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Technical Education and
Vocational Training in
Developing Nations

Ugochukwu Chinonso Okolie

Ebonyi State University, Nigeria

Asfa M. Yasin
PSS Central Institute of Vocational Education (NCERT), India

A volume in the Advances in Higher Education

and Professional Development (AHEPD) Book
Series
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Names: Okolie, Ugochukwu Chinonso, editor.
Title: Technical education and vocational training in developing nations /
Ugochukwu Chinonso Okolie and Afsa M. Yasin, editors.
Description: Hershey PA : Information Science References, [2017]
Identifiers: LCCN 2016048124| ISBN 9781522518112 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522518129 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Vocational education--Developing countries. | Technical
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128

Chapter 7
Current Trends and Issues
in TVET of Bangladesh
Md. Shahadat Hossain Khan
Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh

Mahbub Hasan
The University of Queensland, Australia

K. M. Md. Golam Rabbani

Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh

ABSTRACT
This chapter discussed current trends and issues in TVET of Bangladesh and challenges faced by the
TVET programme in Bangladesh. The chapter drew attentions to the fact that due to tremendous develop-
ment in the socio-economic status and technological changes around the world, consumers’ expectations
towards the products and services have been changing rapidly thereby resulting into a highly competi-
tive globalized market. In order to compete with these demands, government and private organizations
should ensure best quality products and services for their customers. Every nation throughout this global
village needs to have updated means, particularly in the area of updated knowledge and skills, to survive
in this globalized open market. Many developing countries particularly from Asia and Africa are facing
growing pressure to compete with the changing global market. Besides, most of the least developing and
underdeveloped countries of the world are located in these geographical regions (Asia and Africa) where
most of the poor people with low per capita income are living. In order to improve these conditions,
they put emphasis on developing their manpower as per the global requirements. Most of the developing
countries, therefore, consider Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as one of the
main key agents to play the vital role for educating and training their huge unemployed population to
become competitive human recourses to enter into national and global market.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-1811-2.ch007

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

Many studies reported that “development of vocational skills” and “promotion of lifelong learning” are
recognized as core national strategy in many advanced countries such as Australia, Canada, Japan and
United States (Agbola & Lambert, 2010; Coles & Leney, 2009; Drage, 2009; McGrath, 2012). Addi-
tionally, other countries such as Finland, Korea, Taiwan and Singapore strengthened their comparative
progress and gained the competitive position in global market through adapting selected strategies in
this TVET sectors (Hawley & Paek, 2005; Kuruvilla, Erickson, & Hwang, 2002).
On the other side, most of the developing countries still could not finalize the specific strategies and
action plan like the developed countries. However, government and other non-government agencies of
developing countries realized lately that TVET is an important area through which huge population could
be turned into skilled manpower and hence they can contribute in the economic development. Anderson
(2009) supports these arguments and claims that TVET is built on two key purposes:

1. Training which leads to productivity, which in turn leads to economic growth (training for growth);
2. Skills development which leads to employability, which in turn leads to jobs (skills for work).

Previous studies also showed that the integration of education, skills and work in Asia and Africa has
been considered as a priority based action for human resource development through TVET which is given
much more attention for their social and economic development (Aring, 2015; Boutin, Chinien, Moratis,
& van Baalen, 2009). After realizing the potential strength of TVET sectors, continual efforts are made
to improve the present conditions of TVET sectors. Many of these countries have already developed poli-
cies and strategies related to TVET and undertook great initiatives to improve quality of TVET sectors
to meet the present challenges. Recent progress in the elaboration of national qualifications framework
(NFQ) in Bangladesh, one of the developing countries of Asia, is an example of integrating joint efforts
in government and private sector to ensure high quality TVET in order to meeting individual, enter-
prise and economic needs. With these brief introduction and background, this article aims to illustrate
a number of new initiatives and challenges that TVET sectors of Bangladesh are encountering recently.

IMPROVING THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF TVET

Improving the attractiveness of TVET education is an important issue that needs to be addressed. A sub-
stantial amount of research has been conducted to discuss how to enhance the image and attractiveness
of TVET in many developed countries and very recently in developing countries (Coles & Leney, 2009;
Nägele & Bestvater, 2016; Ratnata, 2013). This attractiveness is now one of the major concerns regard-
ing improving TVET sectors in Bangladesh like other countries. TVET sectors have not yet achieved
better image to attract bright students to continue their education in these sectors. It is considered as a
‘second-class’ education in Bangladesh. In many cases, it is regarded as a last resort for those who fail
to enter higher education or to leave formal education due to certain unforeseen reasons. This low at-
tractiveness is seen due to certain reasons which is identified from the recent study of McGrath (2012):

• In most cases, very poorly qualified teachers for TVET;

• Low pass rates and it produce poor quality graduates;

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

• Graduates could not meet the labor market requirements and hence poor labor market insertions;
• Lack of resources, such as physical, teaching and learning resources
• Dead end qualification;
• Inappropriate and low curricular relevance

Additionally, Erling (2014) reported that the increased worldwide flow of information and wider
uses of technology create demand for high-level cognitive skills. TVET sectors have failed to meet this
demand. Therefore, raising the quality and attractiveness of TVET sectors in Bangladesh is getting
priority in the government’s initiatives towards development of the country.
The main underlying intention of improving TVET sectors is to convert huge population into skilled
manpower. The following issues are the key reasons that compel government and non-government agen-
cies to focus on TVET sectors:
Bangladesh is burdened with its huge population i.e.159.54 million and it is one of the most densely
populated countries in the world (BANBEIS, 2015);

1. Bangladesh is still one of the poorest countries with very low GDP per capita. Poverty isbadlyaf-
fecting its socio-economic status;
2. General education systems in Bangladesh have failed to meet current industrial demands of skilled
workers;
3. Gradually, job prospects for university graduates in Bangladesh are getting narrower and becoming
saturated;
4. This country already has a huge number of unemployed and inactive young people who could be
converted into skilled manpower.

The government of Bangladesh and other national and international bodies have taken many skills
development agendas to enhance attractiveness and improve the quality and status of TVET of Bangla-
desh that are titled in this article as ‘new trends and issues’. Few of the main initiatives which are linked
with these ‘new trends and issues’ are illustrated in the following heading:

TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN TVET

Over the last 30 years, the widening uptake of, and growing demand for, technology in higher education
has created an important area for educational research. Many studies in higher education have provided
evidence about the “positive effects of using technology in teaching and learning situations”(Collins,
2013; Ellis, Hughes, Weyers, & Riding, 2009; Shahadat Hossain Khan, 2015). Technology can enhance
existing instructional methods and in some cases introduce new ones, such as networked learning, self-
paced learning and online discussion (Goodyear, 2005; Roberts, 2003). Likewise, the use of ICT can
facilitate student-centred teaching, collaborative learning and the improvement of students’ problem-
solving skills. Therefore, the use of technology has entered into mainstream practices in tertiary educa-
tion. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET), a part of tertiary education, is also getting
growing pressure to integrate technology in teaching and learning context (Armatas & papadopoulos,
2013; Pellone, 1991; Sansey, 2005). Technology in this article is defined as a combination of all forms
of hardware and software that is considered as digital devices such as computers or any electronic de-

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

vice used in teaching and learning; for instance, interactive whiteboard, and the Internet, mobile phone,
printer, email, networking tools, different forms of software, machinery and equipment supported by
digital technology. In the previous literature, technology in education is found as ICT (Information and
Communication Technology) in education (Shahadat Hossain Khan, 2015; Watson & Watson, 2011),
which is likewise defined. Khan, Hasan, and Clement (2012) stated that:

Technologies include computers, the internet, the broadcasting technologies (radio and television) and
telephony that can facilitate not only delivery of instruction, but also learning processes itself. These
technologies have been identified as important tools for realizing a new paradigm of learner-centered
education that better supports learners’ needs through differentiated and personalized instruction(Watson
& Watson, 2011). Components such as providing interactive content, giving immediate feedback, diagnos-
ing student needs, providing effective remediation, assessing learning, and storing examples of student
work (e.g., portfolios) are critical elements in digital technology that is able to support learner-centered
instruction for diverse learners. Moreover ICT can promote international collaboration and networking
in education and professional development. There are a range of ICT options - from videoconferencing
through multimedia delivery to web sites - which can be used to meet the challenges teachers face today.
In fact, ICT will be able to provide more flexible and effective ways for lifelong professional develop-
ment for today’s teachers. As a result, both teachers and students will get enormous benefits for their
empowerment and development (p. 67)

Considering its importance, most of the developing countries have been trying to introduce technology
in their education sector since the last few years (Kafyulilo, 2014). For example, the present govern-
ment of Bangladesh has already introduced several initiatives to integrate different forms of technology
in tertiary education system (Karim, 2010). Moreover, they realized that technology is one of the key
elements to eradicate poverty from the society, so are taking steps by integrating it in education. For
instance, a recent study, Khan, Hadi, and Ashraf (2013) informs that in order to realize the Vision 2021,
the government of Bangladesh adopted a national ICT policy in 2009 and national education policy
in 2010 as a part of its developmental aspirations and move it forward to become Digital Bangladesh.
As a part of these policies, the government already has implemented many pilot projects, for example
classrooms are equipped with technology (Multimedia classroom). Government also converted all paper
based books into electronic versions not only in general education but also in technical education and
some of these eBooks are available at government website (www.ebook.gov.bd). The main intention of
integrating technology in General and Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is to:

1. Produce skilled workforce which could meet technology-driven industrial requirements and facilitate
labor/ workforce migration to the developed countries;
2. Create opportunities for self-employment.

To achieve these milestones, the TVE institutions need to integrate technology in their teaching and
learning contexts successfully. Therefore, new and innovative research in TVET sectors in Bangladesh
is required to accelerate this initiative. Little research has been conducted focusing on identifying the
possibilities of integrating technologies in TVET sectors (Jinnah, Abdullah-Al-Mamun, Khan, & Hasan,
2011; Shamim, Aktaruzzaman, & Clement, 2011). Although the Government of Bangladesh is dedi-
cated to introducing technology fully in TVET sectors, the process is not getting success due to certain

131
 
Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

Figure 1. Barriers of integrating technology in TVET sectors of Bangladesh

barriers. These barriers could be categorized as external or internal factors. External factors are those
which are linked with outside contexts and elements such as lack of equipment, financial scarcity, and
socio-economic contexts. On the other hand, internal factors are those which are connected with inter-
nal aspects of TVET institutions, such as institutional culture, support from institutions, beliefs about
teaching with technology and openness to change. How these both factors negatively influence the use
of technology in TVET is described in the following section:

Lack of Funds

Effective implementation of technology into TVET sectors requires huge financial support that is very
hard to manage in developing countries like Bangladesh, where many people live below the international
poverty line which is used for measuring third world countries (Wong, 1995). However, last few years
the poverty rate declined due to rapid growth of industrial and service sectors (Rahman, 2015)
Purchasing technology supported equipment and tools needs huge amount of money. For example,
ICT-supported hardware, computers, software, Internet, audio visual aids, teaching aids and other acces-
sories demand huge amount of money to procure. Even many developed countries, in some cases, face
difficulties to manage funds for purchasing expensive technology-supported teaching and learning tools.
According to Mumtaz (2000), many scholars suggested that lack of funds to obtain necessary hardware
and software has hindered teachers from incorporating technology in their classes. Under this condition,
TVET sectors in Bangladesh are struggling to manage sufficient fund to acquire teaching and learning
tools required to integrate technology in their education systems. Without ensuring adequate funds,
all our efforts will be driven in vain which is reported by Afshari, Bakar, Su Luan, Samah, and Fooi

132

Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

Figure 2. Poverty rate of Bangladesh

(2009):Efficient and effective use of technology depends on the availability of hardware and software
and the equity of access to resources by teachers, students and administrative staffs. Therefore, ensuring
these costs are considered the biggest challenge for integrating technology in Bangladeshi TVET sectors.

Corruption

The current position in relation to corruption in Bangladesh represents a distinct case where corruption
is one of the main obstacles to any developmental activities in general and improving TVET sectors
in particular. According to the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) 2014 announced by Transparency
International, the position of Bangladesh is the second worst country in corruption in South Asia, bet-
ter than only Afghanistan (Iftekharuzzaman, 2014). As a result, corruption can be identified as one of
the strongest barriers to the implementation of technology in TVET contexts. The biggest corruption is
found in exploiting funds, which is mainly allocated for planning and implementing technology integra-
tion process in different institutions. For instance, Abdullah-Al-Mamun and Tapan (2009) states that
the budget for the newer technology was misused and reduced due to corruption in the administration.
Despite having huge allocation from the total budget in education sector to buy modern materials for
the improvement of the teaching and learning process, only minor improvements are found in the overall
technical and vocational education sector in the end.

Political Factors

Sharma (2003) states that the most noteworthy of the obstacles to the use of ICT in education in developing
countries seems to be the political will of the people in the corridors of power. He also argued that ‘the
allocation of sufficient funds for the educational sector and ICT does not seem to be very attractive to
the leaders. It can be seen from the budgetary allocations in third world countries that greater allocations
may be for the defense forces rather than the education sectors (p. 515). When the political leaders realize
the potential impact of using technology in education in general and in TVET system in particular only
then many other trivial constraints and difficulties, which are easily manageable, will be eliminated. In
this connection, the present government of Bangladesh came with a slogan “Digital Bangladesh”. The
prime minister would like to build Bangladesh as a digitalized one in all sectors. Therefore, government
of Bangladesh is trying to integrate technology in TVET sectors as well. As a result, nowadays most of
the TVET institutions in urban area have computers and multimedia classrooms with Internet connec-

133
 
Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

tions. These initiatives are gradually updating and hopefully in next five years all the TVET institutions
will come under these benefits. Unfortunately if this political government changes after five years due
to the democratic election then these initiatives might be changed due to antagonistic attitudes among
the political parties of Bangladesh.

Social and Cultural Factors

Half of the population of Bangladesh consists of women who are relatively deprived of access to the
advantages of technology. Women are under-represented in almost every aspect of integrating technology
in Bangladesh. Sharma (2003) states that one of the most significant social factors influencing the use
of ICT in Bangladesh, Malaysia and other developing countries is the low social status of women and
consequently providing education to women or their use of technology is not considered important. In this
socio-economic culture, women are generally considered as the caretakers of family and their children.
Due to this reason, huge number of female students in TVET institutions might not get proper attention
to use technology in their teaching and learning contexts. In Bangladesh, Bangla is the main spoken
language, whereas English is the dominant language in computers (software), Internet and technology
supported tools that are being used for educational purposes. Sharma (2003) reported:

The emergence of English as a dominant second language of science, technology, business and inter-
actional relations, as well as education and training, would ensure the availability of globally useable
knowledge products. This in turn will also offer more opportunities for a wide range of choices in edu-
cational and training courses. (p. 515)

Therefore, language is considered another social barrier to the use of technology in TVET institu-
tions. However, government and private organizations have taken few initiatives through which Bangla
software is made available for use and in many cases both Bangla and English options are kept available
to perform teaching and learning activities through technology.

Teachers’ Attitudes and Beliefs

Effective integration of technology in TVET sectors predominantly depends on teachers’ attitudes

towards technology and the diverse possibilities of using it in teaching-learning contexts in any educa-
tional institutions. Mumtaz (2000) said that teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning with ICT are
central to integration. To be successful in computer use and integration, teachers need ‘‘to engage in
conceptual change regarding their beliefs about the nature of learning, the role of the student, and their
role as teachers’’(Niederhauser, Salem, & Fields, 1999, p. 157). Previous research reported that teach-
ers, who possess positive attitudes towards ICT, require less training to teach the skills necessary for the
implementation of ICT in their teaching and thereby providing active students’ learning (Khan, Hasan,
& Clement, 2012). In contrast, Harrison and Rainer Jr (1992) found that participants with negative
computer attitudes were less skilled in computer use and were therefore less likely to accept and adapt to
technology than those with positive attitudes. Therefore, teachers’ negative attitudes and their reluctance
in using technology in teaching and learning hinder all initiatives towards integration of technology in
TVET sectors. Zongyi and Gopinathan (2001) reported that teachers’ beliefs and perceptions are essential
cognitive aspects in understanding teachers’ thought process, and to learn how to teach their students.

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

Guskey (2000) further argued that changing teachers’ beliefs and attitudes results in subsequent changes
in their practices, which in turn will lead to better student outcomes. Therefore teachers should believe
in the usefulness of using technology in TVET sectors of Bangladesh.

Teachers’ Lack of Knowledge and Skills

Teachers’ lack of knowledge and skills is one of the main hindrances to the use of ICT in education,
both for the developed and underdeveloped countries (Khan et al., 2012). For example, Balanskat,
Blamire, and Kefala (2006) have shown that “in Denmark... many teachers still chose not to use ICT
and media in teaching situations because of their lack of ICT skills rather than for pedagogical/didactics
reasons” while “in the Netherlands... teachers’ ICT knowledge and skills is [sic] not regarded any more
as the main barrier to ICT use” (p. 50). Integrating technology in the TVET systems requires subjects’
contents knowledge and an understanding of how students learn these contents and a level of technical
expertise to use different sorts of technology. The entire process requires proper link with technology,
contents and meaningful teaching. Thus, technology could be used interactively to improve the teach-
ing and learning experience of students. However, teachers without sufficient knowledge and skills of
technology integration will face problem, which will result negative attitudes towards using technology
in their teaching. Therefore, due to lack of knowledge regarding the use of technology and lack of skill
on ICT tools and software, the use of technology in teaching and learning situation in TVET institutions
in Bangladesh has been limited.

Teachers’ Lack of Time

Several studies reported that lack of time is another teacher related obstacle which hinders the use tech-
nology in TVET teaching (Bingimlas, 2009). Previous studies also stated that teachers may have neces-
sary skills and confidence in using technology in the classroom, but they still could not use technology
fully because they feel that using technology in their teaching requires extra time. TVET institutions in
Bangladesh have a shortage of teachers and therefore they need to take extra teaching load along with
heavy administrative workload. Most of the institutions have started two regular shifts (morning and
evening), without increasing the number of teachers which compels existing teachers to conduct classes
in both the shifts. In this situation, the hard-pressed teachers might not manage extra time to plan, con-
struct and develop their instructions by incorporating technology into the teaching learning contexts.
The success of technology integration in TVET sectors largely depends on how they approach to
overcome the above stated barriers. Developed countries have already managed most of the difficulties
that they encountered while technology integration came into practice. TVET sectors in Bangladesh
may take examples from these developed countries along with considering the below recommendations:

• Government and other private sectors should come forward to allocate required fund by realizing
the importance and the potentials of updating TVET sectors. International donor agencies could
be invited to invest their fund for improving TVET sectors in Bangladesh.
• Create awareness among all citizens to reduce corruptions. Also the government may provide
fringe benefits to the “law enforcing agency” members as an incentive to fight corruption. Besides,
all the invested funds in TVET sectors need to be monitored properly.

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

• Political parties need to change their attitudes towards developmental initiatives. If the present
government changes in future and new government takes the power, then integration of technol-
ogy in TVET sectors should not be stopped.
• Professional developmental program (teacher-training) should be organized based on the con-
straints encountered by the teachers. This kind of training also needs to be focused on changing
teachers’ attitude and conceptions towards using technology in teaching and learning contexts.
• Teaching load needs to be distributed properly so that the teachers will get required time to plan,
design, implement and evaluate their activities (instructions).
• Both pre-service and in-service training are required to overcome teacher related barriers and
hence we recommend the following professional developmental model (Figure 3)

NATIONAL TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

FRAMEWORK (NTVQF) IN BANGLADESH

What is National Qualification Framework (NQF)?

Traditionally, qualifications have been seen as signifying that someone has gone through a prescribed
process linked to an education or training programme which is offered by an educational or a training
institution (Allais, 2011). After successful completion of the program, the learner is often given a certifi-
cate as recognition to his/her qualification. Thus, qualifications are recognized as some kind of awards
that can be achieved through successful completion of learning programmes. It could also be stated as
when someone is accepted to practice in a certain discipline like engineering, law, medicine and so on.
Sometimes it is necessary to make a relationship to understand the different streams of qualifications
that demands a qualification framework and when it is happening nation-wide that is referred to the term
National Qualification Framework (NQF).
The NQF of a country presents the formal description of the country’s qualification system. Some-
times it refers to a diagrammatic representation of all publicly recognized qualifications of a country
and how these qualifications are related to each other. This simple graphical representation in relation

Figure 3. Professional developmental Model for TVET sectors in Bangladesh

(Shahadat Hossain Khan, 2014)

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

to different qualifications is referred to as “old style framework” whereas the “new style frameworks”
take the form of NQFs (Keevy et al., 2008). The key issue of understanding the concept of qualification
framework is to know its characteristics. Tuck (2007) outlines the characteristics of NQFs as follows:

The most important and distinctive characteristic of these NQFs is that the qualifications they contain
are viewed as being independent of the institutions that offered the programmes leading to the qualifica-
tions. In simple terms this means that educational and training qualifications become ‘national property’
rather than being owned by the education and training institutions themselves”, whereas (Coles, 2007)
suggested that “NQFs are considered to add value by making explicit the levels of qualifications thus
reducing the scope for differences of interpretation.

The Asia Pacific Economic Corporation (APEC) reported on the contribution of qualification frame-
work as:

A qualifications framework is an instrument for classifying qualifications according to a set of criteria.

Considerable benefits are expected of national qualification frameworks (NQFs). If backed by a good
system of quality assurance, they can support the development of workers’ skills, facilitate educational
and labor market mobility and help improve the access of individuals to higher and different levels of
education and training over their lives. Education and training providers and authorities are able to
design more consistent and linked qualifications when descriptors of qualifications are developed within
NQFs. Employers benefit in their recruitment and training of staff when they can understand and have
confidence in qualifications. The international recognition of an economy’s qualifications can be en-
hanced by the transparency of qualifications to which an NQF can contribute. (Burke et al., 2009, p. 1)

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) suggests that:

A qualifications framework is an instrument for the development and classification of qualifications ac-
cording to a set of criteria. This set of criteria may be implicit in the qualifications descriptors themselves,
or made explicit in the form of a set of level descriptors. The scope of frameworks may take in all learning
achievement and pathways or may be confined to a particular sector, for example initial education, adult
education and training or an occupational area. Some frameworks have a tighter structure than others;
some may have a legal basis whereas others represent a consensus of social partners. All qualifications
frameworks, however, establish a basis for improving the quality, accessibility, linkages and public or
labor market recognition of qualifications within a country or internationally. (Conrad, 2007, p. 7)

NTVQF in Bangladesh

The skill development process in Bangladesh is being done by public, private, Non-government orga-
nization (NGO) and industry-based institutions that provide a range of formal and non-formal training
programs to different target groups using different approaches of delivery and assessment. These orga-
nizations are responsible for keeping the education and training system up-to-date and to adjust them
with the changing demands from industry and the community. Consequently, the system of qualifications
is used to recognize the attainment of knowledge and skills through formal programs in Bangladesh.
Therefore, Bangladesh government has taken an initiative with the current TVET reform project to revise

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

and update the qualification that is leading to introduction of a new National Technical and Vocational
Qualifications Framework (NTVQF).
The NTVQF of Bangladesh is recently in the process of implementation. This framework is an initia-
tive of the TVET reform project, implemented by the Government of Bangladesh with the support of
International Labor Organization (ILO) and funded by European Union (EU). The project was working
towards reforming TVET sectors (Ministry of Education, 2011).
The main intention of NTVQF is to cover the existing workforce along with the personnel who are
also entering the workforce. Through this framework the skilled workers who gained skills from informal
sectors are recognized and the framework also includes post-secondary qualifications up to diploma level.
The new qualifications are to be offered in formal education and training, as well as all workforce train-
ing and all training provided by public and private organizations, whether officially recognized or not.

How NTVQF Works

Implementing the NTVQF in Bangladesh requires three essential components:

1. Nationally-recognized competency standards: Nationally-agreed, industry-determined sets of

knowledge, skills and attitudes that are required for workers to be able to effectively perform work
activities to the standard expected in the workplace.
2. Competency-Based Training (CBT) Delivery System: CBT is used by teachers and trainers to
develop learners’ competency in necessary areas. It is very different from the traditional methods
of education and training used in Bangladesh because instead of concentrating on developing
theoretical knowledge, CBT places emphasis on the real work skills that a person can apply in the
workplace.
3. Competency Assessment and Certification System (CACS): The Bangladesh CACS ensures a
nationally consistent approach to assessing whether students are competent in specified areas.
Nationally-recognized competency standards (mentioned above) are used as the measuring tool and
CBT (also mentioned above) is the methodology used to deliver training. The CACS relies on certi-
fied assessors, assessment facilities and equipment, assessment tools and the NTVQF Information
Management System (an online registry of all learners trained, assessed and certified).

Target Audience

The NTVQF will directly benefit three primary audiences:

1. Employers/industry will be able to contribute to the shaping of national qualifications and will
have access to an increasing pool of nationally qualified skilled workers.
2. TVET students will be able to access high quality, nationally-recognized qualifications.
3. Public/private/NGO institutions providing training will be able to deliver nationally-recognized
qualifications.

The NTVQF expands the number of qualifications available in the country to better reflect the grow-
ing and changing occupational and skill profiles in both domestic and international labor markets. The
NTVQF supports stronger integration of skill training in community organizations, schools, training

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

institutions and the workplace by providing a common national benchmark for the naming and achieve-
ment of qualifications, up to, but not including, university degrees. The NTVQF will also provide a
new benchmark for the international recognition of the skills and knowledge of Bangladeshi workers
who are recognized as an increasingly important export for this country. Once NTVQF is implemented
successfully in Bangladesh, it will benefit us in the following ways, which is informed by the Ministry
of Education (2011, p. 15):

• Improve the quality and consistency of nationally recognized qualifications;

• Introduce consistent naming of credentials for formal and non-formal skills based education and
training;
• Provide formal recognition of workplace skills obtained in both the formal and informal economies;
• Provide high-quality skill outcomes to maintain individuals’ employability and increase their
productivity;
• Improve the alignment of formal and non-formal training programs with industry requirements;
• Increase options for students by broadening program and progression pathways;
• Support lifelong learning by providing recognized pathways for workers to raise the level of their
knowledge and skills throughout their working life, and beyond.

The Bangladesh NTVQF includes two pre-vocational levels to introduce additional pathways in
general education and to cater for the under privileged and low educated groups in society. It will also
include five vocational levels, and one level for diploma level qualifications as shown in Table 1. Under
the NTVQF, training organizations will also be able to issue a Statement of Attainment for specific units
of competency when less than the full program has been completed.
In general education, a new system of dual certification will be introduced so that students who
satisfactorily achieve the skills component of vocational education programs, such as the SSC (Voc),
HSC (Voc) and HSC (BM), will receive a NTVQF qualification in addition to, and separate from, the
school qualification.

Key Features of the NTVQF

The proposed framework has eight levels as shown in the Table 1:

• The first two levels are for pre-vocational training. These two levels cater for under-privileged
and less educated sections of the community. The awards here are the National Pre-Vocation
Certificate 1 and 2.
• At NTVQF1, person will receive a National Skill Certificate – 1 (NSC 1) in their respective oc-
cupation/specialty. It is similar in level to the current basic trade course.
• Levels 2 to 5 are the National Skill Certificates which indicate the skills levels from medium to
highly skilled worker / supervisor.
• Level 6, the Diploma level, is the premier TVET qualification.

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Table 1. Relationship of the NTVQF to the existing qualification structure

EDUCATION SECTORS Current

NTVQF Levels Pre-Vocation Vocational Technical Qualification Job Classification
Education Education Education Structure

Diploma in 4 Year Diploma Middle Level

NTVQF 6 engineering or Manager /Sub
equivalent Assistant Engr. etc.
National Skill NSS Master Highly Skilled
NTVQF 5 Certificate 5 (NSC Worker / Supervisor
5)
National Skill NSS 1 / HSC Skilled Worker
NTVQF 4 Certificate 4 (NSC (Voc /BM)
4) Year 11 & 12
National Skill NSS 2 / SSC Semi-Skilled
NTVQF 3 Certificate 3 (Voc) Year 10 Worker
(NSC3)
National Skill NSS 3 / SSC Basic-Skilled
NTVQF 2 Certificate 2 (NSC (Voc) Year 9 Worker
2)
National Skill NSS Basic / Basic Worker
NTVQF 1 Certificate 1 (NSC Basic Trade Course
1)
National Pre- None Pre-Vocation
Pre-Voc 2 Vocation Certificate Trainee
NPVC 2
National Pre- None Pre-Vocation
Pre-Voc 1 Vocation Certificate Trainee
1 NPVC 1
Note:
1. The new CBT based NSC 2, 3 & 4 courses will replace the existing vocational component of the current SSC (Voc) and HSC (Voc)
and HSC (BM) and be issued as separate qualifications.
2. Students who do not pass the SSC (VOC), but meet the NSC competency standards, will receive an NSC level qualification and have
the opportunity to continue their studies at a training institution that offers higher level NSC programs in the study area, e.g. at a TTC.

APPROACHES TO UPDATE ICT KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN TVET

An analytical survey was done by the UNESCO Institute for Information and Communication Technolo-
gies (ICT) in Education and it reported a comprehensive review of ICT usage in different sectors of
TVET: ICTs for administrative purposes, communication, teaching and learning, curriculum develop-
ment and assessment, career education and guidance, labour market information, job placement, and
systems control, displaying specific features of various types of ICTs commonly applied in different
spheres of vocational education (Chinien, 2003). Teachers of TVET institutions need to upgrade their
ICT knowledge to explore effectively on the above mentioned fields.

ICT Based Learning Process

Use of ICT in teaching and learning is increasing day by day in each and every sector of education (Oli-
ver, 2002). A new paradigm shift is observable with the change from a total dependence of objectivist

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Table 2. NTVQF level descriptors

NTVQF Knowledge Skills Responsibility Job Class

Level
6 Comprehensive actual and
theoretical knowledge within
a specific study area with an
awareness of the limits of that
Knowledge.
5 Very broad Knowledge of
the underlying, concepts,
principles, and processes in a
specific study area
4 Broad knowledge of the
underlying, concepts,
principles, and processes in a
specific study area
3 Moderately broad knowledge
in a specific study area.
2 Basic underpinning knowledge
in a specific study area.
1 Elementary understanding of
the underpinning knowledge in
a specific study area.
Pre-Voc 2 Limited general knowledge
Pre-Voc 1 Extremely limited general
knowledge
Source: Short Form Proposal on A National Technical And Vocational Qualification Framework For Bangladesh (Bangladesh, 2009, p. 5)
Specialized and restricted range Mange a team or teams in Supervisor
of cognitive and practical skills workplace activities where / Middle
required to provide leadership in the there is unpredictable Level
development of creative solutions to change Manager
defined problems Identify and design learning /Sub
programs to develop Assistant
performance of team Engr. etc.
members
Very broad range of cognitive and Take overall responsibility Highly
practical skills required to generate for completion of tasks in Skilled
solutions to specific problems in one or work or study Worker /
more study areas. Apply past experiences in Supervisor
solving similar problems
Range of cognitive and practical skills Take overall responsibility Skilled
required to accomplish tasks and solve for completion of tasks in Worker
problems by selecting and applying the work or study
full range of methods, tools, materials Apply past experiences in
and information solving similar problems
Basic cognitive and practical skills Work or study under Semi-
required to use relevant information supervision with some Skilled
in order to carry out tasks and to solve autonomy Worker
routine problems using simple rules
and tools
Basic skills required to carry out Work or study under indirect Medium
simple tasks supervision in a structured Skilled
context Worker
Limited range of skills required to Work or study under direct Basic
carry out simple tasks supervision in a structured Skilled
context Worker
Very limited range of skills and use of Work or study under direct Pre-
tools required to carry out simple tasks supervision in a structured Vocation
context Trainee
Minimal range of skills required to Simple work or study Pre-
carry out simple tasks exercises, under direct Vocation
supervision in a clear, well Trainee
defined structured context

to a growing adherence to the cognitivist and constructivist. For instance, ICT use in distance educa-
tion has resulted in a pedagogy, which is constructive, collaborative and interactive (Wonacott, 2001).
Teaching and learning is now being practiced in different modes. e-learning (Sun, Finger, & Liu, 2014),
web based learning (B. H. Khan, 2001), distance learning (Lockwood, 2013), blended learning are the
most common. TVET teachers must acquire the knowledge and skills of teaching in the abovementioned
educational settings.

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Software

As most of the technologies are now based on application software, the basic knowledge on different
software in specific fields is necessary for the teachers to know. Computer Simulation is widely used
nowadays to scaffold students’ constructive learning. Animation videos also have a great impact on
making students’ perception clearer on a scientific problem. Besides, gaming education is a new field of
research on students learning. So, vocational teachers’ skills need to be upgraded by providing adequate
training so that they can incorporate these learning modes to their teaching.

Media

TVET has the potentials to make a positive impact on the socio-cultural environment by empowering
people in different sectors of the society. People in the society are mostly influenced by different forms
of media: radio, television, newspaper, and internet. TVET personnel need to communicate with the
society through these media to make a social awareness. Advertising on new skills and how it can change
life can be telecasted on different media.

INTERNET AND SOCIAL MEDIA

Connecting with friends and family, and checking emails are nowadays a common practice in the society.
It is something not possible to ignore. These technologies have potentials to be used not only in general
education but also in technical and vocational education. Teachers can improve knowledge by reading
eBooks from different sources. Even by a simple Google search, they can find the desired articles for
them. It not only helps them to enrich their knowledge but also open opportunities to share knowledge
with students. By educating themselves on social media, teacher can make a social relationship with
students and can use this for students’ intrinsic learning.

Active and Passive Devices

To make the use of technology as effective and efficient as possible, teachers must be skilled enough on the
use of active and passive technology devices. Active devices, for example, computer, tablet, smartphone
and interactive board, demand user interaction. However, the freedom to use the device (how to use) is
dependent on the user (teacher). Passive devices, for example, multimedia slides projector, showing image
or animation will be engaged automatically. Once a teacher uses an active device, it will automatically
be run in passive devices without the interaction of the teacher as the operation is interrelated.

Formats

Teachers need to be able to handle different kinds of files like audio, video, animation, docs, ppt, pdf,
jpg etc. Unless having clear idea on each, it will be difficult for them to use, edit and share files with
the students.
A brief summary of technology integration in TVET illustrated in Figure 4

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Current Trends and Issues in TVET of Bangladesh

Figure 4. Approaches to technology integration in TVET

NEW PATTERNS OF TRAINING

Industry-Demanded Training

A continuous upgradation in training is highly required in order to meet the present and the future needs
of the industry. The skill development process will only be sustainable once there is continuous assess-
ment of training. In order to be responsive to present and future needs, the skill development system of
Bangladesh is moving forward to implement a competency based training and assessment (CBT&A)
system.
The CBT&A system is more focused on demand-driven training than the traditional training. Specific
demands are being initiated from the industry and CBT&A is fulfilling the demand by providing the
specific skills. CBT&A is shifting from the traditional theory based approaches to delivery and assess-
ment approaches by placing greater emphasis on the achievement and demonstration of practical skills
required to perform at a specified standard demanded by industry. The CBT&A system in Bangladesh
is based on the following principles (Ministry of Education, 2011):

1. Progression through a competency based training program will be determined by whether the
student has met the set standards, and not by the time spent in training.
2. Each learner’s achievement is measured against job-related competency standards rather than
against the achievement of other learners.

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Industry-institution relationship plays a vital role in the demand and supply approach (Raihan, 2014).
Considering the importance of building industry-institution relationship, Bangladesh government has
taken initiative to implement a new system of industry competency standards and qualifications. Under
this system, each government industry will develop competency standards of specific occupation. These
competency standards (skills) will then be prioritized by employers and workers in that specific sector.
This new system is known as the Industry Sector Standards and Qualifications Structure. The competency
standards will be achieved through training provided by both government and private training organiza-
tions. But the both types of institutions need to demonstrate the capability to provide the training with
sufficient equipment and adequate training staffs. As a result, the training outcomes are expected to meet
the demand driven by the industry.
Along with the general education program, vocational education programs in schools such as the
SSC (Voc), HSC (Voc) and HSC (BM) are also going on. These programs have also been revised to en-
sure that the vocational components are based on industry competency standards and that students only
receive NTVQF qualifications if they are assessed as competent. Even some of the vocational courses
are also incorporated in the general education courses.

Training of Trainers

Continuous training is also required for trainers as well so that they can develop and implement CBT&A
program to their respective institutions. Government should also invest more funding to upgrade the
equipment and other facilities so that the training outcome can meet the demand of the industry. The key
to a sustainable skill development project is a well-trained cadre of instructors and trainers who will be
responsible to produce skilled workforce in the formal and informal sectors. A new certification system
for the instructors and trainers has been adopted to deliver a more strategic approach to the development
of training workforce. This new system ensures that the same standard, programs and qualifications is
applied for all instructors and trainers working in public and private sectors and these qualifications are
also recognized by the new NTVQF. A number of certified trainers are essential to disseminate the skills
through the country. This new system ensures an upward future trend of skilled professional workforce
by imposing the following conditions (Ministry of Education, 2011, pp. 28,29):

1. All government instructors are being trained and certified under the new system.
2. All private sector instructors and public instructors delivering at formal programs that lead to
nationally recognized qualifications under the NTVQF must be certified under the new system.
3. A national network of instructor training centers is established that integrates existing instructor
training facilities separately managed by different government Ministries and agencies.
4. A pool of certified national Master Trainers be created to implement the new instructor training
programs, which will also include a separate group of master trainers for the disabled.
5. Current prerequisites for instructors and trainers are reviewed to ensure that all instructors are up
to the standard.
6. Incentives are developed to encourage private sector trainers to gain certification under the new
system.
7. Professional development plans are developed for all public sector instructors and trainers to ensure
that they maintain the currency of their skills.

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Through the new system of training, the student trainers are capable of delivering teachings with
different learning methodologies to support increased participation of disadvantaged groups in skill
training. Emphasis is also given on gathering knowledge and skills on technology use in different
teaching-learning situation. English language proficiency can also be developed through this training
program as well so as to get the recognition of the trainers nationally and internationally. To update the
knowledge of the trainers, government set a mechanism with the industries called ‘return to industry’
program that allows current instructors and trainers to update their technical skills in the workplace. To
establish an equal access to professional development, female trainers are given priority in the CBT&A
system. Government has taken initiative to employ the female instructors in the new vacant posts with
a view that women are better represented as instructors and trainers in the skills system.
Private training sectors occupy the major portion of the skill development area in Bangladesh. So,
trainers from non-government training organizations are encouraged to join the mainstream national
skill development program by participating in professional development programs to improve the overall
quality of skill training delivered to students

RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING

In the National Skill development Policy 2011, government has given priority to recognizing the prior
skills of an individual. Many people gather knowledge and experience from different sources and be-
come skilled but these skills are not recognized. Through this policy, these deprived individuals will get
chance to get recognized and can also enter into the mainstream of national qualification framework. To
provide different pathways to future education and training, a new system called Recognition of Prior
Learning (RPL) will be introduced.
The RPL is responsible to ensure the entry and re-entry of an individual to a specific course. Hence
the skills of an experienced person will be reserved through RPL. Through this process, the skills of
people will be formally recognized. Experiences gathered through in-service training, formal or infor-
mal or non-formal training, and paid or unpaid work are also recognized. Even, the prior qualifications
can also be considered for matching with the level of National Technical and Vocational Qualification
(NTVQF). But to obtain such recognition, candidates must show the relevant documents like Samples
of work, Certificates, Portfolios and References and referee reports. The qualification will only be ac-
cepted once the documents are judged to be sufficient, reliable and valid enough to meet the assessment
requirement of the program for which recognition is being sought. An equivalent qualification or a State-
ment of Attainment for individual unit/s of competence under the NTVQF may only be awarded once
all documents are undergone through a series of assessment or challenge tests. Special considerations
will only be applicable to the illiterate, disable or low education level but they must demonstrate the
minimum level of skills which can be upgradable through training program. Once their prior learning is
recognized, they are eligible to undergo a formal training program and hence earn a formal certificate.
Quality control is a vital issue for sustainable development of a system (Maajumdar, Khambayat,
Tsesoro-Gayondato, & Solla, 2010). With this view point, the government training institutions are only
eligible to run the RPL system. Private training organizations are eligible to implement RPL only when
they are authorized by the government.

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The government and its partners will also explore the potentials for introducing assessment centers
for RPL to be regulated by the same quality standards applicable to accredited training institutions. The
RPL system will facilitate the training and retraining for experienced workers so that the departing and
returning workers can have their skills properly recognized and certified. It also ensures that the highest
level of skill is recognized and remunerated accordingly.

CONCLUSION

Technology integration in education is being widely practiced throughout the whole world. TVET is not
an exception in this revolution. As a developing country, Bangladesh is also running towards the global
trends to incorporate technology in each and every field with a slogan of ‘Digital Bangladesh’. As the
population is relatively high within its small, limited lands, government is trying to convert this vast
number of population into useful workforce through TVET initiative. With this view, government had
taken a project in 2011 with the collaboration of ILO to reform the Technical and Vocational Education
of Bangladesh. The project is now in its implementation process. Several reforms have been made under
this project so that Bangladesh TVET can run with the global pace. A national qualification framework
has also been developed so as to get accreditation globally. ICT integration is an unavoidable area for
TVET as technology is developing too fast. To keep pace with the global trends, government should
take its maximum initiative to integrate ICT in TVET.

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