil.
 14. Two identical loops, one of copper and another of aluminum are
rotated with the same speed in the same magnetic field. In which case the
induced (a) e.m.f. and (b) current will be more? Explain.
The change in magnetic flux linked with both the loops will be same. So the induced
e.m.f. produced in both the loops is same.
Since the resistance of copper loop is less than that of the aluminium loop, so more
e
I=
current will flow through the copper loop than that in the aluminium loop. R
15. Three identical coils A, B and C are placed with their planes parallel to one
another as shown in the figure. Coil A and C carry
equal current in opposite directions. The coil B and
C are fixed and the coil A is moved towards B with
uniform speed. Is e.m.f. induced in B ? If yes, what is its direction?

When coil A is moved towards coil B, magnetic flux linked with B increases. As a result
of this induced e.m.f. will be produced in the coil B. Hence the current in B will flow. The
direction of current in B be such that it opposes the increase in magnetic flux linked with
it. The direction of current in B is opposite to that in coil A, so that the magnetic field
produced by it is opposite to that of produced by the coil A. Hence direction of current
in B is same as that in C.
16. A conducting loop is held stationary normal to the field between the NS poles
of a fixed permanent magnet. By choosing a magnet sufficiently strong, can we
hope to generate current in the loop?
Induced e.m.f. and hence current in the loop is generated only when the
magnetic flux linked with it changes. As the loop is stationary, so
magnetic flux linked with it (weak or strong) does not change. Hence we
can not hope to generate current in the loop.

17. An electron moves in a circle with uniform speed in a stationary magnetic field
normal to the plane of the circle. If the field magnitude is made to increase with
time, what will be the effect on the speed of the electron? Will it remain in the same
circle?
Energy spent to increase B by increasing current results into increase in electron's
energy. The electron will not stay in the same circle in general as v and B may not
 mv
Increase in a ratio in the relation R = e B As such, R keeps on changing with time. It is
however possible in a machine called Betatron used to accelerate charged particles. In
this machine a non- uniform B has controlled increase such that R remains constant with
change in time also.
18. A magnet is dropped in a very long copper tube. Even in the absence of air
resistance it acquires a constant terminal velocity. Explain why?
When the magnet is dropped in a copper tube, eddy currents are produced in the tube.
These eddy currents produce the magnetic field which opposes the motion of the
magnet. After some time, the opposing force becomes equal to the gravitational pull on
the magnet. Thus the net force acting on the magnet is zero and hence the magnet
acquires a constant velocity.
19. A coin is dropped between the pole pieces of a strong magnet. It falls as if moving
through a highly viscous fluid. Why?
When the coin is dropped, eddy currents are produced in it. These eddy currents oppose
the motion of the coin.
20. A bar falling vertically through the hollow region of a thick cylindrical shell
made of copper experiences retarding force. What’s special about the bar?
Retarding force experienced by the iron bar clearly shows that the iron bar is a magnet.
As this magnet falls through the hollow region of thick cylindrical shell, the change in
flux linked with the shell causes eddy currents in the shell. According to Lenz's law the
induced e.m.f. must oppose the cause i.e. oppose the motion of the magnet.
21.Two identical bulbs are connected as shown in the figure.
(a) Which of the bulbs lights up earlier when key K is closed?
(b) Will the bulbs be equally bright after sometime?
(a) When key (K) is closed, current begins to flow through both the
arms. Induced e.m.f. is produced across the inductor which opposes the
growth of current in the circuit. So current through B1is delayed. Hence bulb B2 lights up
earlier than that of bulb B1 (b) When current becomes constant after some time in both
the arms; no induced e.m.f. is produced in L. So both the bulbs will be equally bright.
22. An electric bulb connected in parallel with an inductor glows brilliantly for a
moment when the current is switched off. Explain why?
When current is switched off, induced e.m.f. is produced in the inductor which opposes
the decay of current through it. Hence large current flows through the bulb for a moment
and hence it glows brilliantly for a moment.
23. An electric bulb connected in series with an inductor does not light up to full
brilliance immediately when the current is switched on. Explain why?
When current flows through the circuit, induced, e.m.f. is produced in the inductor due
to self induction. This induced e.m.f. opposes the growth of the current and hence the
bulb does not light up to full brilliance at once.
24. A coil is wound on an iron core and looped back on itself so that the core has two
sets of closely wound wires in series carrying current in the opposite senses. What
will be the effective self inductance?
The coil is equivalent to two inductors connected in series but in opposition. The induced
e.m.f. in such a coil will be cancelled and as such the self inductance will be small. The
equivalent inductance will be given by the relation Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M = L + L -2L = 0
26. Why a small resistor is usually in parallel to the current carrying coil of an
electromagnet?

Ans. The above arrangement is usually used in large

electromagnets. When switch K is switched off, the current
in the circuit is interrupted causing change in flux from a large
value to zero in a short duration. It will induce large e.m.f.
across the open switch causing sparks and damage. But if a resistance is provided across
the inductor, the induced e.m.f. is across this resistor which allows a conducting path thus
avoiding sparks and risks of high voltages.
28. Which is more dangerous in use, a.c. or D.C.? Explain why?
29. Capacitor blocks d.c. Why?
30. D.C. can flow easily through inductor but a.c. cannot pass easily. Explain.
31. Draw the graphs showing the variation of reactance of (a) a capacitor and (b)
an inductor with the frequency of an a.c. circuit.
32. When an alternating voltage of 200 V is applied across a device X, a current of
0-5 A flows through the circuit and is in phase with the applied voltage. When
the same voltage is applied across another device Y, the same current again
flows through the circuit but it leads the applied voltage by π /2 radians.
Identify the devices.
33. An electric lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. What would you
observe if (i) source is D.C. (ii) source is A.C.? What will happen if the capacitance
of the capacitor is decreased?
34. An ideal inductor when connected in a.c. circuit does not produce heating
effect yet reduces the current in the circuit. Explain why?
35. Voltage across L and C in series are 180°out of phase but for L and C in
parallel, currents in L and C are 180° out of phase. How?
36. An applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a d.c. voltage and an
a.c. voltage of high frequency. The circuit consists of an inductor and a capacitor
in series. Show that the d.c. signal will appear across C and a.c. signal across L.
37. A bulb connected in series with a solenoid is lit by a.c. source. If the soft iron
core is introduced in the solenoid, will the bulb glow brighter?
38. An a.c. source is connected to two circuits as shown in Figure. What is the
current through R at resonance in both
the circuits?

Ans.The circuit is a series LCR circuit. At

resonance, impedance Z
1 2
√ (
= R2 + Lω−
Cω )
=R (minimum).
Hence
current through R is maximum and is
V V
I= =
given by Z R
The other circuit is a parallel resonant
circuit. So impedance (Z) of the circuit is
maximum and hence current through R is zero.

39. fig. What will be the direction of the induced current in the loop if the current in the
wire PQ is constantly increased?
Ans: clockwise

P Q
40. A triangular loop of wire placed at abc is moved completely
inside a magnetic field which is directed normal to the place of the
loop away from the reader to a new position a¢b¢c¢. What is the
direction of the current induced in the loop? Give reason.
41. Use Lenz’s law to determine the direction of the induced current when a
rectangular conducting loop abcd is moved into a region of magnetic field
which is directed normal to the plane of the loop away from the reader.

42. A flexible wire of irregular shape, abcd, as shown in the figure, turns into a circular
shape when placed in a region of magnetic field which is
directed normal to the plane of the loop away from the reader.
Predict the direction of the induced current in the wire.

43. A plot of magnetic flux (φ) versus current (I) is shown in

the figure for two inductors A and B. Which of the two has
larger value of self inductance?

44. An electric lamp having coil of negligible inductance connected in series with a
capacitor and an AC source is glowing with certain brightness. How
does
the brightness of the lamp change on reducing the (i) capacitance,
and (ii) the frequency? Justify your answer.

45. (i) When primary coil P is moved towards secondary

coil S (as shown in the figure below) the
galvanometer shows momentary deflection. What is
can be done to have larger deflection in the
galvanometer with the same battery?
(iii) State the related law.

46. A coil Q is connected to low voltage bulb B and placed near another coil P is shown
in the figure. Give reason to explain the following
observations: (a) Bulb B lights (b) Bulb gets dimmer
if the coil moves towards let.
47. A rectangular loop and a circular loop are moving out of a uniform magnetic field to
a field-free region with a constant velocity ‘v’ as
shown in the figure. Explain in which loop do you
expect the induced emf to be constant during the
passage out of the field region. The magnetic
field is normal to the loops.

48. Two loops of different shapes are moved in a

region of uniform magnetic field in the directions
marked by arrows as shown in the figure. What is
the direction of the induced
current in each loop?

49. A circular loop is moved through the region of uniform magnetic field.
Find the direction of induced current (clockwise or anticlockwise) when the
loop moves:
(i) into the field, and (ii) out of the field.

50. A rectangular loop of wire is pulled to the right, away from the
long straight wire through which a steady current I flows upwards. What is the
direction of induced current in the loop?

51. A current is induced in coil C1 due to the motion of current carrying coil
C2. (a) Write any two ways by which a large deflection
can be obtained in the galvanometer G. (b) Suggest an
alternative device to demonstrate the induced
current in place of a galvanometer.
52. A magnet is quickly moved in the direction indicated by an arrow between two coils
C1 and C2 as shown in the figure.
What will be the direction of induced current in
each
coil as seen from the magnet? Justify
your answer.

53. Predict the polarity of the capacitor when the two magnets are quickly
moved in the directions market by arrows.

54. Two bar magnets are quickly moved towards a metallic loop connected
across a capacitor ‘C’ as shown in the figure.
Predict the polarity of the capacitor

55. Predict the directions of induced currents in metal

rings 1 and 2 lying in the same plane where current I in
the wire is increasing steadily.

56. Predict the direction of induced current in a metal ring when the ring is moved
towards a straight conductor with constant speed v. The conductor is carrying
current I in the direction shown in
the figure.

57. Predict the direction of induced current in metal rings 1 and 2 when current
I in the wire is steadily decreasing?

58. A bar magnet is moved in the direction indicated by the arrow between two coils PQ
and
CD. Predict the directions of induced current in
each coil
59. The closed loop (PQRS) of wire is moved into a uniform magnetic field at right
angles to the
plane of the paper as shown in the figure. Predict the
direction of the induced current in the loop.

60. The closed loop (PQRS) of wire is moved out of a uniform magnetic field at right
angles to the plane of the paper as shown in the
figure. Predict the direction of the induced current
in the loop

61. A resistor ‘R’ and an element ‘X’ are connected in series to an ac source of voltage.
The voltage is found to lead the current in phase by p/4. If ‘X’ is replaced by another
element ‘Y’, the voltage lags behind the current by p/4.
(i) Iden tify elements ‘X’ and ‘Y’.
(ii) When both ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are connected in series with ‘R’ to the same source, will the
power
dissipated in the circuit be maximum or minimum? Justify your answer.

62. Draw a plot showing the variation of the current I as a function of angular frequency
‘w’ of the applied ac source for the two cases of a series combination of (i) inductance
L1, capacitance C1 and resistance R1 and (ii) inductance L2, capacitance C2 and
resistance R2 where R2 > R1.
Write the relation between L1, C1 and L2,C2 at resonance. Which one, of the two, would
be better suited for fine tuning in a receiver set? Give reason.
63. A coil is mechanically rotated with constant angular speed w in a uniform magnetic
field which is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. The plane of the coil is
initially held
perpendicular to the field. Plot a graph showing variation of (i) magnetic flux f and (ii)
the
induced emf in the coil as a function of wi.

64. Two spherical bobs, one metallic and the other of glass, of the same size are allowed
to fall freely from the same height above the ground. Which of the two would reach
earlier and why?

65. A capacitor ‘C’, a variable resistor ‘R’ and a bulb ‘B’ are connected in series to the ac
mains in circuits as shown. The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of
the bulb change if (i) a dielectric slab is introduced between the plates of the
capacitor, keeping resistance R to be the same; (ii) the resistor R is increased keeping the
same capacitance?

66. The current flowing through an inductor of self inductance L is continuously

increasing. Plot a graph showing the variation of
(i) Magnetic flux versus the current
(ii) Induced emf versus dI/dt
(iii) Magnetic potential energy stored versus the current.

67. The electric current flowing in a wire in

the direction from B to A is decreasing. Find
out the direction of the induced current in
the metallic loop kept above the wire as shown.

68. A conducting loop is held above a current carrying wire ‘PQ’ as shown in the figure.
Depict the direction of the current induced in the loop when the current in the
wire PQ is constantly increasing.

ELECTROSTATICS
IMPORTANT LAWS
1. Coulomb’s Law: The force between two charges is directly proportional to
the product of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between two charges.
2. Superposition Principle: The interaction between the two charges doesn’t
effect the presence of other charges in a system.
3. Gauss’s Theorem In Electrostatics: The electric flux is equal to 1/0 times
the total charge enclosed in a Gaussian surface. Electric flux =  =  E. dS = q
/0
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
1. Quantisation of a charge: The charge on an extended body is an integral
multiple of fundamental charge.
Q = ne where Q = total charge, n =  1,  2,  3, …. e= 1.6 X 10 –19 C
2. Electric field intensity: The force experienced by a unit positive charge
placed at a point is called Electric field intensity at a point.
E = F / q where E = electric field , q = charge, F = force
3. Electrostatic Potential: Electrostatic potential at a point is defined as the
work done per unit charge in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity
to that point against force of the field.
4. Electric lines of force; It is a curve, or straight line, along which a unit
positive charge tends to move if it is free to do so.
 Or It is a path such that the tangent drawn at any point on it gives the direction
of electric field at that point.
5. Electric dipole: It is a system in which equal and opposite charges are
separated by a small distance.
6. Electric dipole moment: It is the product of distance between two charges
and the magnitude of either of the charges.
7. Equi potential surface: A surface on which the potential is constant at every
point is called Equi potential surface.
8. Electric Potential energy: The work done on a charge q in bringing it from
infinity to a point in the field against the electric force is called electrostatic
potential energy.
W = qV where q = charge V = Potential
9. Electric Flux: The total lines of force that pass through that surface is called
electric flux.  = Electric field X Area
10. Capacitance of Capacitor: The charge raised per unit potential is called
Capacitance of capacitor. C = q / V
11. Energy density: The energy stored across a capacitor or inductor per unit
volume is called Energy density.
12. Electrostatic shielding: The vanishing of electric field inside the conductor is
called electrostatic shielding.
Introducing dielectric slab between the plates of the charged capacitor with:
Property Battery connected Battery disconnected
Charge K Q0 Q0
Potential Difference V0 V0/K
Electric Field E0 E0/K
Capacitance KC0 KC0
1 2 1 2
K times ϵ 0 E [Energy is 1/K times ϵ 0 E [Energy
Energy 2 2
supplied By battery] used for Polarization]
PROPERTIES & CONDITIONS:
1. Electric Charge:
(i) Quantisation (ii) Conservation (iii) Additive property (iv) Charge is
independent of speed.
2. Electric lines of Force:
(i) They start from Positive charge and end at negative charge.
(ii) They do not intersect each other.
(iii) They are normal to the surface of the conductor.
(iv) They contract longitudinally and expand laterally.
(v) Tangent to any line of force gives the direction of electric field.
(vi) The electric field is stronger if they are crowded, weaker if they are
away from each other.
3. Equi potential surface:
(i) The electric potential is same at every point on the surface.
(ii) They are perpendicular to the field lines.
 (iii)
Work done by a charge is zero in moving from one point to another
point on the surface.
(iv) Displacement is perpendicular to the electric field.
4. Conductors:
(i) The electric field in the interior of a conductor is zero.
(ii) The net charge in the interior of conductor is zero. Entire charge lies
on the surface.
(iii) The volume charge density is zero. But surface charge density is not
zero.
(iv) Electric field just outside the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to
conductor at every point.
(v) The potential at every point on the conductor is constant. So the
surface is an equi potential surface.

5. Electric Dipole in Equilibrium:

E ⇒ ⃗τ =|⃗p||⃗
The torque experience by the dipole τ⃗ =⃗p × ⃗ E|sin θ n^
E = p E [cos θ 1 -cos θ 2 ¿
Potential energy of a dipole : U = −⃗p . ⃗
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM : (i)  = 0
(ii) Potential energy =minimum = -pE (iii) Torque = 0
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM : (i)  = 180
(ii) Potential energy =maximum = pE (iii) Torque = 0
IMPORTANT FORMULAE:
1. Quantisation of the charge: Q = ne where Q = total charge,
k q1 q2
2. Coulomb’s Law or Force between two charges:⃗ F = 2 r^
r
where k =1/ 4 0 = 9 X 10 9 N m2/ C2 , Electric Permittivity 0 = 8.85 X 10 –12
C2/ N m2
3. Electric force in terms of Electric field: F = q E where E = electric field
kQ
4. Electric field E in terms of charge and distance ⃗ E = 2 r^
r
5. Potential in terms of work and charge V = W/Q
kQ
6. Electric potential in terms of charge and distance V¿
R
7. Electric dipole moment:
p = separation between two charges X magnitude of either of charges = 2a X q
k ⃗p
8. Electric field at a point along the perpendicular bisector for a dipole Eeq = 3
r
2k ⃗p
9. Electric field at a point along axial line for a dipole Ea xial = 3
r
k |⃗p|
10. Electric potential at point for a dipole V = 2 cosθ
r
k |⃗p| k |⃗p|
i. on its axial line: V axial = 2 [or] 2 cosθ
r r
 ii. on its equatorial line:V eq = 0
11. Torque experienced by a dipole τ⃗ =⃗p × ⃗ E ⇒ ⃗τ =|⃗p||⃗
E|sin θ n^
12. Potential energy of a dipole : U = −⃗p . E = p E [cos θ 1 -cos θ 2 ¿
⃗
13. Electric field in terms of Electric potential and distance E = V/R (OR) E = -
(dV/dR)
14. Electric flux: : ∅=⃗ E .⃗
∆ S =|⃗
E||⃗
∆ S|cosθ
15. Linear charge density  = q /length Surface charge density  = q/ Area
16. Volume charge density  = q/ Volume

17. Applications of Gauss’ theorem for uniform charge distribution:

Expression Infinite Infinite plane Thin spherical shell
for Linear sheet
Flux ∅ λl σs σ 4 π r2
ϵ0 2 ϵ0 ϵ0
Magnitude of λ σ Q
2 πrϵ 0 2 ϵ0 [for points on/outside the
Field E 4 π r2 ϵ0
shell]
ZERO [for points inside the shell]
Charge ∆q ∆q σ
λ= σ=
density ∆l ∆S 4 π r2

18. Electric filed intensity due to thin finite sheet of charge E =  / 0

19. Electrostatic energy in terms of potential and charge U = q V
20. Electric field intensity due to two thin infinite parallel sheets of charge
(i)To the left of the plates E = - (1 + 2) /20
(ii) To the right of the plates E = (1 + 2)/ 20
(iii) In the middle of the plates E = (1 - 2)/ 20
If 1 = - 2 = , (i)To the left of the plates E = 0
(ii) To the right of the plates E = 0 (iii) In the middle of the plates E =  / 0
kq q
21. Electrostatic potential energy in terms of charges U = 1 2
r
22. Capacitance of capacitor in terms of charge and potential
C = q / V where q = charge, V = potential
23. Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor C = 4 0r
24. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor C = 0A / d
 25. Energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor U = ½ C V2
26. Energy density uE = ½ 0 E 2
27. Capacitors in Series 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
28. Capacitors in Parallel C = C1 + C2 +C3
29. Dielectric constant (K) = F0/F = E0/E = V0/V =C/CO = / 0
30. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor if the medium between two plates
ϵo A
is filled with conducting slab of thickness t Cm =
( d−t )
31. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor if the medium between two plates
ϵo A
is filled with dielectric slab of thickness t: Cm = t
( ) d−t+
k
C 1 V 1 +C 2 V 2
32. Common Potential: V =
V 1 +V 2
1 C 1 × C2 2
33. Loss of energy: ∆ U = ( V 1−V 2 )
2 C1 +C 2

UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

SL.NO NAME OF THE PHYSICAL UNIT
. QUANTITY
1 Charge COULOMB
2 Electric Permittivity C2/(N m2)
3 Electric Field Intensity N/C or Volt/meter
4 Electric flux N m2/C
5 Electric dipole moment Coulomb-meter
6 Electrostatic potential Volt or Joule/Coulomb
7 Capacitance of capacitor Farad
8 Electric energy density Joule/meter3
9 Linear charge density Coulomb/meter
10 Surface charge density Coulomb/meter2
11 Volume charge density Coulomb/meter3
IMPORTANT CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS:
1. Define the SI unit of electric charge.
2. Two identical spheres A and B each having a charge of q are separated by a
distance r in air. A third uncharged sphere of same size is brought in contact with
the first, then brought in contact with the second and afterwards removed from
both. What is the new electric force between the first two spheres?
3. Force between two points kept at a distance d apart in air is F. If these charges
are kept in the same distance a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K, how
does the force between them change?
4. Two fixed charges 4Q and 2Q are separated by a distance r. Where should be
third point charge q be placed for it to be in equilibrium?
5. Calculate the Coulomb’s force between a proton and an alpha particle separated
by a distance of 3.2 x 10-19m.
6. The force of attraction between two charges in a medium is F1 when they are
separated by a distance of r1. If the distance is changed from r1 to r2 in the same
medium, the electric force between them is F 2. Write the relation between them.
F1 r2 2
---- = ----
F2 r1 2
7. In a medium the force of attraction between two point charges, distance d apart
is F. What distance apart should these be kept in the same medium so that the
force between them becomes 3F?
8. A charge of +1 x 10-6C is placed at a distance of 10cm from another charge of +4 x
10-6 C. Find the point on the line joining the charges, the electric field intensity is
zero?
9. What is the nature of symmetry of electric field due to (i) point charge and (ii)
dipole.
10. Why no two electric lines of force cross each other?
11. A system consists of two charges + q and - q separated by a distance r. What is
the direction of the electric field and dipole moment?
12. A dipole is placed in uniform electric field. What is the net force acting on the
dipole?
13. A system of two charges + 4q and -4q are separated by distance of 10cm placed
in the uniform electric field of 10N/C. What is the net force acting on it?
14. What orientation of an electric dipole in a uniform field corresponds to its stable
equilibrium and unstable equilibrium?
15. Two point electric charges of unknown magnitude and sign are placed a distance’d’
apart. The electric field intensity is zero at a point, not between the charges but on
 the line joining them. Write two essential conditions for this to happen.
16. An electric dipole of dipole moment p is placed in a uniform electric field E. Write
the expression for the torque experienced by the dipole. Identify two pairs of
perpendicular vectors in the expression. Show diagrammatically the orientation
of the dipole in the field for which the torque is (a)maximum and (b) half the
maximum value (c) zero.
17. The electric field due to a small dipole at a distance r from its centre on the axial
line is E. At what distance, an equal electric field will be obtained in its equatorial
position?
18. What is the direction of electric field intensity due to an electric dipole at
appoint on its equatorial line?
19. What is the direction of electric field intensity due to an electric dipole at
appoint on its axial line?
20. If a charge of q is placed at the centre of a cube of side a. Write the expressions
for (a) total flux through the cube (b) the flux coming out of any face of the cube.
21. The charges of magnitudes 2q and –q are located at points (a,0,0) and (4a,0,0).
Find the ratio of the flux of the electric field due to these charges through the
concentric spheres of radii 2a and 8a centred at the origin.
22. The electric flux through a closed surface enclosing charge q is given by q/ϵ 0.
What will be the electric flux through the closed surface if its size is doubled?
23. Draw the variation of the electric field E( r) due to a charged spherical shell of
radius r with a distance R from its centre?
24. Draw the variation of the electric field E( r) due to a charged solid sphere of
radius r with a distance R from its centre?
25. Two point charges 4 x 10-6C and -2 x 10-6C are separated by a distance of 1 m in
air. At what point on the line joining two charges, the electric potential is zero?
26. The electric potential and electric field due to a point charge at a point are 10J/C
and 20N/C respectively. Calculate the distance of the point from the charge and
the magnitude of the charge.
27. Draw the variation of the electric field and electric potential due to a point
charge q with the distance r.
28. Draw the field lines when the charge density of the sphere is (i) positive, (ii)
negative.
29. What is meant by equi-potential surface? Write the properties of equi-potential
surfaces.
30. What is the work done by a charge of 400 nC in moving from one point to
another point on an equi-potential surface?
31. Draw three equi-potential surfaces corresponding to afield that uniformly
increase in magnitude but remain constant along z-direction. How are the
surfaces different from that of a constant electric field along z-direction?
32. Draw an equi potential surface for a system, consisting of two charges +Q, -Q
separated by a distance ‘ r’ in air.
33. Calculate the potential at the centre of a square of the side 2cm, which carries at
its four corners of +2c, +1C, -2C and -3C respectively.
34. A 500 C charge is at the centre of a square of side 10 cm. Find the work done in
moving a charge of 10 C between two diagonally opposite points on the square.
35. Find the electric potential due to an electric dipole at a point along perpendicular
bisector?
36. Write the relation between electric potential and electric field at a point.
37. Name the physical quantity which has unit (a) Coulomb/Volt (b)
Newton/Coulomb (c) Joule/Coulomb (d) Volt/meter.
38. Write the units of (a) Electric flux (b) Electric permittivity.
39. What would be the work done, if a point charge +q is taken from a point A to
another point B on the circumference of a circle with another charge +q at the
center?
40. A 5C charge is at the center of the square of side 10cm. Find the work done in
moving a charge of 2C between two diagonally opposite points on the square?
41. Using Gauss theorem, find the electric field intensity at any point inside a hollow
charged conducting sphere.
42. Write the conditions obeyed by the conductors in an electrostatic field.
43. Why is there no work done in moving a charge from one point to another point
on an equi potential surface?
44. The electric potential of a conductor is 220V. How much work must be done to
move a positive charge of 2 C from the earth to the conductor?
45. A hollow metal sphere of radius 10cm is charged such that the potential on its
surface is 5V. What is the potential at the center of the sphere?
46. What is the energy acquired by an electron while moving through a potential
difference of 1V?
47. Write the factors on which the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends.
48. Find the potential of a sphere having a charge of 5µC and a capacitance of 1nF.
49. Sketch a graph to show how the charge q acquired by a capacitor of capacitance
C varies with increase in potential difference between the plates.
50. A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8pF.
What will be the capacitance, if the distance between the plates is reduced by
half and the space between then is filled with a material of dielectric constant
K=6.
51. If two similar plates, each of area A having surface charge densities +σ, -σ are
separated by a distance d in air. Write the expressions for (a) the electric field
between two plates (b) the potential difference between two plates (c) the
capacitance of the capacitor so formed.
52. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in series is 1F. What will be their
net capacitance, if connected in parallel? Find the ratio of the energy stored in
two configurations, if they are both connected to same source.
53. The equivalent capacitances of three identical capacitors each of capacitance C
connected in series and parallel are X and Y respectively. Find the relation
between X, Y and C.
54. A capacitor of capacitance C is charged by a battery of potential difference V. The
battery is then disconnected and the charged capacitor is connected to another
uncharged capacitor C/2. Find the difference between the final energy stored in
the combined system and the initial energy stored in the capacitor of
capacitance C. Ans: 1/3rd of initial energy.
55. A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 has a charge Q.
A charge q is placed at the centre of the shell. (a) What is the surface charge
density on the (i) inner surface (ii) outer surface of the shell? (b) Write the
expression for the electric field at a point x is greater than r2 from the outer
shell?
1 1
3 2
56. If Coulomb's law were to involve r dependence (rather than the known r
dependence), for the electrostatic force between two point charges, would Gauss's
law be still true?

57. Two copper spheres of the same radii, one hollow and other solid are charged to
same potential. Which, if any, of the two will have more charge?

58. A body with a charge -q is introduced through a small orifice into a hollow current-
conducting sphere with a radius R carrying a charge +Q. What is the potential of a
point in space at a distance of R>r from the centre of the sphere?

59. Three concentric metallic shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c (a <

b < c) have surface charge densities
+s, -s and + s respectively as shown in the figure.
If shells A and C are at the same potential, then obtain the
relation between the radii a, b and c.

60. Figure shows the field lines due to a positive point charge. Give the sign
of potential energy difference of a small negative charge between the
points Q and P.

61. Figure shows the field lines due to a negative point charge. Give the sign of the
potential energy difference of a small negative charge
between the points A and B.
 62. A point charge (+Q) is kept in the vicinity of uncharged conducting plate. Sketch
electric field lines between the charge and the plate.
63. Fig. show field lines on a positive charge. Is the work done by moving a
positive charge from Q to P be positive or negative?

64. Figure shows three point charges, +2q, -q and +3q. Two charges
+2q and -q are enclosed within a surface ‘S’. What is the
electric flux due to this configuration through the surface
‘S’?

65. A metallic sphere is placed in a uniform electric field as shown in the

figure. Which path is followed by electric
field
lines and why?

66. (a) Plot a graph comparing the variation of potential ‘V’ and electric field ‘E’ due
to a point charge ‘Q’ as a function of distance ‘R’ from the point charge.
(b) Find the ratio of the potential differences that must be applied acros the parallel and
the series combination of two capacitors C1 and C2 with their capacitances in the ratio 1:
2 so that the energy stored, in the two cases, becomes the same.
67. A point charge Q is placed at point O as shown in the figure. Is the potential
difference VA – VB positive, negative, or zero, if Q is (i) positive (ii) negative?

68. Two uniformly large parallel thin plates having charge densities +s and –s are
kept in the X-Z plane at a distance ‘d’ apart. Sketch an equipotential surface due
to electric field between the plates. If a particle of mass m and charge ‘–q’
remains stationary between the plates, what is the magnitude and direction of
this field?

69. Two small identical electrical dipoles AB and CD, each of dipole
moment ‘p’ are kept at an angle of 120° as shown in the figure.
What is the resultant dipole moment of this combination? If this
system is subjected to electric field ( E) directed
along + X direction, what will be the magnitude and direction of the
torque acting on this?
70. Two charges of magnitudes – 2Q and + Q are located at points
(a, 0) and (4a, 0) respectively. What is the electric flux due to these
charges through a sphere of radius ‘3a’ with its centre at the origin?
 71. The electric field inside a parallel plate capacitor
is E. Find the amount of work done in moving a charge q
over a closed rectangular loop abcda.

72. Two charged spherical conductors of radii R1 and R2

when connected by a conducting wire acquire charges q1
and q2 respectively. Find the ratio of their surface charge densities in terms of
their radii.
73. Two equal balls having equal positive charge ‘q’ coulombs are suspended by two
insulating strings of equal length. What would be the effect on the force when a
plastic sheet is inserted between the two?
74. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a potential V. It is then
connected to another uncharged capacitor having the same capacitance. Find
out the ratio of the energy stored in the combined system to that stored initially
in the single capacitor.
75. Consider two hollow concentric spheres, S1 and S2 ,
enclosing charges 2Q and 4Q respectively as shown in the
figure. (i) Find out the ratio of the electric flux through
them. (ii) How will the electric flux through the sphere S1
change if a medium of
dielectric constant ‘er ’ is introduced in the space inside S1 in place of
air? Deduce the necessary expression.
76. A cube with a side a is kept in an electric field given by E = C i (as shown in fig.)
where C is a positive dimensional constant. Find out the (i) Electric flux through
the cube (b) net charge inside the cube.

77. Two parallel plate capacitors X and Y, have the same area of plates and
same separation between them. X has air between the plates while Y
contains a dielectric medium of 4. (i) Calculate capacitance of each
capacitor if equivalent capacitance of the combination is 4 mF. (ii)
Calculate the potential difference between the plates of X and Y.
(iii) What is the ratio of electrostatic energy stored in X and Y?
 ELETROMAGNETIC WAVES
d∅
1. Displacement current: I D =ε 0 ∫ E
dt

2. Maxwell’s equations:
Q
Gauss’s Law in Electrostatics: ∮ ⃗E . ⃗
dS=
ϵ0
Gauss’s Law in Magnetism: ∮ ⃗B . ⃗
dS=0
−d ⃗ ⃗
Faraday’s -Lenz law of electromagnetic induction: ∮ ⃗E.⃗ dl= B . dS
dt ∮
d ϕE
Ampere’s – Maxwell law: ∮ ⃗B . ⃗
dl =0 (I + 0 0 )
dt

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. What do electromagnetic waves consist of?
2. Name four uses of various parts of the radio section of the electromagnetic spectrum.
3. What is the basic difference between AM and FM radio signals?
4. What types of waves have greater frequencies than light?
5. List in order of frequency, from low to high, at least four portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum
6. Long distance radio broadcasts use short wave bands. Why?
7. How do we make television broadcasts for larger coverage and for long distance?
8. Which of the following has the shortest wavelength micro-waves; ultraviolet rays;
and x-rays?
9. Why are sky waves not used in the transmission of television signals?
10. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does the wavelength 10-10 m correspond to?
11.What is the approximate wavelength of x-rays?
12. The charging current for a capacitor is 0.25 A. What is the displacement current across
its plates?
13. What is the approximate wavelength range for the visible spectrum?
14. What is a ground wave? How does it differ from a sky wave?
15. Why short wave communication over long distances is not possible via ground waves?
16. Which part of e.m. waves spectrum does the wavelength 01 A correspond to?
17. Rearrange the following electromagneti c radiati ons in the increasing order
of their frequencies: Microwaves; y-rays; Infra red rays; x-rays; radio-waves and ultra-
violet rays.
18. Name two electromagnetic waves which are relevant in transmission and
communication.
19. Long distance radio broadcasts use shortwave bands. Why?
20. It is necessary to use satellites for long distance TV transmission. Why?
21. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does the wavelength 10 -10 m
corresponds to ?
22. Which physical quantity is the same for X-rays of wavelength 1O -10 m, red light of
wavelength 6800 A and radiowaves of wavelength 500 m ?
23. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum has the largest penetrating power?
24. Arrange the following radiations in the descending order of wavelengths: y-rays,
infrared rays, red light, yellow light, radiowaves.
25. Arrange the following electromagnetic radiations in the ascending order of their
wavelength. Microwaves, y-rays, radiowaves, ultraviolet light.
26. Which of the following has the shortest wavelength?
27. A charged particle oscillates about its mean equilibrium position with a frequency of
109 Hz. What is the frequency of the electromagnetic waves produced by the oscillator?
28. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum is used in operating a RADAR?
29 What is the nature of the waves used in Radar? What is their wavelength range?
30. Both radiowaves and gamma rays are transverse in nature, electromagnetic in
character and have the same speed in vacuum. In what respects are they different?
31. Which of the following belong to electromagnetic spectrum?
-Rays, -rays, y-rays, cathode rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, microwaves, ultrasonic
waves, radiowaves, infrared rays. Arrange these in order of increasing frequency.
32. What is the frequency range of speech or music?
33. What are microwaves?
34. What is the ratio of velocities of light rays of wavelengths 4000 A and 8000 A in
vacuum?
Q. 35. Name the part of electromagnetic spectrum to which waves of wavelength (i) 1A
and (ii) 10-2 m belong. Using the relation T = (0.29 cm) K, obtain the characteristic kelvin
temperature corresponding to these two wavelengths.
36 Give a simple plausibility argument to suggest that an accelerated charge must emit
electromagnetic radiation
37. Show that the average energy density of the E field equals the average energy density
of the B field.
38. Electromagnetic waves with wavelength
(i) 1are used to treat muscular strain
(ii) 2 are used by a FM radio station for broadcasting
(iii) 3 are used to detect fracture in bones
(iv) 4 are absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
Identify and name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which these radiations
belong. Arrange these wavelengths in decreasing order of magnitude.
39. What is the approximate wavelength of X-rays?
40. Why light waves can travel in vacuum whereas sound waves cannot?
41. Compare and contrast radiowaves and gamma rays.
42. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along z-direction. What can you say about the
directions of its electric and magnetic field vectors? If the frequency of the wave is 30 MHz, what is
the wavelength?
43. What oscillates in electromagnetic wave ? Give two examples of electromagnetic waves.
44. Given below are some famous numbers associated with electromagnetic radiation in different
contexts in physics. State the part of the e m spectrum to which each belongs.
(i) 21 cm (wavelength emitted by atomic hydrogen in interstellar space).
(ii) 1057 MHz [frequency of radiation arising from two close energy levels in hydrogen; known as
Lamb shift].
(Hi) 2.7 K temperature associated with the isotropic radiation filling all space-thought to be a relic
of the 'big-bang’ origin of the universe.
(iv) 5890 A - 5896 A [double lines of sodium].
 (v) 14.4 keV [energy of a particular transition in 57Fe nucleus associated with a famous high
resolution spectroscopic method (Mossbauer spectroscopy).
45. In a plane e.m wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidal at a frequency of 2* 102
Hz and amplitude 48 V/m What will be the amplitude of the magnetic field?
46. Why are microwaves used in RADAR? OR
Which parts of the e.m. spectrum is used in operating a RADAR?
47. Radio waves and gamma rays both are transverse in nature and electromagnetic
in character and have the same speed in vacuum. In what respects are they
different?
48. What is the main difference between characteristic X-ray and  rays?
49. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is doubled? What will happen to
the energy of the proton?
50. Write the frequency limit of visible range of electromagnetic spectrum in KHZ.
51. What was the wavelength range of e.m. Waves produced by Prof. J. Bose/
52. Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is used to keep plants warm
in green houses.
53. What is the range of wavelength of e.m. waves used for TV broadcast
54. What is approximate wavelength of X-rays?
55. Optical and radio telescopes are built on the ground but X-ray astronomy is
possible only from satellite the earth why?
56. Out of micro waves, ultra violet rays and infrared rays, Which radiation will be
most effective for emission of electrons from a metallic surface.
57. The oscillating magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given by
By =(8 ´10-6 ) sin [2 ´10 11 t + 300 px ]T
(i) Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave.
(ii) Write down the expression for the oscillating electric field.
 ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM, ITS PRODUCTION, DETECTION
AND USES IN GENERAL
Wave length
Range
Type Production Detection Uses
Frequency
Range
Radio >0.1m Rapid acceleration / Receiver’s Radio, TV Communication
109 to 105Hz deceleration of aerials
electrons in aerials

0.1mm
Micro- 1011 to109 Hz Klystron valve or Point contact Radar, TV communication
wave magnetron valve diodes

1mm to 700nm Thermopiles, Green House effect, looking

Infrared 1011 to1014 Hz Vibration of atom or Bolometer through haze, fog and mist,
molecules Infrared Ariel mapping.
Photographic
Film

700nm to Eye, Photocell, Photography, Illuminations,

Light 400nm Electron in an atom Photographic Emit & reflect by the
8x1014 Hz during transition Film objects.
Preservation of food items,
400nm to 1nm Inner Shell electron Photocell & Detection of invisible
Ultra- 5x1014 to in atom moving from photographic writing, finger print in
violet 8x1014 one energy level to a film forensic laboratory.
lower energy level Determination of Structure
of molecules & atoms.

1nm to 10-3nm X-ray tube or inner Photographic Study of crystal structure &
1016 to 1021 Hz shell Electrons film, Geiger atom, fracture of bones.
X-rays tube, ionization
chamber.
<10-3nm Radioactive decay of Nuclear reaction & structure
1018 to 1022 Hz the nucleus Photographic of atoms & Nuclei.
Gamma film, Geiger To destroy cancer cells.
ray tube, ionization
chamber

IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS
 ELECTROSTATICS

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Two equal and opposite charges Two equal positive charges

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

COLOUR CODE OF THE RESISTORS

METER BRIDGE

POTENTIOMETER

TO COMPARE THE EMF’S OF TWO CELLS TO FIND THE INTERNAL

RESISTANCE OF THE CELL

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF
CURRENT AND MAGNETISM
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

CYCLOTRON

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING

CIRCUITS
A.C. GENERATOR

TRANSFORMER

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
OPTICS
REFLECTION BY USING HUYGEN’S WAVE THEORY

REFRACTION BY USING HUYGEN’S WAVE THEORY

INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN INTERFERENCE

DIFFRACTION

POLARISATION BY RELECTION
POLARISATION BY SCATTERING
-BREWSTER LAW
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

WHEN THE IMAGE IS AT LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION(D)

ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE (REFRACTING TELESCOPE)

WHEN THE IMAGE IS AT LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION (D)

CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE
 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT
 ATOMS AND NUCLEI
ALPHA PARTICLE EXPERIMENT

BINDING ENERGY CURVE HYDROGEN SPECTRA

 SEMI-CONDUCTOR DEVICES

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

N-YPE SEMICONDUCTOR P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

pn JUNCTION DIODE IN FORWARD AND REVESE BIAS

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

.

PHOTODIODE
INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
OR GATE

AND GATE

NOT GATE

NAND GATE
NOR GATE

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

MODULATOR

TRANSMITTER

RECEIVER
DETECTOR

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

FREQUENCY MODULATION

AMPLITUDE, FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM- MAGNETISM AND MATTER

IMPORTANT LAWS:
 1. SNOW RULE: If current flows from South direction to North direction in a wire
kept Over a magnetic needle, the North of the needle deflect towards West.
2. Ampere’s swimming rule: Imagine a man who swims along the conductor in the
direction of the current facing the needle such that the current enters his feet, then
North of needle will deflect towards his left hand.
3. Right hand Thumb Rule or Curl rule: If a current carrying conductor is
imagined to be held in the right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of
the current, then the tips of the fingers encircling the conductor will give the
direction of the magnetic lines of force.
4. Maxwell’s Cork Screw rule or Right Handed screw rule: If the forward motion
of an imaginary right handed screw is in the direction of the current through a
linear conductor, then the direction of the rotation of the screw gives the direction
of the magnetic lines of force around the conductor.
5. Biot -Savart Law: The magnetic field dB due to small current element at a point
P distant r from the element is found to be depending on the factors.
dB dl dB  I dB  sin  where  is angle between dl and r dB
1/r 2

dB ( I dl sin / r2)
dB =μ0 IdlSinθ/4πr2
where 0 = Magnetic Permeability of free space = 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
Direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r.
It is explained by Right Handed Screw rule or Right Hand Thumb Rule.
6. Ampere’s Circuital Law: The line Integral of Magnetic field for a closed loop is
equal to 0 times the total current along the loop. ∫ B.dl= 0 i
For a closed loop, if the magnetic field is constant and direction is along
the tangent at any point on the closed loop, then B X circumference = 0 x
current (i)
07. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Direction of force is explained.
Stretch the left hand such that the fore-finger, the central finger and
the thumb mutually perpendicular to each other.
Fore finger represents Magnetic field , Central finger represents the
current
Then, the thumb represents the direction of force acting along the conductor.

08.Cyclotron; A positively charged particle is made to move time and again in a

high frequency electric field and using strong magnetic field, it gets accelerated
and acquires large amount of energy. Electric field is parallel and magnetic field
is perpendicular.
Electric field is to accelerate and magnetic field to make the particle to move in
circular orbit
09. Tangent Law Tan  = Bv / BH
BH = Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field = B cos 
BV = Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field  = Angle of Dip or
inclination
10. Curie’s Law: The magnetization(M) is proportional to magnetic intensity (H) and
inversely proportional to temperature in Kelvin Scale.
M  H M  1/T MH/T M/H  1 / T
m  1 / T m = C / T
11. Gauss’ Law in Magnetism: The net magnetic flux through any surface S is zero.
The surface integral of the magnetic field is zero over a surface.
12. Galvanometer: When a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque. The current is directly proportional to angular deflection.

PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS:

9. Galvanometer:
Magnetic field: Radial and uniform, Magnetic field is parallel to the plane of the
coil
Soft iron core: Magnetic field is radial, Plane of the coil is parallel to magnetic
field.
Magnetic field increases.
Sensitivity: Large deflection for a small current
 / I = NAB/k
Increasing no. of turns, Increasing cross sectional area, Increasing
magnetic field
Low torsional constant- suspension strip made of Quartz Phosphor Bronze

Properties of the coil of material of wire:

(i) low torsional constant – suspension strip Quartz Phosphor Bronze
(ii) High tensile strength (iii) Non-magnetic substance
(iv) low temperature coefficient of resistance
10. Ammeter: By connecting Low resistance or shunt in parallel to galvanometer
For ideal ammeter, shunt = 0
11. Voltmeter: By connecting High resistance in series with galvanometer
For ideal Voltmeter, Resistance = Infinity
12. Ampere:
The current across two straight parallel conductors is 1 Amp if they are of 1
metre length, separated by 1m distances and a force of 2 x 10 -7 N is acting
between them.
13. The force experienced by the conductor
Maximum: If velocity is perpendicular to magnetic field
Minimum: If velocity is parallel to magnetic field
14. Magnetic Dipole in Equilibrium: Torque=mB sin , Pot. energy= -m B cos 
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM: (i)  = 0
(ii) Potential energy =minimum = - mB (iii) Torque = 0
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM : (i)  = 180
(ii) Potential energy =maximum = mB (iii) Torque = 0
15. Magnetic field of straight conductor B = 0 I/ 2 r
 Increased by (i) Increasing the current (ii) decreasing distance between the
point at which Magnetic field B is to be found
and conductor
16. Magnetic field of circular coil: B = 0 I/ 2 r

Increased by (i) Increasing the current, no. of turns (ii) decreasing distance
between the point at which Magnetic field B is to be found
and conductor
09. Magnetic field in side a solenoid B = 0 n I = (0 I N) / l
where I = current , n = no. of turns per unit length = N/l
Increased by increasing the current, no. of turns and decreasing the length
10. Magnetic force between two conductors: F = q V B sin θ OR F = IL B sin θ
Attractive if the currents is along the same direction
Repulsive if the currents are in opposite direction
11. Cyclotron:
(i) A positively charged particle is made to move time and again in a
high frequency electric field and using strong magnetic field, it gets
accelerated and acquires large amount of energy.
(ii) Electric field is parallel and magnetic field is perpendicular.
Electric field is to accelerate and magnetic field to make the particle to
move in circular orbit
(iii)Electron cannot be used because of very small masses. They acquire
more velocity and go out of the dees.
(iv) Neutrons cannot be accelerated because of neutral nature.
(v) Resonance condition: The frequency of ac oscillator is made equal
to the frequency of particle.
12. Neutral points:
(i) The points at which the net magnetic field of the magnet and the earth
becomes zero are called Neutral points.
(ii) The point at which horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field balances the magnetic field due to the magnet is called Neutral
Point.
(iii) When North pole of a magnet is along the north geographical pole:
They lie along the equatorial line of the magnet.
(iv) When South pole of a magnet is along the north geographical pole:
They lie along the axial line.
13. Properties of Magnetic field lines:
01.Magnetic field lines are continuous and closed loops.
02.The tangent to line of force at any point gives the direction of the magnetic
field.
03.They do not intersect each other.
04.They expand laterally and contract longitudinally.
14. Difference between electric field lines and magnetic field line:
01.Electric field lines do not exist within a conductor, but they exist in a
magnet.
 02.Electric field lines are discontinuous and magnetic field lines are
continuous.
15. Classification of Magnetic substances:
(i) Ferromagnetic substances (ii) Para magnetic substances
(ii) Dia magnetic substances
Property Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
Attractive nature Strongly attracted by Weekly Repelled
magnet attracted
Freely suspended When suspended, quickly slowly Right angles to the
aligns along the direction magnetic field
of magnetic field
Lines of force More line of force less Harldly except one
line passing
through its axis
Permeability Much more than 1 More than 1 Less than 1
Magnetization(M) Large positive Small positive Negative
Susceptibility(I/H) Large positive Small positive Negative
curie law Obeys and ferro to para Obey and para Do not obey
to dia
Liquids and Gases Do not show magnetism, Weaker to Stronger to weaker
materials move from stronger
weaker to stronger
magnetic field
Level of substance Rises, stronger to weeker rises Do not rise, from
in U-tube stonger to weeker
Strongly magnetized in Weekly Opposite
direction of magnetizing magnetized
field
Curie law or graph curve curve Parallel to temp

16. Properties of magnet:

01.Property of attraction.
2.Repulsion is the surest test to test a magnet.
3.Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
4.Monopoles do not exist.
5.Force between two poles obeys inverse square law.
17. Magnetic Susceptibility (m) = M/H = MAGNETISATION / MAGNETIC
INTENSITY
18. Classification of Ferromagnetic materials:
Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic
Soft iron, Steel, alnico, alcomax
Electromagnet, cores of Permanent magnet,
transformer, motor, loud speakers
generator, choke
Permeability, High Low
Susceptibility
 Coercivity, Hysterisis Low High
loss, Retentivity

FACTORS ON WHICH -------DEPENDS:

7. Galvanometer:
MAGNETIC FIELD: Soft iron core, Plane of the coil is parallel to magnetic field.
Magnetic field increases.
Sensitivity: Large deflection for a small current
 / I = NAB/k
Increasing no. of turns, Increasing cross sectional area, Increasing magnetic
field
Low torsion constant- suspension strip made of Quartz Phosphor Bronze
Properties of the coil of material of wire:
(i)Low torsional constant – suspension strip Quartz Phosphor Bronze
(ii) High tensile strength, (iii) Non-magnetic substance, (iv) low
temperature coefficient of resistance
8. Ammeter: By connecting Low resistance or shunt in parallel to galvanometer
9. Voltmeter: By connecting High resistance in series with galvanometer
04. Magnetic field due to straight conductor:
Increased by (i) Increasing the current (ii) decreasing distance between the
point at which Magnetic field B is to be found and
conductor
05.Magnetic field of circular coil:
Increased by (i) Increasing the current, (ii) no. of turns
(iii) decreasing distance between the point at which
Magnetic field B is to be found and conductor
06. Magnetic field in side a solenoid
(a) Increased by increasing the current, (b) no. of turns (c)decreasing the length
07. Cyclotron:
(i) Time period: T = ( 2m) / qB
(i) Magnetic field
(ii) Nature of particle- mass and charge
(iii) Independent of speed of particle
(i) Radius of circular orbit: r = (mv) / qB
(i) Speed of particle (ii)Magnetic field
(ii) Nature of particle – mass and charge
(iii) Angular frequency: w = (qB) / m
(i) Independent of speed
08. Retentivity: The magnetism present in a specimen even when magnetizing field is
reduced to zero is known as Residual Magnetism of the material and this property of the
magnetic material is called Retentivity.
17. Coercivity: It is the property of a magnetic material which depends upon the
value of reverse magnetizing field required to reduce the residual magnetism to
zero.
 18. PERMANENT MAGNETS: Alloys are used to make Permanent Magnets.
Example: Cobalt Steel: It contains Cobalt, tungsten,
carbon and Iron. Alnico Ticonal
Properties of the
material of Permanent Magnet: High
Permeability, High Coercivity- Hysterisis loop is wider, High Retentivity
19. Steel is not used.
The area of Hyseterisis loop is large. But Permanent Magnet is
supposed to retain the magnetism and is not required to undergo cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization. Steel has higher coercivity.

20. ELECTROMAGNET: Ferro magnetic materials are used to make Electro

magnets. Nature of Material: Soft Iron is used to
make the Electromagnet. Reason for using Soft Iron: Long
Hysterisis Loop, Low oercivity. Properties of the material of
Electromagnet: High Permeability, Low Retentivity
21. FERRITES: The ferrites are special electromagnetic ceramic materials.
The cores of high frequency coils are also made
from ferrites. Reason: High Permeability and Low eddy currents.
DEFINITIONS:
1. Pole strength: The ability of pole of a magnet is called pole strength.
It is denoted by symbol m.
2. Magnetic Axis; The line joining two poles of a magnet is called magnetic
axis.
3. Magnetic length: The distance between two poles is called magnetic length.
It is denoted by 2l.
4. Magnetic moment: The product of pole strength and magnetic length
is called magnetic dipole moment. It is denoted by M. M = m X 2l
It is defined as the product of current and area of the loop is called
magnetic dipole moment. M = N iA

05. Neutral points:

The points at which the net magnetic field of the magnet and the earth
becomes zero are called Neutral points. The point at which horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field balances the magnetic field due to the
magnet
06. Magnetic elements of Earth:
i. Magnetic declination (): The angle between geographic
meridian and magnetic meridian is called magnetic meridian.
ii. Magnetic Inclination or Dip  : The angle between the total
intensity of magnetic field of the earth and horizontal line in
the magnetic meridian is called Dup.
Dip is zero at equator and 90 at poles.
iii. Horizontal component of Earth’s Magnetic field(BH):
 The component of total intensity of the magnetic field of
the earth in the horizontal direction in magnetic meridian is
called horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.
At poles, it is zero and it is equal to total magnetic field
intensity at equator.
07. Magnetic flux density: The no. of lines of force passing normally through a
unit area of a substance is called magnetic flux density. It is denoted by B.
B = Flux / area
08. Magnetic Permeability: The ratio of magnetic flux density to the
Magnetic field Intensity is called Magnetic Permeability. = B/H
09. Magnetic Intensity (H): the degree to which the magnetizing field
can magnetize is known as the Magnetic Intensity. H = B/ 
09. Magnetization (M): The degree to which a substance is magnetized when
placed in the magnetizing field is called Magnetization. It is denoted by M.
10.Magnetic Susceptibility (): The ratio of magnetization to magnetic intensity
is called Magnetic Susceptibility. = M/H
11. Curie temperature: The temperature at which ferromagnetic substance is
converted to paramagnetic substance is called curie point or curie temperature.
USES:
1. Oersted Experiment: An electric current produces magnetic effect in the space
around the conductor.
2. Ampere’s Swimming rule Or SNOW rule: Direction of magnetic needle due to
electric current can be found.
3. Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule (Right handed screw rule): Direction of magnetic
lines of force around the conductor. The tangent to the line of force any point
gives direction of magnetic field.
4. Right hand Thumb rule: Direction of magnetic lines of force around the
conductor. The tangent to the line of force any point gives direction of magnetic
field.
5. Fleming’s Left hand rule: Direction of force
6. Fleming’s Right hand rule: Direction of induced current or emf
7. Galvanometer: It is device used to detect the direction of current and week
current.
Soft iron core: Magnetic field is radial
Plane of the coil is parallel to magnetic field.
Magnetic field increases.
Low torsional constant- suspension strip made of Quartz Phosphor Bronze
Uses of Phosphor Bronze coil:
(i) Low torsional constant – suspension strip Quartz Phosphor Bronze
(ii) High tensile strength- (iii) Non-magnetic substance
(iv)Low temperature coefficient of resistance
08. Clock wise rule: The polarity of a solenoid is found.
Anti-clock wise current in a face of solenoid gives North polarity.
Clock wise current gives south polarity.
9. Cyclotron:
 Heavy Charged particles are accelerated by acquiring large amount of
energy.
Electric field is parallel and magnetic field is perpendicular.
Electric field is to accelerate and magnetic field to make the particle
to move in circular orbit.
Electron cannot be used because of very small masses.
They acquire more velocity and go out of the dees.
Neutrons cannot be accelerated because of neutral nature
10. Right hand moment rule: Direction of dipole moment is determined.
The thumb of right hand gives the direction of dipole moment when the
fingers curl in the direction of current.
11. Classification of Ferromagnetic materials:
Uses of Soft Iron Steel, alnico, alcomax
Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic
Electromagnet, cores of transformer, Permanent magnet, loud
motor, generator, choke speakers
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
2. Biot-Savart Law:
dB = 0 I dl sin / 4 r2
where 0 = Magnetic Permeability of free space = 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
Direction is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r.
3. Ampere’s circuital law : B X circumference = 0 X Total current (I)
4. Magnetic field due to a straight conductor carrying current B = 0 I/ 2 r
Direction is explained by Right hand thumb rule.
04. Magnetic field due to a circular coil : B = 0 I/2R
Direction is explained by Right hand grip rule.
Magnetic field at a point on the axis of current carrying coil B=
2 2 2 3/2
μ0Nia /2(a +x ) (N=no. of turns in the coil)
05. Magnetic field in side a solenoid: B = 0 n I = 0 I N / L
where I = current, n = no. of turns per unit length = N/L
06. Magnetic field at the ends of a solenoid B = (0 n I) / 2
07. Magnetic field at the ends of a Toroid: B = 0 n I = (0 N I) / 2 r
8. Magnetic Lorentz Force : F = q v X B = q v B sin 
= I l X B = I l B sin 
Direction is explained by Fleming’s left hand rule.
9. Magnetic force between two parallel current carrying straight conductors
F = (0 I1 I2 L)/ 2 r
Nature of force between two conductors is explained by
Right hand Grip rule and Fleming’s left hand rule.
10.Magnetic moment: m = NIA = NI r2 where N = no. of turns, r =radius
A = area of cross section
Direction is explained by using right hand grip rule.
11. Torque experienced by a current carrying coil  = NIAB sin 
= m X B = m B sin 
Potential energy possessed by rectangular coil = U = - mB cos = - m.B
12. A current carrying coil is in equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium: For  =0, torque = zero, Pot.energy = -mB = minimum
Stable Equilibrium: For  =180, torque = zero, Pot.energy = mB = maximum
13. Cyclotron: Radius r = mv/ qB Angular Frequency  = qB /m
Period of revolution T=( 2 m)/ qB Kinetic energy of the particle
= q2B2 r2/ 2m
Time period and frequency are independent of speed of the particle.
If two particles of masses m1 and m2 having same charge are moving with same velocity
r 1 m1
in uniform magnetic field, then =
r 2 m2
If two particles of masses m 1 and m2 having different charges q1and q2 are moving with
m1
r1 ∗q 2
same velocity in uniform magnetic field, then = m2
r2
q1
If two particles of masses m1 and m2 moving with same momenta in uniform magnetic
r 1 q2
field, then =
r 2 q1
If two particles of masses m 1 and m2 moving with same kinetic energy in uniform
r1 m1
magnetic field, then
r2 √
=
m2

14. If charged particle moves at an angle  to the magnetic field

Radius r = (mv sin ) /qB

15. Magnetic flux  = B X Area = magnetic field x area

16. Magnetic moment = M = m x 2l where m = pole strength, 2l = distance between

two poles. Direction is from south pole to north pole.

17. Magnetic field intensity due to a bar magnet

a. Along axial line B = 0 2m/ 4 r3
b. Along Equatorial line B = 0 m/ 4 r3
18. Atom as magnetic dipole:
Magnetic moment = e L/ 2m where L=angular momentum
Angular momentum = L = n (eh)/ 4m
evr
Magnetic moment of a revolving electron M = 2 .
Bohr magnetron = B = (eh)/ 4m = 9.27 X 10-24 A m2
19. Magnetic Elements of Earth

a. Magnetic declination ()

b. Magnetic Inclination or Dip ()
At poles  = 0, At equator  = 90
 Tangent law = Tan = Bv/ BH
B H = Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field = B
cos 
c. Horizontal component of Earth’s Magnetic field BH
At equator BH = 0.32 Oersted At poles BH = 0
20. Magnetic intensity H = B/ = Magnetic flux density (B) / Magnetic Permeability
()
21. Magnetization (M) = Magnetic dipole moment(m) / Volume = Pole strength /
Area (A)
22. Magnetic Susceptibility (m) =Magnetization (M)/Magnetic Intensity(H)
23. Velocity of a particle in terms of amplitudes of electric Field and magnetic field
v = Eo/Bo
where Eo = Amplitude of electric field Bo = Amplitude of Magnetic
field
24. Speed of light in terms of magnetic permeability and electric permittivity due to
free space
C = 1/  0 0
where 0 = Magnetic Permeability of free space = 4 X 10-7 T m A-1
0 = Electric Permitivity for free space = 8.85 X 10 –12 C2/ N m2
φ NAB
25. Current sensitivity of galvanometer : =
I k
φ NAB
26. Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer: =
V kR
27. Conversion of galvanometer to Ammeter: Shunt Resistance S to be added
IGG
parallel to galvanometer. S =
I −I G

28. Conversion of galvanometer to Voltmeter: High Resistance R to be added in series to

V
galvanometer. R = – G
IG
29. Force on a moving charge [Lorentz Force]: In magnetic field magnetic Lorentz
force⃗F =q ( ⃗
V X⃗ B ). The direction of Force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
30. Magnetic and electric field Lorentz force ⃗ F =q [ ⃗E +( ⃗ν x ⃗
B )].
31. Torque on a bar magnet placed in uniform external magnetic field:
τ ¿ mB sinθ ; ⃗τ =⃗
mx⃗ B.
32. Potential energy stored in bar magnet placed in uniform external magnetic field:
U =−⃗ m. ⃗
B=−mB( cos θ2−cos θ 1).
Sl. No Physical Quantity Symbol Formula Unit

Magnetic moment or
1 m IA A – m2
Magnetic Dipole moment
2 Magnetic Field B F Tesla
q v sin θ
3 Magnetization M m/Volume A /m
Magnetic Permeability
4 µo B/M T m /A
Of vacuum
Magnetic Permeability of
5 µ µo µr T m /A
Substance
6 Magnetic flux ΦB B * Area Weber
7 Magnetic Intensity H A/m
8 Magnetic Susceptibility Χm M/H No Unit
Relative Magnetic Permeability
9 µr 1 + Χm No unit
Of substance
Magnetic Pole charge or Pole
10 strength qm or m A-m
Distance between
11 Magnetic Length 2l two poles Meter

12 Magnetic Dipole moment 2l * m A-m2

IMPORTANT CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS:
1. Can a magnetic field independent of time change the velocity of a
charged particle? What about its K.E.?
2. .How will an electron move in a homogeneous magnetic field if the
velocity of the electron at the initial moment is perpendicular to the
force lines of the field ?
3. An electron is deflected in a given field. How will you detect whether the
given field is a uniform magnetic field or a uniform electric field?
4. How will an electron move in a homogeneous magnetic field if the
velocity of the electron at
the initial moment forms
an angle  with the force
lines of the field?

5. Does a magnetic field exert a force on a still charge?

6. .Does a magnetic field exert a force on an electron moving parallel
to the direction of the magnetic field ?

7. The equation
⃗F = q (⃗v x { B⃗ )¿ involves three vectors ⃗F , ⃗v and

B⃗ . What is the angle between ⃗F and ⃗v , ⃗F and B⃗ ?

8. What is the nature of the magnetic field due to a current flowing
in a very long straight thin wire?

9. What is the nature of the magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop carrying
current?
10. What is a solenoid? What is the nature of the magnetic field due to a solenoid
carrying current?
11. What is the nature of the magnetic field due to a toroid carrying current?
 12. What is a radial field ?
13. An electron is not deflected in passing through a certain region. Can we be sure that there is
no magnetic field in this region ? Explain.
MAGNEITSM
1. Two substances A and B have their relative permeability slightly greater and less than
unity respectively. What do you conclude about A and B?
2. How does permeability of a ferromagnetic material depend on the magnetic field?
3. An iron bar magnet is heated to 1000°C and then cooled in a magnetic Yield free space.
Will it retain magnetism?
4. Which is the material used to make the core of a moving coil galvanometer?
5. Which material is used for coating magnetic tapes in a cassette player, or for building
memory stores in a modern computer?
6. What are the other uses of ferrites and why?
7. A Ferro magnet displaying a hysteresis loop acts as a device for storing memory. Explain
how?
8. The hysteresis loop of a soft iron piece has a much smaller area than that of a steel
piece. If the materials are given repeated cycles of magnetisation which piece will
dissipate greater heat energy?
9. An unmagnetised ferromagnetic substance is magnetised. Given Figure shows the B-H
curve. Identify the stage of saturation, reversible region and irreversible region.

10. Why are electromagnets made of soft iron?

11. Permanent magnets are made of steel while core of a transformer is made of soft iron.
Why?
12. Why is large area of hysteresis loop not a disadvantage for steel used for making
permanent magnets?
13. Among steel, soft iron and silicon steel, which is suitable for?
Making permanent magnets and why?
14. A bar magnet is cut into two equal pieces parallel to its length. What happens
to the pieces?

15. . A bar magnet is cut into two equal pieces transverse to its length. What
happens to the pieces?

16. Given two identical bars A and B one is magnetized, how to identify it
 17. Find dip when horizontal and vertical component of magnetic field are equal?
18. Mention the places where the dip is 0 and dip is 90
19. What is the sure test for magnetism?
20. How does dip angle vary as the moves from magnetic equator to the pole?
21. Name the parameters needed to completely specify the earth’s magnetic field
at a point?
22. A magnetic needle orients with its axis vertical at a certain place on earth.
What are the values of
a. Horizontal component of earth’s field.
b. Angle of dip at this place.
10. In what direction could a compass needle align if taken to geographical
(i) North (ii)South pole?
11. When does a magnetic dipole posses maximum P.E. inside a magnetic field ?
12. Two substances A and B have their relative permeabilities slightly greater and
less than unity respectively. What do you conclude about A and B?
13. An iron bar magnet is heated to 1000C and then cooled in a magnetic field free
space . Will it retain magnetism?
14. Which material is used to make the core of a moving coil galvanometer ?
15. Give relation for susceptibility m in terms of curie constant and temp. T (in
Kelvin)
16. Suppose you have two bars of identical dimensions , one made of paramagnetic
and the other diamagnetic substance . If you place the bars along a uniform
magnetic field. Show diagrammatically modification in the field would take each
case ?
17. Compare the magnetic field of a bar magnet and a solenoid ?
18. In a certain arrangement, a proton does not get deflected while passing through a magnetic field
region. State the condition under which it is possible.

19. An electron beam is moving vertically upwards. If it passes through a magnetic field directed from
South to North in a horizontal plane, in what direction will the beam be deflected?

20. What is the work done by the magnetic force on a charged particle moving perpendicular to the
magnetic field?

21. A circular loop of radius 0.1 m carries a current of 1A and is placed in a uniform magnetic field of
0.5T. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. What is the force experienced
by the loop?

22. The strength of magnetic induction at the center of a current carrying circular coil is B 1 and
at a point on its axis at a distance equal to its radius from the center is B2. Find B1/B2.
23. A current is flowing in a circular coil of radius ‘r’ and magnetic field at its center is B 0. At
what distance from the center on the axis of the coil, the magnetic field will be B 0/8?
24. Two similar bars, made from two different materials P and Q are placed one by one in a
non uniform magnetic field. It is observed that (a) the bar P tends to move from the weak
to the strong field region. (b) the bar Q tends to move from the strong to the weak field
region. What is the nature of the magnetic materials used for making these two bars?
25. An alpha particle and a proton enter the same magnetic field at right angles to the
direction of the field in the following cases.
(a) Same velocity
(b) Same momentum
(c) Same Kinetic energy.
Find the ratio of the radii of the circular path in each case.
26. Two particles A and B of masses m and 2m have their charges q and 2q respectively. Both
these particles moving with the veocities v 1 and v2 respectively in the same direction enter
the same magnetic field B acting normally to their direction of their motion. If the two
forces FA and FB acting on them are in the ratio of 1: 2, find the ratio of their velocities.
27. A circular coil of N turns and radius R carries a current I. It is unwound and rewond to
make another coil of radius R/2, current I remaining constant. Find the ratio of the
magnetic moment of the new coil and the original coil.
28. A beam of alpha particles projected along + X axis experience a force due to a magneitc
field along the +Y axis. What is the direction of the magnetic field.
29. The following figure shows the variation of intensity of magnetisation versus the aplied
magnetic field intensityH, for two magnetic materials A and B. (a) Identify the materials A
and B. (b) Draw the variation of susceptibility with the temperature for B.
30. The following figure shows the variation of intensity of magnetisation versus the applied
magnetic field H, for two magnetic substances A and B. (a) Identify the materials A and B.
(b) Why does the material B, have a larger susceptibility than A, for a given field at
constant temperature.
31. Two very small identical circular loops, (1) and (2), carrying equal currents I are placed
vertically (with respect to the plane of the paper) with their geometrical axes
perpendicular to each other as shown in the figure. Find the
magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field produced at
the point O.

32. Two long coaxial insulated solenoids, S1 and S2 of equal lengths are wound one over the
 other as shown in the figure. A steady current “I” flow through the inner
solenoid S1 to the other end B, which is connected to the outer
solenoid S2 through which the same current “I” flows in the
opposite direction so as to come out at end A. If n1 and n2
are the number of turns per unit length, find the
magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at a
point (i) inside on the axis and (ii) outside the
combined system.

33. In a certain region of space, electric field E and magnetic field B are
perpendicular to each other. An electron enters in the region
perpendicular to the directions of both B and E and moves
undeflected. Find the velocity of the electron.
34. Two identical circular wires P and Q each of radius R and carrying current ‘I’ are
kept in perpendicular planes such that they have a common centre as shown in
the figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at the common
centre of the two coils.

35. Two identical circular loops, P and Q, each of radius r and

carrying currents I and 2I respectively are lying in
parallel planes such that they have a common axis. The
direction of current in both the loops is clockwise
as seen from O which is equidistant from the both
loops. Find the magnitude of the net magnetic field at
point O.

36. A beam of alpha particles projected along +x-axis, experiences a force due to a
magnetic field along the +y-axis. What is the direction of the magnetic field?

37. A long straight wire AB carries a current I. A proton P travels with a speed v, parallel
to the wire, at a distance d from it in a direction opposite to the
current as shown in the figure. What is the force experienced by the
proton and what is its direction?
38. An alpha particle and a proton moving with the same speed enter
the same magnetic field region at right angles to the direction of the
field. Show the trajectories followed by the two particles in the
region of the magnetic field.

39. A straight wire carrying a current of 12 A is bent into a semi-circular arc of

radius 20 cm as shown. What is the magnetic field B at O due
to (i) straight segments (ii) the
semi-circular arc?

40. An electron and a proton moving with the same speed enter the same magnetic field
region at right angles to the direction of the field. Show the
trajectory followed by the two particles in the magnetic field.
Find the ratio of the radii of the circular paths which the
particles may describe.

41. Two identical circular wires P and Q each of radius R and carrying current ‘I’ are
kept in perpendicular planes such that they have a common centre as shown in the
figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field at the
common centre of the two coils.

42. Two identical circular loops, P and Q, each of radius r and carrying currents I and 2I
respectively are lying in parallel planes such that they have a
common axis. The direction of current in both the loops is
clockwise as seen from O which is
equidistant from the both loops. Find the magnitude
of the net magnetic field at point O.
 43. Two identical circular loops, P and Q, each of radius r and carrying equal currents are kept
in the parallel planes having a common axis passing
through O. The direction of current in P is clockwise and in
Q is anti-clockwise as seen from O which is
equidistant from the loops P and Q. Find the
magnitude of the net magnetic field at O.

44. A long straight wire carries a steady current I along the positive y-axis in a coordinate
system. A particle of charge + Q is moving with a velocity v ®
along the x-axis. In which direction will the particle experience a force?

45. When a charged particle moving with velocity v is subjected to magnetic field B,
the force acting on it is non-zero. Would the particle gain any energy?

36. Two small identical circular coils marked 1 and 2 carry equal currents and are placed
with their geometric axes perpendicular to each other as shown in the figure. Derive
an expression for the resultant magnetic field at O.

OPTICS
IMPORTANTLAWS:
1. Laws of reflection:
(i) Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
(ii) Reflected ray, incident ray and Normal lie in same plane.
2. Laws of reflection:
(i) Refracted ray, incident ray and normal lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of Sine value of angle of incidence to Sine value of angle of
refraction is constant. Sin i / Sin r = Constant
3. Superposition Principle:
When two waves superpose the resultant wave amplitude is the sum of
the amplitudes of two individual waves. E = E1 + E2
4. Brewster’s Law:
When refracted ray, reflected ray are perpendicular to each other,
Refractive index n = Tan p where p = angle of polarization or
Brewster angle
5. Malus Law:
 When polarized light of intensity Io is passed through analyzer, the
intensity of emergent light depends on the angle between Plane of
transmission of polariser and analyzer is given by I = Io cos2
06. Huygen’s Principles of wave construction:
(i) Every point on the given wave front called primary wave front acts
as a source of new disturbance, called Secondary wavelet, which
travel in all directions with the speed of light in the medium.
(ii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in the
forward direction at any instant gives the new wave front at that
instant. This is called Secondary wave front.
(iii) Rays are normal to wave fronts. Light energy flows along rays.
07. Sign Conventions:
a. All distances should be measured from the optic center of the lens.
b. All distances measured in the direction of light are positive and opposite to
the direction of incident light are negative.
c. Heights measured perpendicular to the principal axis in the upward
direction is positive and down wards are negative.
d. The focal length of convex surface is positive and concave surface is
negative.
8. Principle of reversibility:
If the final path of light is reversed after reflection and refraction, the ray
retraces its entire path. n12 = 1 / n21 where n12 = Refractive index of
medium 1 with respect to 2.
09. Rayleigh scattering:
The intensity of light scattered from fine particles is inversely proportional
to fourth power of wavelength of light. I α 1/ λ4
FACTORS ON WHICH -------------------------- DEPENDS
WAVE OPTICS

01. The shape of the wave front :

The shape of the wave front depends on the shape of the source of the
disturbance.
7. The angular width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction

Angular width of Central maximum is given by Sin θ = 2 λ / a

(i) As slit width a decreases (a), angular width increases.
(ii) As the distance between slit and screen D is increased, no change
in angular width.
(iii) If wavelength decreases, angular width decreases
2. The width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction
Width = 2 Dλ / d
(i) Wavelength of light (ii) Width of slit (iii) Distance between slit
and screen
3. The fringe width in interference:
Fringe width β = Dλ / d
 (i) Wave length (ii) Distance between slits and
screen(D)
(iii) Slit width (d) (iv) Refractive index β’ = β / μ
(v) Nature of medium
Wavelength λ is inversely proportional to the refractive index.
Wavelength decreases as medium changes.
Fringe width decreases.
Fringe width decreases, as the refractive index increases.
4. Interference pattern when the whole apparatus is dipped in water
When the apparatus is dipped in water, the wavelength of light decreases.

λ α 1/n, β α λ, Therefore β increases.

05. The focal length of a convex lens And wavelength of the light. (n – 1) α 1
/f
As refractive index is inversely proportional to wavelength of light in
medium, the focal length is directly proportional to wavelength.
Convex lens is held in water - Focal length: The focal length of convex lens
increases fw = 4 fair
06. Angular width in Inteference θ=β/D=λ/d
(i) Distance between sources
(ii) Anguar width decreases if the apparatus is immersed in liquid.

RAY OPTICS

01. The refractive index of a medium:

(i) The wavelength of the light (ii) Independent on the angle of
incidence.
02. The critical angle n = 1/ Sin C
(i)Colour of light (ii) Wave length (iii) Nature of the pair of
media
Refractive index depends on wavelength of light. Wave length of light
differs from one colour to another. So critical angle depends on the
colour of light.
Refractive Index n  1/ 2 , Sin C  2
Critical angle is maximum for red colour because wavelength is more
03. The focal length of concave mirror when the incident violet light on
them is replaced with red light : No change in focal length .
The focal length of convex lens when the incident violet light on
them is replaced with red light: The focal length increases.
6. Name of the colour of the light
(i) bends the least (ii) bends the most
(iii) More refractive index (iv)Less refractive index
(v) More wavelength (vi) Less wavelength
(vii) More frequency (viii) Less frequency
(ix) More angle of deviation (x) Less angle of deviation.
 (xi)More speed of light (xii)Less speed of light
Physical More Less
Quantity
Bends violet Red
Refractive Index violet Red
Wave length red Violet
Frequency violet Red
Angle of deviation violet Red
Speed of light Red Violet
05. The angle of deviation: (i) Angle of prism (ii) Material of the prism
(iii) Wavelength of the light (iv) Angle of incidence.
06.Angle of Deviation = A ( n – 1) where A = Angle of Prism
(i) Angle of Prism (ii)Material of Prism
07. Dispersive Power:
(i) Depends on Nature of medium (ii)Independent of the angle of prism

DEFINITIONS WAVE OPTICS

1. Interference: The superposition of two waves is called interference.
2. Fringe width: The separation between two successive bright or dark fringes is
called fringe width.
Fringe width = β = ( λ D) / d where d = distance between two slits
D = distance between screen and slit plane
3. Diffraction : The bending of light around the edges of an obstacle is

called diffraction.
4. Polarisation: The phenomenon in which the vibrations of light wave are
restricted in only one direction is called Polarisation.
5. Scattering: When light is incident on small particles of dust, air molecule etc.
having smaller as compared to the wavelength of light, it is absorbed by the
electrons and reradiated in all directions. This phenomenon is called
scattering.
6. Linear Magnification : It is the ratio of the image distance(v) to the
object distance(u). Or ratio of image size(I) to object size(O)
M=I/O=v/u
Angular magnification: It is defined as the ratio of angle subtended by the
object at the eye when object is placed at the least distance of distinct vision to
the angle subtended by the image at the eye when placed at the distance of
distinct vision.
M =β/ α
Where α = Angle subtended by the image at the eye placed at distance of
distinct vision.
β = Angle subtended by the object at the eye placed at distance of
distinct vision.
7. Total Internal Reflection: When a ray of light travels from a denser medium
to rarer medium, the incident ray can be made to be reflected back into the
 same medium provided it strikes the interface of a denser and the rarer media
at an angle greater than the critical angle is called total internal reflection

8. Power of the lens: The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of

focal length of lens when it is expressed in meters. It is denoted by P.
If f is the focal length of the lens, then Power P = 100 / f ( in
cm) = 1/ f ( in meters)
The unit of Power of lens is Dioptre. It is denoted by D
08. Diopter: It is the power of a lens of focal length of 1 meter.
For concave lens, focal length is negative. Therefore power is negative.
For convex lens, the focal length is positive. Therefore power is positive. Since P
= 1/ f
9. The limit of resolution of optical instrument:

The minimum distance between two close point objects when

they can be seen just separate by an optical instrument is called
limit of resolution. It is denoted by dθ
10. Resolving power is the reciprocal of the limit of resolution of instrument.
R.P. = 1 / d θ
The ability to resolve two clear and separate images of
two close point objects is called its resolving power.
PROPERTIES & CONDITIONS
RAY OPTICS
01. Total internal reflection:
Conditions: (i) Ray must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be
greater than critical angle.  = 1/ Sin C where C = critical
angle
02.The principle behind the total internally reflecting prisms.
(i) Prisms make use of total internal reflection to bend the light by
90o or 180o.the critical angle must be less than 45o.
It is true only for Crown and Flint glass.
By using the formula n = 1 / sin C and n = 1.5, C = 41.8o
(ii) Another type of right angled prisms are used to invert
the images without changing their size.

03. The characteristics of a telescope.

A good telescope should have high magnifying power, high resolving
power and large light gathering power.
(i) Magnifying power : - fo/fe fo>fe
(ii) Resolving power = 1/ dθ = d / 1.22 λ
If angular resolution is smaller, then R.P. is high.
Similarly, if diameter of objective lens is more and
wavelength of light is less, the resolving power is high.
(i) Light gathering power : If diameter of objective lens is more,
area of lens increases.
 Hence more light is gathered by it.
(ii) Brightness ratio: It is the ratio of the square of the diameter
of objective lens to the square of diameter of
eye piece.
04. The significance of power of lens:
It is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light falling
on it. A lens of short focal length bends the incident light more; refracted
light converges in the case of convex lens and diverging in the case of
concave lens.
WAVE OPTICS
01.Coherent Sources of Light:
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit waves of same
frequency or same wavelength and are either in the same phase or have a
constant phase difference.
Properties: (i) Sources are capable of emitting light of same frequency or
same wavelength and of same phase or constant phase
difference.
(ii)They must emit waves of same amplitude.
(iii)Constructive interference should occur.
i.e. The crest of first wave should fall on the crest of
second wave and trough of first wave should fall on the
trough of the second wave.
02. Constructive Interference:
(i)When two waves of same wavelength superimpose on each other in
phase,
the interference is called Constructive interference.
(ii) The crest of first wave should fall on the crest of second wave, and the
trough of the first wave should fall on the trough of second wave.
(iii) If E1 and E2 are amplitudes of two waves, The amplitude of
resultant wave becomes maximum. E = E1 + E2
(iv) The intensity of the resultant wave also should be maximum.
(v) The phase difference should be 0o.
(vi) If two waves have equal amplitudes Eo each,
The amplitude of the resultant wave E = 2Eo Intensity of each wave I1
= k Eo2
Intensity of resultant wave I = k (2 Eo)2 = 4 k Eo2 = 4 I1

03.Destructive interference:
(i)When two waves of same wavelength superimpose on
each other out of phase, the interference is called
destructive interference.
(ii) The crest of first wave should fall on the trough of
second wave, and the trough of the first wave should fall
on the crest of second wave.
(iii) If E1 and E2 are amplitudes of two waves, The amplitude
of resultant wave decreases. E = E1 - E2
 (iv) The intensity of the resultant wave also should be minimum.
(v) The phase difference should be 180o.
(vi) If two waves have amplitudes Eo and – Eo,
The amplitude of the resultant wave E = E1 – E2 = 0.
Intensity of each wave I1 = k Eo2
Intensity of resultant wave I = 0
04.The conditions for constructive interference and destructive interference.
For constructive interference (MAX.) ,
Path difference = n * wave length where n = 0,1,2…
Phase difference = n * 2 π where n = 0,1,2…
Intensity I = Imax = 4 I0
For destructive interference (MIN.)
Path difference = (n + ½) * wave length where n = 0,1,2…
Phase difference = (2n + 1)* π/2 where n = 0,1,2…
Intensity I = 0
05.Conditions for Diffraction Maximum, Minimum:
Maximum: Path Difference :( n + 1/2) * Wavelength where n = 2,3
Phase Difference : (2n + 1)* π/2 where n = 1,2
n = (2n + 1) /2 d ( n  0)
Minimum : Path difference = n * wave length where n = 1,2…
Phase difference = n * 2 π where n = 1,2…
n = n / d ( n  0)
Central maximum:  = 0

06. The conditions for sustained interference of light waves.

(ii) Two sources of light must be coherent and narrow.
(iii) The light emitted by the sources must be monochromatic.
(iv) The two sources must be close to each other.
(v) The amplitudes of the two interfering beams should be equal.
(vi) Two sources should emit light continuously.
07. The condition for Interference: The distance between two slits must be
very less than the distance between the slit plane and screen
08. The condition for the diffraction: The size of the obstacle should be of
the order of the wavelength of the wave.
09. The limitation of ray optics
(i) Fresnel’s Distance = z = a2 / λ
(ii) If the distance is smaller than Fresnel’s Distance, the spreading due
to diffraction is smaller to the size of beam.
If the size of aperture is smaller than Fresnel’s Distance, ray optics is
valid.
(iii) For distances greater than Fresnel’s Distance, the spreading due
to diffraction dominates over that due to ray optics.
09.
Sl. Interference Diffraction
No.
1. Superposition of two waves is called Bending of the light around an
interference. obstacle is called Diffraction.
2. All bright fringes are of same intensity. Intensity of the fringes goes on
decreasing.
3. Fringe width is equal. Fringe width is not equal.
4. The distance between two slits must be very less Size of the obstacle should be
than the distance between the slit plane and of the order of the wavelength.
screen.

10. Light wave can be polarized, but the sound waves cannot be polarized.
(i) Diffraction is observed if the wavelength of the wave is of the order of the
size of the obstacle.
The wavelength of sound waves very large as compared to the size of the
obstacles like building and hence sound waves can be diffracted easily.
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized and sound waves are longitudinal in
nature.
(ii)The wavelength of light waves is very small compared to the size of the
obstacle.
Hence light waves cannot be diffracted easily.
Transverse waves can be polarized and lights waves are transverse in nature.
11. When a plane wave front passes through ( i) thin Prism (ii) Convex lens
(iii) concave mirror& its action.
(I)Thin Prism :
Consider a plane wave passing through a thin prism.
The portion of the incoming wave front, which
travels through the greatest thickness of the glass, has
been delayed the most, since the light travels more slowly
in the glass. This explains a tilt in the emerging wave front.
(II)Convex Lens:
The central part of an incident plane wave traverses the
thickest portion of a convex lens and is delayed the most.
The emerging wave front has a depression at the center. It
is spherical and converges to the focus.
(III) Concave mirror:
The center of the wave front has to travel a greater distance
before and after getting reflected, when compared to the
edge. This produces a converging spherical wave front.

RAY OPTICS
1. The applications of refraction.
1. An object placed at the bottom of a beaker appears to be raised.
2. A water tank appears shallower.
3. The twinkling effect of a star
4. Early sunrise and late sunset by 2 min
5. The sun near horizon appears flattened at Sun set and Sun rise
6. The rising Sun appears bigger
 7. Bending of an immersed object.
2. The applications of total internal reflection.
(i) Brilliance of Diamond
(ii) Optical fibres
(iii) Mirages
(iv) Manufacturing of total internal reflecting prisms.
(v) Shining of air bubble in water
3. Optical fibre
(i) They are used in optical signal communication.
(ii) They are used in medical and optical examinations.
(iii) They are used to transmit the images of the objects.
FORMULAE
WAVE OPTICS

01.The amplitude of a resultant wave in the interference c2 = a2 + b2 + 2 ab cos θ

7. The ratio of maximum intensity to minimum intensity Imax/Imin = (a+b)2/(a-b)2
8. I1/I2 = a2/b2 =w1/w2
9. Fringe Width = β = ( λ D) / d where d = Distance between screen and slits,

D = distance between two slits

05. When double slit arrangement is immersed in a medium of Refractive index μ,
fringe width is given by β’ = β / μ = ( λ D) / μ d
06. Phase difference = (2π * path difference)/ Wave length
07. Position of nth fringe yn = ( n λ D) / d
08. Malus Law I = Io Cos2 θ
09. Brewster’s Law Refractive index = tan i
10. Width of central maxima in diffraction = (2 λ D) / d

RAY OPTICS
1 1 1
+ =
1. Mirror equation: v u f
2. Relation between Radius of curvature and focal length R =2f
Sini n2

3. Snell’s law of refraction: sin r n1
4. n21 = Refractive index of medium 2 with respect to 1 = n2/n1 = c/v = λ1/ λ2

where n2 = Refractive index of medium 2, n1 = Refractive index of medium 1

Re al depth
n
5. Refractive Index = Real depth / Apparent depth apparent depth
6. Total internal reflection n = 1/ Sin C where n = Refractive index, C = critical angle
7. Principle of reversibility n21 = 1 / n12
 1 1 1
− =
8. Lens Formula : v u f v = Image distance, u = object distance, f = focal
length
9. Magnification m = v / u = I / O where I = image size O = Object size
n2 n1 n2  n1
 
10. Refraction through a convex spherical surface from rarer to denser V u R
1  n2  n1  1 1 
   
f  n1  R1 R2 
11. Lens Maker’s formula
 A  Dm 
Sin  
n  2 
 A
Sin  
12. Refraction through Prism 2
Relation between Angle of Deviation (D), Angle of emergence (e), Angle of incidence (i),
Angle of Prism (A): A+D=
i+e
Relation between Angles of refraction, Angle of Prism r1 + r2 =A
Conditions for Angle of minimum deviation(D): Angle of incidence = Angle of
emergence i =e
Both angles of refractions are equal.r1=r2
i=(A+D)/2 r=A/2
13. If two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are separated by a distance d, the focal length f
of the combination is given by (1/f1) + (1/f1) –(d/f1f2) = 1/f
14. If two lenses are combined such that their optic centers coincide, the net focal length f
1 1 1
= + &P=P 1 +P2
and power is given by F f1 f2
15. Power of a lens P = 100 / f where focal length f is in cm , P = 1 / f where f is in meters.
16. Magnification M = m1m2
17. Lengths of tubes
Compound microscope = Distance between objective lens and eyepiece = vo + ue
Astronomical telescope = fo + fe
18. Resolving power and Limit of resolution
Instrument Limit of Resolving
resolution power
Compound λ / (2 μ Sin θ) (2 μ Sin θ) / λ
Microscope
Telescope 1.22 λ / d d / 1.22 λ
Where μ Sin θ = Numerical aperture
θ = Angle of the cone of light rays entering the microscope
19. Magnifying powers:

Instrument Image at D Image at Infinity Nature of image at

D
 Simple Microscope 1 + (D/f) D/f Erect, Virtual,
Magnified
Compound Microscope -L/f0 ( 1+ -(LD)/(fofe) Virtual, Magnified,
(D/fe) Inverted
Refracting Telescope -fo/fe Inverted, Virtual,
Magnified
20.
Newtonian Telescope Cassegrain Telescope
Plane mirror is used Convex mirror is used
Concave mirror is used as Concave mirror with a circular hole in its center is used
objective as objective
M.P. = fo/fe = R/2fe M.P. = fo/fe

21. Astronomical telescope

Factor Magnifying Resolving power Limit of
power resolution
Formula M.P. = fo / fe d / 1.22 λ 1.22 λ / d
d = diameter of objective
Focal length of objective If fo increases, As focal length decreases, Decreases
lens M.P. increases wavelength decreases, so
R.P. increases
Focal length of Eye piece If fe increases,
M.P. decreases
Aperture of eye piece No effect as
aperture changes
Aperture of objective lens As aperture increases, R.P. decreases
also increases
Wavelength of light As wavelength increases, increases
R.P. decreases
Length Decreases
Diameter of the objective D increases, R.P. increases.
lens
22. Compound Microscope
Factor Magnifying Resolving power Limit of
power resolution
Formula M.P. = LD / f0fe (2 μ Sin θ) / λ λ / (2 μ Sin θ)

Focal length of If fo increases, M.P. As focal length increases, Increases

objective lens decreases cone angle decreases, so R.P.
decreases
Focal length of If fe increases, M.P.
Eye piece decreases
Aperture of eye No effect as
 piece aperture changes
Aperture of As aperture decreases, cone Increases
objective lens angle decrease, R.P. also
decreases
Wavelength of As wavelength increases, R.P. increases
light decreases
Length Decreases
Diameter of the D decreases, R.P. decreases.
objective lens

23.
Compound Microscope Astronomical Telescope
It is used to observe near and small objects Used to observe far objects
Focal length of Objective lens is smaller than the focal fo  fe
length of eye piece
Power of Objective lens is greater than the power if eye Po  Pe
piece
Diameter of aperture of
objective lens should be larger
Magnifying power = LD / (fo fe) M.P. = fo / fe
M. P. is reciprocal to both focal lengths of both lenses M. P. reciprocal to focal length
of eye piece.
24.
Refracting telescope Reflecting telescope
Lenses are used Mirrors are used
Suffer from Spherical and chromatic Parabolic mirrors are used. These are free from
aberration chromatic and spherical aberration
They are heavy. Support is not They are weightless. Support should be given to
required. mirrors.
Objective is achromatic converging Objective is parabolic mirror
lens
Light gathering power is smaller Light gathering power is more

CONCEPTUAL QUESTION
1. Blue light travels slower than yellow light in glass. Which of the two colours will be
bent more by a glass prism? Ans The blue light will bend more.
2. If you are to see a rainbow at sunrise, what direction must you look?
Ans: West, since the sun rises in the east and the rainbow must be opposite to it, and thus
arches across the west.
3. Does light travel faster in crown glass or in flint glass?
Ans Crown glass. Since crown glass has the lesser index of refraction, it follows from the
definition of the index of refraction that light travels faster in that material.
4. Is the critical angle for diamond greater or less than that for glass?Ans Greater
5. In a microscope, (i) if the image formed by the objective is 25 times as far from the
lens as is the object, what magnification does this lens produce? (ii) If the final image is 10
times as far from the eyepiece as is its object (the image formed by the objective), then
what is the magnification as a whole?
6. A concave lens made of a material of refractive index n1 is kept in a medium of
refractive index n2 . A parallel beam of light incident on the lens . Complete the
path of the rays of light from the concave lens if (a) n1 > n2 (b) n1 = n2 (c) n1<n2 .

7. Draw ray diagrams to show how a right angled isosceles prism can be used
a. To deviate a ray of light through 90
b. To deviate a ray of light through 180
Also name the instrument in such prisms used .
13. A convex lens made of a material of refractive index n1 is kept in a medium of
refractive index n2. A parallel beam of light incident on the lens . Complete the path
of the rays of light from he convex lens if (a) n1 > n2 (b) n1 = n2 (c) n1< n2 .
14. Why is there no dispersion in the light refracted through a rectangular glass slab,
In the case of rectangular glass slab, the rays of all colours emerge in the
same direction, parallel to the incident ray. Hence there is no dispersion.
15. A concave mirror and a convex lens are held in water. What changes?
16. Four double convex lenses with different specifications are available.
LENS A B C D
FOCAL LENGTH 100 100 10 5
APERTURE(CM) `0 5 2 2
(i) Which of the given lenses should be selected as objective and eyepiece to construct an
astronomical telescope and why? What will be the magnifying power and length of the
tube of telescope?
(ii) Which of the two lenses should be selected as objective and eyepiece of compound
microscope and why ? How can the magnifying power of such microscope be increase?
17. You are given three lenses having the powers P and apertures A as follows:
Lens Power ( Diopter) Aperture( in cm)
A 6 3
B 3 15
C 12 1.5
Which of these will you select to construct (i) Telescope and (ii) microscope. Explain
it.
18. What changes in the focal length of concave mirror and convex lens occur when the
incident violet light on them is replaced with red light?
19. A mark at the bottom of a beaker 10 cm deep appears to be raised by 1 cm
when the liquid is filled till brim with a liquid. Find the refractive index of liquid.
 20. If the refractive index for water and glass are 4/3 and 5/3 respectively and the
light is tending to go from glass to water. What is the value of critical.
21. The image of a needle placed 45 cm from a lens formed on a screen placed 90 cm on
the other side of the lens. What is the type of the lens and find the focal length?
22. A double concave lens made of the glass of the refractive index 1.5 has both radii of
curvature of magnitude 30cm. Find the focal length of the lens in air.
23. Two thin lenses of the focal lengths 15 cm and 30 cm respectively are kept in contact
with each other. What is the power of the combined system.
24. A bi – convex lens with faces of the same radii of curvature is to be manufactured
from a glass of refractive index 1.55. What should be the radii of curvature for the focal
length of the lens is to be 20 cm
25. The angle of a prism is 30o. the rays incident an angle of 60 degrees on one
refracting face suffer a deviation of 30 degrees. Find the angle of emergence.
i= 60,A = 30,D = 30, D + A = I + e,e = 0 degrees. The emergent rays is normal to the
other face.
26. If the refracting angle of the prism is 60 degrees and the angle of minimum deviation
is 30 degrees, what is angle of incidence.
27. A 6cm high object is placed at a distance of 30 cm in front of a concave lens of focal
length 15 cm. Find the position and height of the image.
28. A refracting astronomical telescope consists of an objective lens and eyepiece of focal
lengths 80 cm and 4 cm respectively. If the final image is formed at infinity, find the
magnifying power of telescope and also the distance between objective and eye piece.
29. The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope for relaxed eye is 8 and the
distance between the lenses is 18 cm. Find the focal lengths of the lenses.
30. A bi convex lens has focal length of 20 cm. The material of lens has refractive index
1.5 is immersed in the water of refractive index 1.33. Find the change in focal length of
the lens.

WAVE OPTICS
1. Light waves from two coherent sources of intensity ratio 81: 1 produce
interference. Find the ratio of the maxima and minima in the interference
pattern.

2. The ratio of light intensity at the maxima and minima in the interference pattern is
4 : 1 Find (i) the ratio of amplitudes of two waves, (ii)slit widths.
3. The distance between two slits in interference experiment is 0.3 mm. Fourth bright
fringe is obtained at a distance of 1cm from central fringe on a screen placed at a distance
1.5 m from the slits. Find the wave length of light.
04. The fringe width obtained with the light of wavelength 6000 Ao is 2 mm. What will
be the fringe width if the entire apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.33.
04. Light of wave length 630 nm incident on a pair of slits produces fringes whose fringe
width is 8 mm. If another source of light produces fringes of fringe width 7 mm, what is
the wavelength of second source.
05. A beam of polarized light makes an angle of 60o with the axes of Polaroid sheet. How
much is the intensity of light transmitted through the sheet?
06. The light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a slit of width 3 mm. Find
linear width of the central maximum on a screen kept 3 m away from the slit.
07. The refractive index of denser medium is 1.732. Find (i) polarizing angle(ii) angle of
refraction.
08. In Young’s double slit experiment, two slits are separated by 3 mm distance and
illuminated by light of wavelength 480 nm. The screen is at 2 m from the plane of the
slits, Find the separation between 8th bright fringe and 3rd dark fringe observed with
respect to central bright fringe.
09. Two polaroids are placed at 90 degrees to each other and the transmitted intensity is
zero. What happens when one more Polaroid is placed between these two bisecting the
angle between them?
10. Two polarizing sheets have their polarizing directions parallel so that the intensity of
the transmitted light is maximum. Through what angle must the either sheet be turned if
the intensity is to drop by one half.
11. The polarizing angle of a transparent medium is 60 degrees. Find (i) refractive index
of the medium and (ii) angle of refraction.
12. Two polaroids A and B are placed such that their axes are parallel. When ordinary
light of intensity Io falls on A, what will be the intensity of the light emerging form B.? If
the axes of A and B be perpendicular, then what is the intensity of light emerging from
B?
13. A double slit arrangement produces interference fringes for sodium light that are
0.480 apart. What is the angular fringe separation, if the entire arrangement is
immersed in water of Refractive Index 4/3.
14. Two polaroids are placed at 900 to each other and transmitted intensity is zero.
What happens when one more Polaroid is placed between these two bisecting
the angle between them?
15. Two nicol prisms are so oriented that the maximum amount of light is
transmitted. To what fraction of its maximum value is the intensity of the
transmitted light reduced when the analyser is rotated through (a) 300 and (b)
600 ?
16. On a right angled prism ‘abc’ at face ‘ab’. The refractive indices of the material of
the prism for red, green and blue wavelengths are 1 × 39, 1 × 44 and 1 × 47
respectively. Out of the three which colour ray will emerge out of
face ‘ac’? Justify your answer. Trace the path of these rays
after passing through face ‘ab’.

IMPORTANT RAY DIAGRAMS:

1. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
2. TELESCOPE:

Astronomical Telescope: ( Image formed at infinity –

Normal Adjustment)
fo + fe = L

fo fe Eye

Fo
Fe
α
Po α •
β Pe

Eyepiece

Image at
Objective
infinity

Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece.
Aperture of the objective is also large to allow more light to pass through it.

3.
 Newtonian Telescope: (Reflecting Type)

Plane Mirror
Light
from star

Magnifying Power: Eyepiece

fo
M=
fe Concave Mirror

Eye

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
The differences between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Sl.No Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
.
01. Pure Semi-conductor is called Intrinsic Impure or Doped Semiconductor is
Semiconductor called Extrinsic Semiconductor.
02. Examples: Silicon or Germanium Example: Silicon doped with Boron,
Silicon doped with Phosphorous
03. Conductivity is due to breakage of the Conductivity is due to the addition of
covalent bond due to the supply of thermal impurities
energy
04. No. of electrons is equal to No. of holes No.of electrons is not equal to No. os
holes
05. Fermi Level lies in the middle of the Valence Fermi Level lies just above valence band
Band and Conduction Band or below conduction band
06. Conductivity is low Conductivity is more.
07. No permitted energy state between CB and There is a permitted energy state of the
VB. impurity atom between CB and VB

Differences between n-Type and p-Type semiconductor

SL.NO. n-Type semiconductor p-type Semiconductor
1. It is formed by adding a pentavalent atom to It is formed by adding a trivalent
pure semiconductor atom to a tetra valent atom.
2 Example: Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antinomy Boron, Aluminum, Indium
3 Fermi (Donor) Level lies just below conduction Fermi (Acceptor) level lies just
band above valence band
4 Majority carriers are electrons and Minority Majority carriers are holes and
carriers are holes Minority carriers are electrons
5 Conductivity is more Conductivity is less
6 Ne.>>Nh Nh>> Ne
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORWARD BIAS AND REVERSE BIAS PN JUNCTION DIODE
Sl. No Forward Bias PN JUNCTION DIODE Reverse Bias PN JUNCTION DIODE
01. Positive terminal of the battery is connected Positive terminal of the battery is
to p-type and negative terminal of the battery connected to n-type and negative terminal
is connected to n-type of the diode of the battery is connected to p-type of the
diode
02. The p-region is at higher potential and the n- The n-region is at higher potential and the
region is at lower potential. p-region is at lower potential.
03 The width of depletion region decreases The width of the depletion region increases
04 The current is due to the majority carriers and The current is due to the minority carriers
measured in milli Amperes. and measured in micro amperes.
05. The resistance is less The resistance is more.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE:

STATIC RESISTANCE: The ratio of d.c voltage to the direct current across the diode is called Static
V
Resistance of dc resistance. Rdc =
I

DYNAMIC RESISTANCE: The ratio of the small change in the voltage to a small change in the
∆V
current is called Dynamic resistance. Rac =
∆I

TRANSISTOR:

CURRENT Ie = Ib + Ic

CURRENT GAINS: α = IC/IE β = IC/IB

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT GAINS: β = α / (1- α) α = β/(1+ β)

β > 1 and α <1 because Ie>Ic and Ic>>Ib

∆ V BE
INPUT RESISTANCE: At constant VCE, ri =
∆ IB
∆ V CE
OUTPUT RESISTANCE: At constant IB r0 =
∆ IC

TRANSISTOR AS A COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Emitter-Base should be forward biased and Base-Collector should be reverse biased.
The output voltage = V0 = Vcc – IcRc
Current Gain = Change in collector current / Change in Base current
Voltage Gain = Out Put voltage / Input Voltage gain = (I cRc)/(IBRi)
Power Gain = Voltage gain x current gain
Input voltage and output Voltage are out of Phase with each other.

IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS:

pn JUNCTION DIODE IN FORWARD BIAS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR REVERSE BIAS

CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUCTION DIODE

ZENER DIODE

LED PHOTODIODE SOLARCELL

Forward biased Reverse biased No external biasing. It

Recombination of electrons
and holes take place at the
junction and emits e m
radiations
Energy is supplied by light to
take an electron from valence
band to conduction band.
generates emf when solar
radiation falls on it.
Generation of emf by solar
cells is due to three basic
process generation of e-h
pair, separation and
collection.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

TRANSISTOR & TYPES

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
INPUT CHARACTERISTISCS

OUT PUT CHARACTERISTICS

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

INPUT WAVE FORM OUTPUT WAVE FORM

VARIATION OF INPUT VOLTAGE AND OUTPUT VOLTAGE

BASIC GATES:

OR, AND, NOT GATE

NAME OF THE FORMULA TRUTH TABLE

GATE
OR Y=A+B A B Y
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
AND Y = A .B A B Y
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
NOT A Y
Y = Á 1 0
0 1

NAME OF SYMBOL FORMULA TRUTH TABLE

THE GATE
NOR A B Y
´B
Y = A+ 1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
NAND A B Y
1 0 0
Y = A´. B 0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS:

1. The output of an OR gate is connected to both the

inputs of a NAND gate . Draw the logic circuit of
this combination of gates and write its truth table.

2. Express by a truth table the output Y for all

possible inputs A and B in the circuit shown
below.

3. Write the Boolean equation and truth table for the circuit shown below.
What is the output when all inputs are high?

4. If the diode is ideal, what will be output wave

form across R and across the diode respectively in
the following diagrams.

a) For the positive half (0 to +5v ) ,the diode gets forward

biased and conducts current .This part of the input wave
appears across R as shown below
+5v
0

b) For the negative half (-5v to 0), the diode remains reverse biased. It does not conduct , this
part of the input wave appears across the diode as shown below. For the positive half (0 to
+5v), the diode gets forward biased .It conduct current and no voltage appears across it.

5. The given inputs A, B are fed to a 2-input NAND gate. Draw

the output wave form of the gate.
6. The figure adjoining shows the V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode

(i) Identify the semiconductor diode used.

(ii) Draw the circuit diagram to obtain the given characteristic of this
device.
(iii) Briefly explain how this diode can be used as a voltage regulator

7. Draw the output wave form at X, using the given

inputs A, B for the logic circuit shown below.
Also identify the gate

8. State the factor, which controls : (i) wavelength of light, and (ii) intensity of light emitted
by an LED.

9. Two signals A, B as given below, are applied as input to

i) AND (ii) NOR and (iii) NAND gates.
Draw the output wave-form in each case.
10. The following figure shows the input
waveforms (A, B) and the output
waveform (Y) of a gate. Identify the gate,
write its truth table and draw its logic
symbol.

19. The output of a 2-input AND gate is fed to a NOT gate. Give the name of the combination
and
its logic symbol. Write down its truth table

20. (i) Sketch the output wavefoRm from an AND gate for the inputs A and B shown in the
figure.

(ii) If the output of the above AND gate is fed to a NOT gate, name the gate of the
combination so formed.

21. Draw the logic symbol of the gate whose truth table is given below:
If this logic gate is connected to NOT gate, what will be output when (i) A = 0, B = 0 and
(ii) A = 1, B = 1? Draw the logic symbol of the combination.
22. (a) Explain the formation of depletion layer and potential barrier in a p-n junction.
(b) In the figure given below, the input waveform is converted into the output wave from a
device ‘X’. Name the device and draw its circuit diagram

23. Identify the logic gate represented by the circuit as shown and write its truth table.

24. Find out put resistance.

UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

SL.NO NAME OF THE PHYSICAL QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT
.
1 Charge Q COULOMB
2 Electric Permittivity ε C2/(N m2)
3 Electric Field Intensity E N/C or Volt/meter
4 Electric flux ΦE N m2/C
5 Electric dipole moment p Coulomb-meter
6 Electrostatic potential V Volt or Joule/Coulomb
7 Capacitance of capacitor C Farad
8 Electric energy density uE Joule/meter3
9 Linear charge density Λ Coulomb/meter
10 Surface charge density σ Coulomb/meter2
11 Volume charge density ρ Coulomb/meter3
12 Resistance R Ohm
13 Current I Ampere
14 Current density j Ampere/meter2
15 Relaxation time Τ second
16 Conductance C Ohm-1 or mho
17 Specific resistance of resistivity ρ Ohm-meter
18 Conductivity or specific conductance σ mho/meter
19 Potential Gradient Volt/meter
20 Electromotive force ε Volt
21 Resistance gradient Ohm/meter
22 Magnetic field B Tesla
23 Magnetic Permeability µ Tesla-meter/Amp
24 Magnetic moment or Magnetic Dipole moment m Ampere-meter2
25 Magnetization M Ampere/meter
26 Magnetic flux ΦB Weber
27 Magnetic Intensity H Ampere/mete
28 Magnetic Pole strength m Ampere-meter
29 Magnetic Length l meter
30 Current Sensitivity Radian/Ampere
31 Voltage sensitivity Radian/Volt
32 Self Inductance (L) L Henry or Weber/Ampere
33 Mutual Inductance M Henry
33 Torsion Constant k N meter/radian
34 Angular frequency w Radian/second
35 Inductive reactance XL Ohm
36 Capacitative reactance Xc Ohm

UNITS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

SL.NO NAME OF THE PHYSICAL QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT
.
37 Power of a lens P Diopter
38 Electric Polarization P Coulomb/meter2
39 Electric Displacement D Coulomb/meter2
40 Mobility m2/(Volt – second)
41 Number density m-3
42 Impedance Z Ohm
43 Wave length meter
44 Intensity Joule/(meter2 second)
45 Fringe width Meter
46 Limit of resolution Radian
47 Resolving power (radian)-1
48 Rydberg constant R m-1
49 Activity Becquerel
50 Half life Second
51 Decay constant or disintegration constant (sec)-1

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES WHICH DO NOT HAVE UNITS

SL.NO NAME OF THE PHYSICAL QUANTITY SYMBOL
.
1 Dielectric constant K
2 Relative Permittivity µ
3 Relative permeability µ
4 Refractive Index N
5 Power factor P.F.
6 Magnifying power M.P.
7 Linear Magnification M
8 Angular Magnification
9 Electric susceptibility ΧE
10 Magnetic susceptibility ΧB
11 Quality factor Q.F.
12 Fine structure constant α
13 Current gain
14 Voltage gain
15 Power gain
16 Modulation Index

1. 1 Angstrom (1 A0) = 10-10 m

2. 1 Fermi (1fm) = 10-15 m

1 milli 10-3 6 Kilo 103

2 centi 10-2 7 Hector 102
3 micr 10-6 8 Mega 106
o
4 nano 10-9 9 Giga 109
5 pico 10-12
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
SL.NO NAME OF THE SYMBOL Value
. PHYSICAL QUANTITY
1 Electric permittivity of ε0 8.85 x 10-12 C2/ (N m2)
free space or vacuum or
air
2 Mass of electron me 9.1 x 10-31 kg
3 Charge of electron -1.6 x 10-19 C
4 Charge of proton + 1.6 x 10-19 C
5 Mass of proton 1.6 x 10-27 kg
6 Mass of neutron 1.6 x 10-27 kg
7 Charge of Alpha particle + 3.2 x 10-19 C
8 Mass of alpha particle 6.4 x 10-27 kg
9 Dielectric constant of k 80
water
10 Magnetic permeability of µ0 4π x 10-7 Tesla meter/Ampere
air
11 Speed of light c 3 x 108m/s
12 Gyromagnetic ratio 8.8 x 1010 C/kg
13 Planck’s constant h 6.62 x 10-34 Joule-second
14 Boltzmann constant kB 1.38 x 10-23 Joule/Kelvin
15 Rydberg Constant R 1.097 x 107 m-1
16 Nuclear density 2.29 x 1017 kg/m3
17 Charge of positron + 1.6 x 10-19C
18 Gravitational Constant G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
19 Avgadro number NA 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
20 Universal Gas Constant 8.314 J /(mol Kelvin)
21 Faraday constant 96500 Coulomb/mol

IMPORTANT VALUES
1. 1/(4πεo) = 9 x 109 N m2/C2
2. µ0/ 4π = 10-7 Tesla meter/Ampere
3. 1 Gauss = 10-4 Tesla
4. 1 electron Volt = 1 eV = 1.6 x10-19 J
5. Magnitude of fundamental charge = e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
6. 1 kilo Watt hour (I unit) = 3.6 x 10 6 J
7. 1 horse power = 746 Watt
8. Bohr Magnetron = 9.27 x 10-24 A m2
9. Least Distance of distant vision (D) = 25cm
10. Normal adjustment = Infinity
11. Bohr Radius = r0 = 0.53 A0 = 0.53 x 10-10 m
12. Fine structure constant = α = 1/137
13. 1 atomic mass unit (1amu) = 1 u =1.6605 x 10-27 kg
14. 1 atomic mass unit in terms of energy = 931.5 MeV /c 2 where c = speed of light
15. Mass of electron = 0.00055 u
16. Mass of proton = 1.00727 u
17. Mass of neutron = 1.00866 u
18. Mass of Hydrogen = 1.00783 u
19. Mass of Deuterium = 2.0141 u
20. Mass of Tritium = 3.0160 u
21. Mass of Helium = 4.00260 u
22. 1 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 Becquerel(Bq)
23. 1 Calorie = 4.2 Joule
24. Electron charge /mass of electron (e/m) = 1.76 x 1011C/kg
25. Electron rest mass energy = mc2 = 0.511 MeV
26. Energy equivalent of 1 u =1 u c2 = 931.5 M eV

QUESTION BANK FOR CLASS XII PHYSICS

CONTENTS OF THE QUESTION BANK

NAME OF THE TOPIC PAGE NO.

6. DERIVATIONS

7. FACTORS ON WHICH ----------------- DEPENDS

8. PROPERTIES & CONDITIONS

9. IMPORTANT DEVICES AND INSTRUMENTS

10. IMPORTANT LAWS

 IMPORTANT DERIVATIONS & DIAGRAMS
ELECTOSTATICS
17. Electric field due to a dipole at a point along perpendicular bisector or Equatorial
line.
18. Electric field due to a dipole at a point along axial line.
19. The torque, Potential Energy possessed by dipole placed in uniform electric field.
20. Electric potential due to a dipole at a point along the axial line.
21. Electric potential due to a dipole at a point along perpendicular bisector.
22. State and prove Gauss Theorem.
23. Electric field due to an infinitely long straight uniform charged wire.
24. Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
25. Electric field die to uniformly charged thin spherical shell (hollow sphere) at a
point (a)outside the shell (b) inside the shell (c) on the surface of the shell
26. Electric field due to two infinite plane parallel sheets of charge (a) to the left of
the sheets (b) to the right of the sheets (c) between two sheets.
27. Electric field due to a uniformly charged solid sphere at a point (a) on the solid
sphere (b) outside the sphere (c) inside the solid sphere
28. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
29. The energy stored in the parallel plate capacitor and energy density
30. The equivalent capacitance of three capacitors in series and parallel
combination.
31. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab between two
plates.
32. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab between two
plates.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
10. The electric current in terms of drift velocity, number density of the electrons.
11. The internal resistance of the cell in terms of Electromotive force and Terminal
potential difference.
12. The equivalent resistance of three resistors in the series combination
13. The equivalent resistance of three resistors in the parallel combination
14. Proving Ohm’s law or resistivity in terms of the number density and relaxation
time.
15. Condition for Wheatstone Bridge
16. Comparison of the emf’s of two cells in terms of the lengths in potentiometer.
17. The internal resistance of the cell by using the potentiometer.
18. The resistance of given conductor by using meter bridge.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF THE CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

19. Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular loop carrying current by using
Biot Savart law
20. State and Prove Ampere’s circuital law
21. Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular wire of infinite length using
Ampere’s circuital law.
22. Magnetic field due to a solenoid carrying current using Ampere’s circuital law
23. Magnetic field due to a toroid carrying current using Ampere’s circuital law
24. Fore between two infinitely long straight parallel conductors carrying currents
and definition of Ampere
25. Torque on a current carrying rectangular loop placed in uniform magnetic field
and the potential energy
26. The Orbital magnetic moment of an electron in the current loop in terms of the
angular momentum or Bohr Mageton
27. Current in the galvanometer in terms of the angular deflection
28. Conversion of the Galvanometer to Voltmeter
29. Conversion of the Galvanometer to Ammeter
30. Gyro frequency or frequency of a charged particle in the magnetic field
31. Radius of the orbit of the electron in cyclotron
32. Kinetic energy of charged particle in the cyclotron
33. Torque experienced by a magnetic dipole placed in the uniform magnetic field
and Potential energy.
34. Magnetic field at a point on the axial line of the bar magnet
35. Magnetic field at a point on the perpendicular bisector of a bar magnet
36. Hysterisis

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

21. Induced emf or motional emf across a coil when a coil is dragged out from the
uniform magnetic field and Force applied in dragging it.
22. Mutual inductance of two long solenoids
23. Self Inductance of a solenoid
24. Magnetic energy stored in an inductor
25. Power delivered in an inductor
26. Power delivered in a capacitor
27. Power delivered in a resistor
28. Current is in phase with ac voltage across a resistor
29. Current lags voltage by 90 degrees in an inductor
30. Current leads voltage by 90 degrees in a capacitor
31. Impedance of a LR series circuit
32. Impedance of RC series circuit
33. Impedance of LCR series circuit
34. Current leads voltage in a capacitative LCR series circuit
35. Current lags voltage in an inductive LCR series circuit
36. Resonance conditions and resonance frequency
37. Power consumed in a LCR series circuit
38. The alternating voltage in an ac generator
39. Ratio of the voltages across Primary and Secondary coils in terms of the no of
turns in Primary and Secondary coil
40. Energy possessed by LC series circuit

OPTICS

24. Relation between Radius of Curvature and focal length of a mirror

25. Relation between Image distance, object distance and focal length of a mirror or
Mirror formula
26. Relation between Image distance, Object distance and focal length of a Lens or
Lens Formula
27. Refraction through a Glass Slab or Prove that angle of incidence is equal to angel
of emergence
28. Refraction at a convex refracting surface
29. Lens Maker’s Formula
30. Magnifying power of a Compound Microscope
31. Magnifying power of Refracting telescope
32. Ray Diagram of Compound Microscope when the image is at normal adjustment
33. Ray Diagram of Compound Microscope when the image is at least distance of
distinct vision
34. Ray Diagram of Refracting Telescope or Astronomical Telescope when the image
is at least distance of distinct vision
35. Ray Diagram of Refracting Telescope or Astronomical Telescope when the image
is at normal adjustment
36. Ray diagram of Newtonian Telescope
37. Ray diagram of Cassegrain Telescope
38. Refraction through a Glass Prism
39. Huygen’s wavefront construction
40. Verification of laws of refraction by using Huygen’s Principle
41. Verification of laws of reflection by using Huygen’s Principle
42. The amplitude of a resultant wave when two waves interfere
43. The intensity of a resultant wave when two waves interfere
44. Fringe width in Young’s double Slit Experiment
45. The intensity distribution in Single Slit diffraction
46. Brewster Law
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

7. de-Broglie wavelength of a photon

8. de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of energy E
9. de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through a potential difference
of V
10. Graphical Analysis of The salient features of Photo-electric effect
11. Davisson –Germer Experiment
12. Einstein’s Photo electric effect equation

ATOMS AND NUCLEI

21. Rutherford’s Atomic Model

22. Distance of Closest Approach or Size of Nucleus)
23. Nuclear radius in terms of Mass Number
24. Density of Nucleus
25. Radius of nth Orbit in an atom
26. The velocity of electron in an orbit
27. The Potential energy, Kinetic energy and total energy possessed by an electron in
Hydrogen atom
28. Rydberg Formula
29. Energy level diagram of Hydrogen atom-transitions
30. Mass Defect
31. Binding Energy –Binding energy curve
32. Radioactive decay law
33. Half Life of a radioactive substance
34. Mean life or average life of radioactive substance
35. Alpha decay
36. Beta decay
37. Gamma decay
38. Nuclear Fusion
39. Nuclear Fission
40. Nuclear Reactor

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

21. The current in a semiconductor

22. The circuit and characteristics of a pn junction diode – Forwards and Reverse
Bias
23. Half wave rectifier
24. Full wave rectifier
25. The circuit and the characteristics of Photodiode
26. The circuit and the characteristics of Light Emitting Diode(LED)
27. The circuit and the characteristics of Solar cell
28. The circuit and the characteristics of Zener diode
29. The current in a transistor
30. The action of npn Transistor
31. The action of pnp tranistor
32. The circuit and the characteristics of a common emitter configuration by using
npn transistor
33. The circuit and the characteristics of a common emitter configuration by using
pnp transistor
 34. Common emitter amplifier by using npn transistor
35. Common emitter amplifier by using pnp transistor
36. Realization of OR gate
37. Realization of AND gate
38. Realization of NOT gate
39. Obtaining OR, AND and NOT gates by using NAND gate
40. Obtaining OR, AND and NOT gates using NOR gate

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

8. Block Diagram of Communication system

9. Waveforms of Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation, Phase Modulation
10. Block Diagrams of Transmitter, Receiver
11. Bock Diagram of simple Modulator for obtaining an AM signal
12. Block Diagram of detector for AM signal

FACTORS ON WHICH --------------------------DEPENDS:

ELECTROSTATICS
3. Capacitance Of Capacitor
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
10. Resistance
11. Resistivity
12. Meter Bridge: Material of wire

13. Potentiometer: Material of wire

05. Galvanometer - Magnetic field Soft iron core Sensitivity
Low torsion constant Properties of the coil of material of wire:
14. Ammeter
15. Voltmeter
07. Emf of Cell Emf doesn’t depend
08.Internal Resistance:
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM
01. Magnetic field due to straight conductor:
02. Magnetic field of circular coil:
03. Magnetic field in side a solenoid
04. Cyclotron:
(i) Time period (ii) Radius of circular orbit (iii)Angular frequency
13. Material of Electromagnet

14. Material of Permanent Magnet

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION, AC CIRCUITS

01. Induced emf

02. Magnetic Flux
03. Motional emf
04. Self Inductance
05. Mutual Induction
06. Transformer Nature of transformer
07. AC Generator

WAVE OPTICS

01. The shape of the wave front :

02. The angular width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction
03. The width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction
04. The fringe width in interference
05. Interference pattern when the whole apparatus is dipped in water
06. The focal length of a convex lens and wavelength of the light.
Convex lens is held in water - Focal length:
07. Angular width in Interference
.
RAY OPTICS

01. The refractive index of a medium:

4. The critical angle
03. The focal length of concave mirror when the incident violet light on
them is replaced with red light :
04. The focal length of convex lens when the incident violet light on
them is replaced with red light
05. The angle of deviation:
06. Angle of Deviation
 07. Dispersive Power:
08. Magnifying power and Resolving power of Telescope and Microscope

PROPERTIES AND CONDITIONS

ELECTROSTATICS

6. Electric Charge
7. Electric field Lines
8. Electric dipole in Equilibrium
9. Equi potential Surfaces
10. Conductors in Electrostatic field

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

3. Wheatstone Bridge Condition

4. Ohm’s Law

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

8. Magnetic field lines

9. Ferro, Para and Dia magnetic substance
10. Resonance Condition in cyclotron
11. Moving coil galvanometer-Concave poles, Nature of the coil, Iron Core
12. Conversion of galvanometer to Voltmeter and Ammeter
13. Ammeter
14. Voltmeter

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CIRCUITS

1. Resonance conditions
2. Energy losses in transformer
3. Quality factor

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

5. Electromagnetic waves
6. Electromagnetic spectrum
7. Displacement Current
8. Maxwelll’s Equations

OPTICS
22. Path difference & Phase difference
23. Interference
24. Constructive Interference & Destructive Interference
25. Coherent Sources
26. Diffraction
27. Intensity distribution
28. Polarization
29. Brewster’s Law
30. Total Internal Reflection
31. Rainbow
32. Scattering of Light-Sky Color, Clouds Color
33. Rayleigh Scattering of Light
34. Angle of Minimum Deviation
35. Compound Microscope
36. Astronomical Telescope
37. Newtonian Telescope
38. Cassegrain Telescope
39. Good telescope
40. Advantages of Reflecting telescope
41. Resolving power of Telescope
42. Resolving power of microscope

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

4. Photoelectron emission
5. de-Broglie wavelength
6. Photoelectric effect
ATOMS AND NUCLEI

10. Thomson’s Atomic Model – Important points and Limitations

11. Rutherford Atomic Model – Important points and Limitations
12. Bohr’s Atomic Model – Important Points and Limitations
13. Alpha Particle scattering experiment
14. Nuclear Force
15. Binding Energy Curve
16. Alpha, Beta and Gamma Decay
17. Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays properties
18. Controlled Nuclear Fission

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

17. Energy Band diagrams-Conductors, Insulators and semiconductors

18. Intrinsic Semiconductors
19. Doping of semiconductors
20. Extrinsic semiconductors
21. p-type and n-type semiconductors
22. Biasing of semiconductor-Forward and Reverse
23. Forward Biased Diode-Circuit, Characteristics, Important points related to depletion
region, Resistance, Current and Knee voltage
24. Reverse Biased Diode-Circuit, Characteristics, Important points related to depletion
region, Resistance, Current and Reverse Breakdown voltage
25. Rectification
26. Zener Diode-Characteristics
27. Light emitting diode-properties of the material and characteristics
28. Solar cell-Properties of the material and characteristics
29. Photodiode –Characteristics of the material
30. Transistor
31. Transistor –Input, Output and Transfer characteristics
 32. OR, AND, NOT, NOR, NAND-Logic symbol, Logic formula, Truth table, Realization and
waveforms

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

2. Modulation

02. Ground wave, Sky wave and Space wave propagations

IMPORTANT DEVICES AND INSTRUMENTS

PRINCIPLE. CONSTRUCTION, WORKING, USES, ADVANTAGES OF THE FOLLOWING:

19. Van de graff Generator

20. Meter Bridge- To find the resistance of unknown conductor
21. Potentiometer-To find the internal resistance of a cell
22. Potentiometer-To compare the emf’s of two cells
23. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
24. Moving Coil Galvanometer
25. Cyclotron
26. AC generator
27. Transformer
28. Compound Microscope
29. Astronomical Telescope
30. Newtonian Telescope
31. Cassegrain Telescope
32. Human Eye-Defects of Vision
33. Photoelectric effect
34. Davission and Germer Experiment
35. Rutherford Atomic Model
36. Bohr’s Atomic Model

19. Nuclear Reactor

IMPORTANT LAWS
38. Coulomb’s law in Electrostatics
39. Gauss’s Theorem
40. Superposition Principle in Electricity
41. Ohm’s Law
42. Kirchhoff’s Rules
43. Meter Bridge
44. Potentiometer
45. SNOW RULE Ampere Swimming Rule Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule
46. Right Hand Thumb Rule
47. Fleming’s Left hand Rule
48. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
49. Biot- Savart Law
50. Ampere’s Circuital Law
51. Moving coil Galvanometer
52. Cyclotron
53. Coulomb’s law in Magnetism
54. Gaus’s Theorem in Magnetism
55. Curie Law
56. Tangent’s Law
57. Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction
58. Lenz’s Rule
59. Maxwell’s Equations
60. Laws of Reflection Laws of Refraction-Snell’s Law
61. Huygen’s Principle
62. Malus Law
63. Brewster Law
64. Principle of Reversibility
65. Superposition Principle in Optics
66. Total Internal Reflection
67. Raleigh Scattering of Light
68. de-Broglie hypothesis
69. Einstein’s Photoelectric effect
70. Mass Energy Law
71. Thomson’s Atomic Model
72. Rutherford’s Atomic Model
73. Bohr Atomic Model
74. Radioactive decay law