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Handbook of Research on
Higher Education in the
MENA Region:
Policy and Practice
Neeta Baporikar
Ministry of Higher Education, Oman

A volume in the Advances in Higher Education

and Professional Development (AHEPD) Book
Series
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420

Chapter 18
Public and Private Higher
Education Concerns
and Challenges:
A Case of Bangladesh

Sheikh Md. Monzurul Huq

Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh

Sheikh Mohammed Rafiul Huque

Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT
Like in most developing countries, higher education in Bangladesh has experienced dramatic changes
in recent years. This chapter examines four aspects—access, quality, equity, and governance—centring
education in both public and private universities of the country. It also highlights obstacles and challenges
the universities are facing and puts forward some recommendations in these respects. Two methods,
(a) semi-structured informal interview and (b) document and publication study, were used in collecting
data. Primary data were collected through semi-structured informal interviews. A total of 30 partici-
pants were interviewed. The study opines that higher educational institutions should not only have good
governance but also be more devoted to instituting quality control. It also observes that sustaining the
quality of education acceptable both nationally and internationally requires setting up an autonomous
quality assurance body. It stresses that the active and sincere involvement of state and academia can help
address issues related to four aspects—access, governance, equality, and quality—of higher education.

INTRODUCTION Higher education grooms skilled people for as-

The development of modern society depends to a
large extent on the nature and standard of higher
education. In the era of globalisation, the growing
value of knowledge can hardly be understated.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-6198-1.ch018
suming various tasks. Access to higher education
assists individuals and societies to attain abilities
in order to improve conditions that have an effect
on quality of life and to augment productivity.
Higher education has enormous possibilities in

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
pressing forward prosperity in the developing
countries (UGC, 2006). It makes space for numer-
ous economic and social benefits in the private
and public spheres (Table 1). Higher education
has experienced radical transformations in most
of the developing countries. After nearly three
decades of brisk expansion, these transformations
have been found to have led to steadily increasing
problems, in terms of missions, resources and
outcomes, by an environment full of constraints
and challenges (Marginson, 2007; Salmi, 1992).
There is an increasing rate of disparity in higher
education in the developing countries. While
participation in higher education has increased in
the developing countries, access is not equitable
(Oketch, 2003). Access to higher education is often
regulated by socio-economic status. Females take
part to a lesser degree in higher education than
their male counterparts (Chauhan, 2008). Several
studies also observed that students who take part
in higher education are those who have power over
social, economic and cultural capital (Patrinos,
1990).Garrett (2003) noted that globalisation and
privatisation have great impacts on the goals of
higher education. It further added that universities
are linked with markets, industries and corporate
businesses while issues of equality and access
rarely make it to official and public discourses
on education (Garrett, 2003).
Table 1. Benefits from higher education
Benefits Private (Individual and Family Benefits)
Economic 1. Higher salaries
2. Employment
3. Higher savings
4. Improved working conditions
5. 10. Personal and professional mobility
Social 1. Improved quality of life for self and children
2. Better decision making
3. Improved personal status
4. Increased educational opportunities
5. Healthier lifestyle and higher life expectancy
Source: World Bank, 2002, p. 81
Like in most developing countries, higher
education in Bangladesh has experienced dramatic
changes in recent years. There are two major types
of universities in Bangladesh. One is public and
the other is private university. A public university
is owned and operated by the government. Private
universities on the other hand are owned by the
private sector. While public universities depend on
funds made available by the government, private
universities rely almost entirely upon tuition to
cover costs.
The private universities of the country were
established because government alone cannot
support the demand for higher education in
the country, and private finance came out as a
noteworthy opportunity to make existing higher
education resources. The overall participation in
higher education in the private universities has
increased remarkably in recent years. The increase
in the number of higher educational institutions has
facilitated access to higher education for the huge
number of students passing out of college (passing
the Higher Secondary Certificate examination).
The rapid expansion has had a huge impact on
the scenario of higher education in Bangladesh.
The major challenges to the higher education
in Bangladesh lie at the knotty issues related to
quality, accessibility, equity, governance, and ac-
countability (Ahmed, 2013 b.; Andaleeb, 2003;
Andaleeb, 2008; Andaleeb, 2013; Ehsan, 2008;
Public (Social Benefits)
1. Greater productivity
2. National and regional development
3. Financial support
4. Increased consumption
5. Increased potential for transformation from low skill
industrial economy to that of a knowledge based one
1. Nation building and development of leadership
2. Democratic participation
3. Social Mobility
4. Improved health
5. Improved basic and secondary education
421

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
Jamil, et al., 2012; Mazumder, 2012; Mazumder,
2013; UGC, 2003; UGC, 2006 b.; UGC, 2008a.,
UGC, 2009). Quality is a process whereby organi-
sational participants implicitly view their work as
valuable, measurable and improvable (Koslowski
III, 2005).High quality education may be con-
ceived as a concept which actually relies on the
context of setting of a given system and its mission,
goals and standards in a given discipline (Haque,
2004). Lamanga (2002), in a study on the quality
of higher education, stresses that higher education
should have relevance, flexibility, appropriate-
ness, inclusiveness and inclusion as the central
cementing goal for raising quality in education.
Higher education also has profound connections
with the employability of graduates. The issues of
employability are surrounded by two basic chal-
lenges. These are: accessibility to education and
its quality standards. The term equity is loosely
used in education literature which denotes im-
provements among the under-represented groups
regarding access to higher education (Conner and
Rabovsky, 2011). Access to higher education is
commonly defined as the ability of people from
all backgrounds to access higher education on a
reasonably equal basis. The ability of the public
institutions to augment universal access has tre-
mendously diminished. Private universities, in
this respect, attempt to fill the void but it is often
noted that many qualified students of the coun-
try have little access to quality higher education
(Uddin et al., 2011). Accountability in higher
education incorporates both formal and voluntary
responsibilities, regarding if and how institutions
use resources effectively to produce desired
educational outcomes (Taira, 2004). There is a
distinction between internal and external account-
ability (Mortimer, 1972). Internally, the faculty
and administrators are accountable for the quality
of their scholarships and management decisions.
Externally, public institutions are accountable to
not only students and peers, but also to the state,
government, legislative and accreditation councils,
donors etc. (Mortimer, 1972).
422

A popular perception among Bangladeshis
is that private universities are using business
models to maximise profits. As a result, quality
of education in these universities is shabby. These
universities are unwilling to improve the quality
of education (Mazumder, 2013). Though there
are 105 universities (personal communication
with UGC, October, 2013) in the country, it is
widely perceived that the overall quality of higher
education in them has deteriorated considerably in
recent years. Many private universities are often
noted to be providing low quality education and
have a low level of commitment to education
(UGC, 2003). It is further observed that while
there is increased participation in higher educa-
tion, the public universities of the country are
suffering from problems centring the access of
students to it and funding and quality (Andaleeb,
2008). This sector of education should be more
responsive to the needs of the students (Andaleeb,
2003). Ahmed (2013a) notes that the quality of
education in public universities is held back by
financial crisis, lack of residential facilities and a
shortage of seats. Andaleeb (2008) also notes that
many public universities have serious problems
centring access of students to it, funding, qual-
ity of education and governance, leading higher
education in the country to a “state of siege”. On
the other hand, some private universities lack
quality infrastructure and faculty (UGC, 2006b).
The overall deteriorating situation of the middle
and low-ranking private universities is primarily
due to their teachers whose quality ratings are
alarmingly upsetting. UGC (2008) in a recent
study stresses on the recruitment of qualified
faculty in the private universities. Ehsan (2008)
also notes that there is a lack of qualified faculties
in many private universities. It is further noted
that teachers of the surveyed private universities
do not mirror the excellence, which they must
instill and demonstrate to gain the confidence of
students and the academic community, as well as
society (Andaleeb, 2008).

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
A large number of private universities have
poor infrastructural facilities. Some of them
operate in temporary arrangements in hired ac-
commodations. They fail to meet the minimum
requirements to have physical infrastructures, a
full-time qualified faculty, teaching aids and other
facilities required for delivering proper education
(UGC, 2006b). These universities also suffer from
serious internal and external governance problems
(Masum, n. d.). Jamil et al. (2012) identify several
factors as instrumental to attracting students to
private universities in Bangladesh. These fac-
tors include absence of session jams and student
politics, policy to transfer credits abroad, ease
of course curriculum and brand equity. Many
private universities offer courses focusing on
demands of the job market which also motivates
the students into enrolling. This study, however,
pointed out that though their numbers in Bangla-
desh is rapidly increasing, the cost of education
in private universities is so high that it becomes
almost impossible for the majority of students to
get enrolled (Jamil et al., 2012).
Against this backdrop, the present study at-
tempts to explore the problems associated with
higher education in Bangladesh. This study spe-
cifically examines four aspects -- access, quality,
equity and governance -- of education in both
public and private universities of the country. It
further appraises the implications of privatization
policies and need for effective control devices to
safeguard quality and improve relevance. This
paper also highlights the obstacles that are being
encountered and challenges faced by both private
and public universities of the country and put
forwards some recommendations in these respects.
METHODOLOGY
The present study employs two types of data col-
lection methods. These are: (a) semi-structured
informal interview, and (b) document and publica-
tion study. Primary data were collected through
semi-structured informal interview. Semi-struc-
tured informal interviews were held with thirty
participants including one former and one current
vice-chancellor of two private universities, one
dean of a private university and two deans of a
public university, three faculty members of two
public universities, two faculty members of two
private universities, and eight students of three
public universities and twelve students of six
private universities. The interview was conducted
to elicit information on access to and quality,
equity, governance and management in higher
education. The study also addresses the obstacles
and challenges that were being faced by the pri-
vate and public universities. A semi-structured
informal interview is open, allowing new ideas
to be brought up during the interview as a result
of what the interviewees say. To spell out the
situation of higher education and the policies of
the government, the study conducted analytical
examinations of documentary sources, based on
the review of books, research reports, journals,
newspaper articles etc. These documents and
publications were examined to dig out meanings
and make an analysis. The information contained
in these documents was also used to complement
interviews. The above steps helped the researcher
obtain an overall picture of the key issues regard-
ing higher education.
Informal interviews were employed for a more
focused investigation on a specific topic using
an interview guide (Taira, 2004).An interview
guide usually has a list of questions intended
to lead the interview in a focused, flexible and
informal manner (Fossey, et al., 2002). The main
purpose of adopting this strategy was to look at
the general issues on access to and quality, equity
and governance in higher education and unearth
the respondents’ vision and ideas on those issues.
The aim was also to explore new ideas that were
not anticipated at the outset of the research. It is
important to note that a friendly tone must be de-
veloped in an interview while the researcher must
remain focused on the topics of inquiry (Fontana
423

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
and Frey, 2005). It may be pointed out that some
of the participants, notably faculty members, were
familiar with us. We assured all interviewees
that their identities and names of their respective
universities will not be disclosed in our writing.
This approach helped us gather information in an
easy and reliable manner. The participants had
confidence in us and they were well aware about
the purpose of our research.
HIGHER EDUCATION IN
BANGLADESH: AN OVERVIEW
Structures and Streams
of Higher Education
Formal education in Bangladesh has three major
stages: (a) primary, (b) secondary and (c) higher.
After completing 12 years of schooling and attain-
ing two certificates (Secondary School Certificate
or SSC and Higher Secondary Certificate or HSC),
a student becomes eligible for higher education.
Higher education is comprised of two categories of
institutions: (a) degree awarding universities, and
(b) colleges affiliated to the National University
(NU). Higher education available in the country
can be divided into five types: (a) general edu-
cation, (b) science, technology and engineering
education, (c) medical education, (d) agricultural
education and (e) distance education (Monem and
Benjamin, 2013).
In the general education stream, higher second-
ary is followed by college/university level educa-
tion through the pass graduate course (three years)
and honours graduate course (four years). Post
graduate education consists mostly of master’s and
doctoral programs. The masters’ degree is of one
year’s duration for the Bachelor (Honours) degree
holders and two years for the Bachelor (Pass)
degree holders. Disciplines such as engineering,
agriculture, medicine and information technology
belong to the technical stream. Except for medical
education, a four-year course of study is required
424

for obtaining the first degree (Naser, 2010). There
are also madrashas (Islamic religious schools) in
Bangladesh that offer religious education. Madra-
shas have similar core courses as in the general
stream but have additional emphasis on religious
studies (Naser, 2010). In 1973, the Government of
the People’s Republic of Bangladesh established
the University Grants Commission of Bangladesh
(UGC) through a presidential order and it came
into being retrospectively with effect from 16th
December 1972.UGC, as the apex body of the
government for higher education, is responsible
for funding of public universities. Though private
universities do not get any government assistance
in terms of funding, they need to receive approval
from UGC to operate and award degrees.
The functions of UGC are as follows (BAN-
BEIS, 1989):
1. Assess the requirements in the field of uni-
versity education and devise plans for the
development of such education;
2. Decide on financial needs of the universities;
3. Collect funds from the government and al-
locate and disburse out of such funds grants
to the universities for their maintenance and
development;
4. Evaluate the programmes under execution
for development of university teaching de-
partments, institutes and other component
institutions;
5. Examine and evaluate all types of develop-
ment plans of the universities;
6. Collect statistical and other information of
university matters;
7. Advise the government on the establish-
ment of new universities or on proposals
for expansion of the existing universities;
8. Advise the government on proposals to grant
the right to award social degree-awarding
status on colleges considered suitable for
such status;

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
9. And finally exercise powers and perform
functions as may be conferred on it by any
law or by the government.
Public and Private
Universities: An Overview
In 1913, the Government of India passed a
resolution on establishing some teaching and
residential universities in British India, including
one in Dhaka. Afterwards, following recommen-
dations of the Calcutta University Commission,
also known as the Sadler Commission of 1917,
a teaching-cum-residential university named the
University of Dhaka was set up in Dhaka on 1
July, 1921 (UGC, 2009). The University of Dhaka
started its journey after the proclamation of an act
(Act No. XXXI) passed by the Indian parliament
in 1920 (Naser, 2010). When Bangladesh attained
independence in 1971, it had six public universi-
ties. Over the next two and a half decades, the
government established several public universities.
Presently, there are 34 public and 71 private
universities in the country (personal communica-
tion with UGC) and in 2011-2012 about 1,966,419
students got enrolled in the universities (UGC,
2012).Among the currently functioning 34 public
universities, 32 have their own campuses. The
structure and method of operation of National Uni-
versity and Bangladesh Open University are quite
different from campus-based public universities.
National University is an affiliated university, with
about 2,425 colleges located all over the coun-
try (UGC, 2012). Bangladesh Open University
(BOU) does not have its own campus for students.
It provides education through distance learning
method through its regional centers and branches.
In 2011, the campus-based public universities had
185,910 students among whom 132,168 were male
and 53,742 female (UGC, 2012). It is to be noted
that the enrolment of females in the campus based
universities was quite low in comparison to males.
The present pattern of allocation of resources in
the national budget for higher education depicts a
disappointing picture. The higher education sector
receives a disproportionate share of the govern-
ment education budget (Table 2).It may also be
observed that the allocation for public universi-
ties in the national budget is also quite meagre. It
may be deduced that the public higher education
system is one of the most neglected divisions of
the education sector (Table 2). Inadequate fund-
ing for the public universities have some serious
repercussions: (a) long term planning is gravely
hindered, (b) infrastructure development is badly
affected, (c) innovation capacity of higher educa-
tion is unfavorably affected and (d) professional
development of the faculty and research activities
are severely restricted.
The key features of the public universities are
as follows (Aminuzzaman, no date):
1. Student enrolment rate has increased over
periods;
2. The universities have expanded substantially
in terms of faculty members. The expansion
of universities is mainly quantitative and the
quality of education has not improved much;
3. The higher education, in general, is highly
subsidised.
The private universities first came into exis-
tence under the Private University Act of 1992.
In the year 2011, there were 52 universities in
the country (UGC, 2012). A total of 280,822
students enrolled in these universities, among
whom 209,847 were male and 70,975 female
(UGC, 2012). The rate of enrollment is relatively
low here too. Among these students, 122,837
studied business administration, 79,766 science,
medicine, engineering and agricultural sciences,
67,726 social sciences, education and law, and
8,905 pharmacy while only 1,588 enrolled in
certificate, diploma and post-graduate diploma
courses (UGC, 2012). The faculty in the private
universities comprised 10,255 teachers in 2011,
among whom 6,997 were full-time and 3,258
part-time (UGC, 2012). The Board of Trustees and
425
 
Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges

Table 2. Comparative information on national education budget, university education budget, share of
the public universities in education and national budgets (1 USD = 78 BDT or Bangladesh Taka, Ap-
proximately)

Financial National Budget National Education University Education Share of Share of University in
Year (Million BDT) Budget Budget University in National budget
(Million BDT) (Million BDT) Education Budget
2001-2002 354,792.9 37,389.7 2,935.7 7.85% 0.75%
2002-2003 399,455.4 39,603.9 3,235.3 8.17% 0.81%
2003-2004 462,636.2 44,748.0 3,898.5 8.71% 0.84%
2004-2005 509,031.2 50,718.5 4,375.0 8.63% 0.86%
2005-2006 562,847.7 63,471.3 4,998.6 7.87% 0.88%
2006-2007 598,916.8 79,226.6 5,528.0 6.98% 0.92%
2007-2008 860,855.8 85,673.5 6,467.5 7.54% 0.75%
2008-2009 941,394.7 100,700.0 7,401.5 7.35% 0.79%
2009-2010 1,105,242.3 115,664.6 8,604.6 7.44% 0.78%
2010-2011 1,300,121.3 133,994.4 11,022.4 8.22% 0.84%
Source: UGC, 2012

vice-chancellor of a university are responsible for
overseeing the proper functioning of the university
(the Private University Act, 2010).
HIGHER EDUCATION:
PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES
Access, Equity, and Quality
Enrollment figures in higher education have
increased significantly in Bangladesh in recent
years, which actually indicate a rising demand
for higher education. The growth of enrollment at
the secondary level and a large number students
passing the higher secondary examination put
pressure for admission in the higher educational
institutions (Ahmmed, 2013). Inequity occurs
when access to higher education is limited to a
few sections of the society. Some sections of the
society (underprivileged poor people) cannot ac-
cess higher education due to several reasons, such
as for being insolvent and lack of accessibility. As
a result, inequity in the growth of human capital
have increased and development of the country
has been hampered (Chauhan, 2008). The gender
imbalance in higher education can also be observed
in public universities. The UGC recognises that
the higher education system in Bangladesh is
facing a number of challenges, one of which is
the issue of access to and equity in institutions of
higher education (UGC, 2006). Gender equity in
access to higher education was revealed by data
from the country’s fifth five-year plan (Chauhan,
2008). It has been noted that the higher education
system educates two males to every one female
(Chauhan, 2008).
Generally, public universities are the foremost
choice of the majority of students in quest of
higher education. The admission process in public
universities is highly competitive. For example, in
the year 2012, around 225,000 students applied
for admission in Jahangirnagar University, a re-
puted public university of the country. Of them,
only 2,200 students were selected for admission
(personal communication with deputy registrar
of the university). There are many reasons for
students to select public universities. The main
reason is that these universities offer a wide range
of subjects in various disciplines such as social

426

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
science, science, commerce, liberal arts, arts and
humanities, engineering and technology, fine arts,
law, education, medicine, etc.
All public universities (except National Uni-
versity) have large campuses and residential and
various other facilities. These facilities are ac-
cessible at very low costs (subsidised rate). Low
cost of education is one of the driving forces for
the selection of public universities. For example,
the yearly tuition plus accommodation fees (dor-
mitory fees) for students of two reputed public
universities are: 460 Taka (US $5.9) for the Uni-
versity of Dhaka, and 240 Taka (US $3.08) for
Jahangirnagar University (personal communica-
tion with students). The tuition fees even do not
cover the costs of fees collection and maintenance
of records. In comparison to public universities
tuition fees are very high in the private universities.
The total tuition fees for the Bachelor of Business
Administration (BBA) programme (four years) at
two different universities are: 653,000 Taka (US
$8,371 approximately) at Independent University,
311,000 Taka (US $3,987 approximately) at Ut-
tara University and 252,600 Taka (US $3238.40
approximately) at Prime University (IUB, 2013;
Uttara University, 2014; Prime University, 2013).
The government allocation for the public
universities are mostly spent on salaries and
allowances of the faculties and staff and a very
small amount of the money is spent on the librar-
ies, laboratory equipment and research (Table 3).
Tushar (2013) observes that only 11 percent of
the total budget for the public universities of the
country is spent solely for academic purposes for
example, teaching aids. On the other hand, about
73 percent of the budget is spent for paying salaries
of the teachers and staffs (Tushar, 2013). Many
public universities have seriously lack appropriate
infrastructural facilities. In some cases the quality
of the libraries and laboratories are very poor and
they are out dated. There is often a shortage of
modern equipment in the laboratory. Some rather
new public universities do not have good librar-
ies with appropriate facilities. These problems
are actually detrimental to the quality of higher
education in the public universities of the country
(Ahmmed, 2013). The neglect of facilities and
equipment needs results in diminishing teacher
quality and lack of dedication to work. Moreover,
the dearth of facilities, equipment and resource at
all levels of education results in the lack of quality
teachers have also been identified by the partici-
pants of the interview. The inadequacy of funding
needs to be addressed to create opportunities for
the development of infrastructure and facilities
in public higher education in the country. The
colleges affiliated with the National University
and which witness the lion’s share of enrollment
in higher education in Bangladesh suffer from
inadequate infrastructural facilities (libraries
and laboratories), and lack of qualified teachers
(Naser, 2010). Most of these colleges seriously
suffer from funding shortages. All teachers of
these universities are recruited through govern-
ment controlled public service examination. The
curricula of these universities are not up to the
mark and there is little effort to update and revise
the curricula. A total of 1,650,088 students en-
rolled in the National University in 2011 (UGC,
2012). The failure rate among the undergraduate
student is also very high, standing at nearly 52
percent (Islam, 2009). The poor pass percentage
and high incidence of unemployment amongst the
graduates of this university indicate low levels of
internal and external efficiency (Masum, n. d.). A
large number of students of these colleges study
humanities or liberal arts related subjects. A study
observed that about 64 percent of the students
of the National University who appeared in the
undergraduate examination were from arts and
humanities discipline (Islam, 2009). The study
further observed that only 13 and 18 percent of
the students appeared in the examinations related
to science and commerce disciplines respectively
(Islam, 2009).
Most of the affiliated colleges have an inad-
equate number of teachers. Most of them do not
have a high level of academic degree. Although
427
 
Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges

Table 3. Allocation of money in different segments of higher education in selected public universities
(Fiscal year 2011-2012, million BDT (Bangladesh Taka), 1 USD = 78 BDT approximately)

Name of the University Salary, General Education Maintenance Actual Total Allocation
Allowances and Relevant Related (others) and Capital by the University Grant’s
Pension Issues Allocation Commission (UGC)
Dhaka University 2,021.0 228.0 225.0 47.0 2,224.0
Rajshahi University 1,235.0 132.0 98.0 12.0 1,390.0
Bangladesh Agricultural 969.0 106.0 70.0 20.0 1,137.5
University
Bangladesh University of 560.5 101.0 73.0 24.0 719.0
Engineering
Chittagong University 938.0 105.0 87.0 16.0 1,036.0
Jahangirnagar University 634.0 114.0 75.0 14.0 786.0
Islamic University 327.5 62.0 36.0 03.5 384.0
Shahjalal Science and 254.5 48.0 41.0 06.0 312.0
Tech. University
Khulna University 243.0 38.0 28.0 08.0 308.5
Bangladesh Open 313.2 75.0 420.0 60.0 218.8
University
Source: UGC, 2012

a large number of students obtain their degrees
from these colleges, few of them can expect to
enter the job market (Masum, n. d.). The prevail-
ing political culture of the country is mainly to
blame for polluting the academic environment
of the public universities. The system of linking
political parties with the student wing results in
patronage of student politics by the political par-
ties. The student leaders of the student wings of
the political parties have access to the top-level
political leaders of the country.
The teachers of universities also call strikes in
protest of irregularities done by top-level adminis-
trators. They also call strikes to meet their demand
related to their interest. Such situations disrupt the
academic environment of universities (interview
with Dean and faculties). Public universities also
face disruptions in the academic calendar due
to unscheduled closure resulting from political
agitations, sometimes leading to violence and as
a result run into session jam. In order to maintain
balance with price hike, public universities of the
country have attempted several times to increase
tuition fees but failed to do so. Student forums or
student wings of the various political parties op-
pose such initiatives to raise fees, claiming higher
education a public service which the state should
offer to all citizens at low cost. As a result, public
universities have to rely on limited government
funding and have been shrinking in real terms. It
may be noted that while students fight vigorously
to ensure the continuation of their benefits or resist
an increase in tuition or other fees, they are not
much concerned about the academic quality. To a
certain extent, political interest plays an important
role in motivating student unrest in a university
(interview with faculties of public universities).All
these issues contribute to lengthening of session
jams of the public universities (interview with
faculties and students).
Some provisions of the public university act
not only impinge on the limited teaching time by
engaging them in active politics but also fail to
ensure accountability of the faculties (Masum, n.
d.).Sometimes unplanned and politically biased
faculty recruitment reduces the standard of educa-

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Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
tion in the public universities (interview with dean
and faculties). Although rare, there are also some
instances that a university administration recruits
‘voters’, not ‘teachers’ in the public universities
which adversely affect the quality of education
(Masum, n. d.). Some public universities are cam-
ouflaged as places of political activities (Chowd-
hury, 2012). The interview participants feel that to
ensure quality education in the public universities,
all teachers’ recruitment should always be based
on merit, academic achievements and research
accomplishments. Unfortunately, sometimes these
issues do not get proper considerations.
Although public universities of the country
are plagued with many types of problems, there
also exists a strong public perception that public
universities are academically better than the private
universities. One may assume that this widespread
attitude imparts from the rigorous and fair student
selection process prior to enrollment in the public
universities. There also exists fierce competition
for admission in the public universities which
may also have an effect on the public perception.
With the increase in enrollments in the public
universities, the entrance requirements for the
limited spaces in these universities have become
progressively more meticulous. This actually
denotes that those students who get admission in
the public universities are undoubtedly the nation’s
best. The overall quality of teachers and academic
and other facilities of the public universities are
far better than most private universities.
Though politically biased teacher recruit-
ment is sometimes visible, most of the teachers
are recruited based on merit which is reflected
and noticeable in their academic performances.
Students and guardians have confidence in these
universities. Almost all public universities have
large campuses where both students and teachers
reside. Due to this reason, the degree of empathy
between teachers and students is high. One may
find very renowned, dedicated and highly quali-
fied scientists and teachers in these universities.
Unfortunately, the students of these universities
sometimes cannot attain the expected education
and possess deficiencies due to lack of account-
ability of the faculties, internal politics, interrup-
tion of regular classes, resource constraints and
various related reasons.
Access, Equity, and Quality:
Private Universities
It is obvious that the Bangladesh government
alone cannot support the continued demand for
higher education in the country and private finance
emerged as a significant avenue to provide higher
education. The inability of the public universities
to provide adequate university education to the
growing number of college graduates contributes
to the growth of private universities. Undoubtedly,
private universities in Bangladesh are central to
meeting enrollment demands of the country. One
very important aspect of private universities is that
they are free from student politics. As a result, all
classes and examinations are held in scheduled
time. The public universities students get stacked
with huge session jam and sometimes it take 5
to 6 years just to complete a 4-year graduation
program (Dhaka Star, 2013).
The vast majority of private universities of the
country, however, are made up of small depart-
ments that offer few programmes. The faculties
of a significant number of universities are poorly
trained and they are mostly hired on an hourly
basis while research is almost non-existence.
State regulations in these universities are rather
feeble. Till date, state intervention in private higher
educational institutions has been mostly limited
to the act of granting licenses/permissions at the
time of their creation and the public policy makers
have developed no further regulations as to the
quality or type of curriculum offerings. Whereas
the emergence of private universities is a grow-
ing phenomenon, a number of issues plagues its
development, including quality assurance, cost
of service, unrestricted profit seeking behaviour
etc. These universities lack accountability and
429

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
social responsibility (interview with faculties and
former VCs). Many of them operate without com-
mensurate resources or apposite infrastructure.
The quality of service in most of the private
universities is also shoddy. The rise of private
universities is a concern for the Bangladesh gov-
ernment in particular because of reports of low
quality of education (Andaleeb, 2003; Andaleeb,
2008; UGC, 2011). In 2011, UGC categorised only
10 private universities to be in the “good” category
(UGC, 2011; quoted in Choudhury, n. d.). They
have their own buildings with quite commend-
able infrastructural facilities. These universities
have meritorious students and faculties. A large
numbers of the other private universities, however,
were placed in the “poorly” performing list in the
variables and were considered as “diploma mills”
rather than full-fledged universities (UGC, 2011;
quoted in Choudhury, n. d.).
It is often noted that UGC has miserably failed
in its role as a guardian of private universities, and
as a promoter of quality (Choudhury, no date).
UGC has also failed to institute a self-regulatory
accreditation system for private universities
(Andaleeb, 2003). In general, private universities
primarily enroll those students who cannot make
it to public universities for several reasons and
that continues to affect the general perceptions
of private universities as secondary to public
institutions. A large number of students who do
not qualify for admission to public universities opt
to join in the private universities (Naser, 2010).
Almost all student respondents of the private
universities mentioned that as they failed in the
entrance examinations of the public universities,
they had no other option but to opt for private
universities (interview with students). Some of the
students attempted more than one time but did not
pass the admission test (interview with students).
This situation is mostly observed in the medium
and low ranking public universities. It is worth
mentioning that students from English medium
schools and colleges (having passed their Ordinary
and Advanced levels in the British education sys-
430

tem) choose private universities, especially high
category universities (interview with ex-VC and
dean). These private universities usually draw
students from the wealthier section of the society.
It is understood that the high ranking, expensive
private universities surfaced in response to the
demand of the wealthy and affluent sections of
society. The fees of these universities are quite
low in comparison to the universities in Europe
or North America and this has prompted parents
to send their sons/ daughters to private universi-
ties (interview with dean and ex-VC). Informal
interviews with the participants revealed that it
is relatively easy to get admission into a private
university.
One faculty of a high ranking private university
mentioned that in the first semester (year 2012),
the School of Business of their university admitted
more than 800 students in the undergraduate pro-
gramme. Another participant of a middle ranking
private university mentioned that the Department
of Law admitted around 1,000 students in the
first semester (year 2012). “If more students are
admitted, we just make more sections. Currently
we have 24 sections,” a dean of the School of
Business opined. Moreover, private universities
always hunt for students. Some of them give ad-
vertisements in the daily newspapers during the
admission season. The low and middle ranking
universities try to attract students in many ways.
Sometimes students are lured by means of gift
offers (such as hand-held tablets). Although there
exists a policy for admission test, occasionally
students are not selected based on their admis-
sion test results.
The entrance examination or enrolment pro-
cess of most of the private universities is not
fair (interview with current VC and one ex-VC).
In some low or middle ranking universities, the
system of admission test is non-existence. In case
of students’ intake in the private universities,
trustee board members sometimes play dominat-
ing roles. Sometimes, close acquaintances of the
management get admission in a university without

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
participating in the entrance examination (inter-
view with dean).“One cannot compromise quality
with quantity,” an ex-VC opined. A dean of the
Business Faculty of a private university remarked
that some students of his university failed in the
admission test but later managed to get admission
in the university through the backdoor. “If there are
some black sheep in a class, the class environment
automatically gets polluted. The overall quality of
teaching and learning also deteriorates. I do not
feel like teaching sincerely,” the dean remarked.
Private universities are required to be “non-
profit entities” by the Private University Act of
1992 (Private University Act, 1992). However,
this does not put them off from behaving in an
unrestricted profit-seeking manner. They earn
hidden profits by paying trustees and others high
salaries or allowances (interview with current and
ex-VCs). Many of them earn huge amounts of
money through expense accounts, various other
seen and unseen facilities. The owners/sponsors
of the private universities are actually doing busi-
ness. This business is safe and there is no trade
union and political unrest (interview with ex-VC).
In fact, many universities are doing business by
selling diplomas (Baroi, 2014).
Almost all private universities hire teachers
from public universities. The private universi-
ties are predominantly run by part-time teachers
(interview with faculties). However, this situation
is changing gradually. Many private universities
have started recruiting full-time teachers. This is
because permanent faculties can provide more
service to the universities and there is pressure
from UGC to fulfill the requirement provisions
of the private university act. The act states that
at least two thirds of the teachers should be full-
time (Private University Act, 2010). There is little
doubt that the private universities of the country
have opened up huge employment opportunities.
It can also be observed that retired faculties from
public universities assume teaching positions in
the top ranking private universities. Some top
ranking private universities attract highly qualified
persons from abroad to return home to join in these
universities as full-time faculties. In comparison
to the public universities, these private universi-
ties offer quite attractive remuneration packages
(interview with deans and ex-VCs).
Surprisingly, in case of full-time faculty em-
ployment, managements of the middle and low
ranking universities, prefer employing junior level
permanent teachers (as for example, lecturer),
because they are hardworking, can take more
classes, remain very loyal to the management and
can be hired with low pay (interview with ex-VC
and teachers). Although it is a rare case, but it is
interesting to note that sometimes a full-time fac-
ulty has to teach a course in which he/she has little
or no expertise. For example, a full-time faculty of
a low ranking private university had a degree in
finance but he was assigned to teach management
subject (interview with faculty). It can be surmised
that full-time teachers at private universities are
heavily loaded with class and other relevant duties.
As they are full-time teachers, the management
tries to squeeze out as much as possible and derive
more output from a relatively small number of
full-time teachers. This is especially true in case
of low and middle ranking universities. There is
widespread belief that the lower the ranking of
a private university, the higher the profit margin
(interview with faculties and dean).
There is some sort of incentive from manage-
ment of the low ranking private universities to
compromise on quality in order to keep costs down.
This motive sometimes encourages the manage-
ment to recruit junior and less-qualified permanent
teachers with low pay (interview with faculties). It
was further revealed that teachers usually give high
grades to the students. Irrespective of adequacy
and relevance of the answer, teachers generously
give students good grades if students write some
sentences in the answer scripts (student interview
participants). This situation is observed mostly in
the low or middle ranking universities. Andaleeb
(2013) in a study observed that the expectations
of the students in getting higher grades were quite
431

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
high in the private universities. About 79-85 per-
cent students of the sampled private universities
expected an “A” grade in all courses. In contrast,
students of public universities did not have such
expectations. The study finally opined that there
exists serious grade inflations in the private
universities which may indicate that teachers
give students good grades to in turn attain high
teacher evaluation marks from them (Andaleeb,
2013). It seems that there is a perceived quality
variation among the teachers of the private uni-
versities. When poor quality teachers are hired,
teachers give grades at inflated rate, undoubt-
edly putting quality at stake (Andaleeb, 2013).
Private universities are commercialising higher
education rather than providing service (UGC,
2006b). These universities remain confined only
to a few disciplines that have high market demand
(Masum, n. d.). They offer programmes that have
market demand but need less money to provide
(for example business administration, law). Some
of these universities offer low-capital programmes
that do not require laboratories, expensive instru-
ments and chemicals. Table 4 depicts that some
private universities run only a few departments and
obviously the lion’s share of their income comes
from two programmes: business and law. The
aim of these universities is to keep costs low and
revenues high. One can also find that students of
private universities are much less likely to study
education, arts, humanities and social sciences
and much more likely to study, business, law and
engineering (Table 4). Without adequate quality
control from the UGC, the expansion of private
higher education institutions will not contribute
to the alleviation of inequality in higher education
in Bangladesh. This is especially true in case of
medium or low ranking private universities. The
low quality of education means that students
from middle and low ranking universities will
not be able to compete in the job market against
graduates of the public and high ranking private
universities (interview with faculties). In some
private universities, backdoor admissions, lack
432

of integrity in some quarters, dependency on
hired faculty members and teachers’ alignment
with the management politics are affecting the
quality of education (interview with faculties).
In fact, poor quality of education actually keeps
alive the existing inequalities in society.
Some private higher educational institutions
are considered to be of high repute and they at-
tract a significant number of students. However,
such institutions often charge fees which only the
wealthy can afford. If there is fierce competition
in student enrollment, lack of seats and fund
constraints in the public universities, it is likely
that high ranking private institutions will remain
restricted to the wealthier section of the society.
This amplifies the problem of equity which in
fact reduces equitable access to higher education
in Bangladesh. Quality in the private universities
is also susceptible to low investment. This is es-
pecially true in case of low ranking universities.
Low investment actually encourages recruitment
of low quality faculties which contributes to poor
quality intakes and poor internal efficiency. It may
be remembered that poor regulatory standards,
worsening staff-student ratios, and weak curricula
not only damage the qualities of private univer-
sities, there is also a real risk of marginalising
meritorious students of middle-income families.
It is necessary to address these problems to ensure
quality, equity and efficiency in higher education
of the private universities in the country.
Research and Quality Education:
Private and Public Universities
Research is always considered an important aspect
of teaching and scholarships in the higher edu-
cation. Research is intricately related to quality.
Educational institutions that perform poorly in
research do not have access to a knowledge-based
society. Without research, universities will not be
able to produce and propagate new knowledge
and this would hamper the goals of national and
human development. The general state of research

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges

Table 4. Student enrollment pattern in various disciplines (year 2011, total number)

Name of the Arts and Social Business Law Agriculture Technical and Economics Education
University Humanities Science Administration Engineering
North South 480 200 922 10,081 0 2,954 821 0
University
United 0 0 2,543 0 0 1,528 0 0
International
University
Independent 240 157 2,907 0 0 375 0 0
University
Northern 2,247 0 11,931 4,764 0 1,708 0 0
University
Prime 381 0 1,710 2,164 0 1,043 0 86
University
Southern 195 0 1,342 551 0 998 0 0
University
ASA 321 86 2,619 507 0 0 0 0
University
East Delta 09 00 330 0 0 11 0 0
University
Source: UGC, 2012

is poor in both private and public universities and
the research infrastructure is quite inadequate.
The Bangladesh government, through UGC,
funds the public universities of the country.
The money allocated in the budget of a public
university is always less than what is required.
One can also find that about 80 percent of the
allocated money of a public university is spent in
paying salaries and pensions of the teachers and
other supporting staff (Table 3) and little money
is kept for research. Unfortunately, some public
universities spend less than one percent of their
budget for research (Aminuzzaman, n. d.). There
is also a lack of clear and transparent policies in
selecting priority areas for research.
Sometimes important areas of research are
ignored. This often happens due to weak poli-
cies and internal politics of an institution. There
is a lack of corporate and industry support for
research in both private and public universities.
The universities have weak connection with non-
government and private organisations, which
actually hampers academic research (interview
with faculties). Although the number is quite
small, the research activities initiated by the public
universities are principally funded by external
agencies such as non-government organisations
(NGOs) and international donor agencies. There is
a lack of interest in research among some faculties
of public universities. Some teachers think that
their jobs are secured since it is permanent and
research will not bring any extra benefit for them
(interview with the dean of a public university).
The teachers of the private universities on the
other hand are mostly involved in teaching and
have less interest in research. Although the private
university act of 2010 (Section 7, 6) states that
each private university has to set aside and spend
a significant amount of fund out of its total annual
expenses on research activities, most universities
do not follow this rule (Private University Act,
2010). The UGC’s 39th annual report reveals
that at least 15 private universities did not spend
anything on research in 2012, which is a violation
of Private University Act 2010 (Wadud, 2013).
Though some research journals/publications are

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Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
published by some private universities, some of
them are in fact not up to the mark. It seems that
these journals publish articles just to provide
opportunities to the faculties of the universities
to fulfill the requirement of promotion while act-
ing as eyewash to hide performances before the
government (interview with faculties).
University Governance: Public
and Private University
Good governance is the key issue for achieving
quality in higher education in developing countries
(Task Force for Higher Education, TFHES, 2000).
Higher education of the country actually interacts
directly with the UGC, Ministry of Education
(MoE), other government officials and politicians.
The president of Bangladesh holds the ultimate
authority as the chancellor in appointing vice-
chancellors and others down the administrative
line in public universities. On top of the chain of
administrative power sits the vice-chancellor fol-
lowed by the pro-vice-chancellor, deans/directors,
and departmental chairmen/heads. Sometimes a
direct involvement of politicians politicises the
higher education and pollutes the educational
environment as this intervention may encourage
corruption, nepotism and unwarranted interference
(Interview with faculties). If there is a change in
the government after a parliamentary election, the
continuity of the policy of a public university may
be affected (interview with dean and faculties).
Some private universities have severe in-
ternal governance problems. In October 2006,
the government had closed down some of these
universities because of their underperformance.
But a few of them are still running on obtaining
stay orders from the High Court. In some cases,
the trustee boards of the private universities were
divided into factions and feuding parties. The par-
ties took internal affairs of the university to the
court for resolution (interview with ex-VC). The
leadership of a private university (for example,
VC) is appointed based on the financiers’ or
434

trustee boards’ choice. The Private University Act
of 2010 empowers trustee boards with substantial
authority (Private University Act, 2010). For
example, the board recommends the name of the
VCs to the government. It can also recommend the
government to remove a VC. Many trustee board
members are businesspersons. Some of them play
the dual role of politicians and businesspersons. It
is often observed that the authority (government)
issues permission/licenses of private universities
to persons who have political alignment with the
sitting government. Some board members have
very low level of academic achievement (for
example, attained education till high school).
With such low levels of education, a trustee board
member tries to control the critical issues related
to high levels of academic decisions. The interview
participants opined that all trustees should have a
high academic background. Actually, the model
of the private university is not properly designed
and anybody and everybody who has money can
start a university (one Dean of a faculty remarked).
Some private universities have some “mis-
sion” or “vision” but these actually in fact, stay
on paper and while universities are not transpar-
ent in their activities, especially in finance and
governance matters. One common criticism about
the governance of private universities is that it is
excessively based on the individual (interview
with Dean). The persons who take the initiative
to establish a private university dominate the
university administration. In a sense, the initia-
tors actually become the owner of the university.
Moreover, some of the initiators try to monopo-
lise the administration by giving employment to
people they have relations with, usually wives,
daughters, sons, daughters-in-law and even aged
fathers-in-law in different positions. One Dean of a
private university informed that he knows at least
three private universities whose trustee boards are
comprised of close relatives and some of the sup-
porting staffs are their relatives. This was possible
due to the absence of detailed guidelines in the act
of private universities regarding the composition

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
of the trustee board. A very recent study done by
UGC pointed out that 25 universities do not have
any VC, Pro-VC or treasurer. Total 45 universi-
ties do not have any treasurer and 50 universities
are running their academic program without a
Pro-VC (Baroi, 2014). Without any consultation
with the government, the trustee boards of some
universities have employed their close associates
as VC, Pro-VC or Treasurer. As a result, some sort
of anarchy prevails in the administration of these
universities (Baroi, 2014).
Private universities also have a corporate cul-
ture. Like private companies, salaries vary among
faculties and sometimes one faculty member does
not have any idea about the salary of his/her col-
league (interview with faculties). The management
often negotiates salaries and the negotiation pro-
cess is just like any business enterprise. Sometimes
a teacher, only for being a close acquaintance of a
trustee board member, gets a higher salary. Trustee
boards also interfere in teacher selection and
sometimes change the decisions of the selection
committee (interview with two VCs). As a result,
an incompetent person may be selected as faculty.
The trustee board members control the financial
matters. A VC does not have any substantial role
to play in financial management. “A VC is just a
clerk. VC just executes the orders of the trustee
board,” a dean and one ex-VC opined. “The first
and last thing is profit…these universities have
100 percent business mentality,” said one ex-VC
of a lower-ranking university.
Since the owner of the university is a trustee
board member and they want to make profits only,
the question of quality education obviously less
important for them. “Most of the private universi-
ties are paralysed babies,” one Dean of a reputed
private university commented. Unfortunately,
many private universities do not bother to abide
by respective laws and guidelines promulgated by
the government. A significant number of private
universities are operating in hired accommoda-
tion and they have failed to meet the minimum
requirements of physical infrastructure. A recent
report noted that 37 private universities do not
have their own campuses although five years had
passed since their establishment (Ahmed, 2013a).
The education ministry warned these universities
repeatedly but somehow the universities man-
aged to get off the hook and no official measure
was taken against them The government served
notices on two private universities to close their
unauthorised campuses. But the order was not
executed (Ahmed, 2013a).
The weakness in governance (both internal
and external) is the central problem which is to
blame for the ineffectiveness, inefficiency and
non-performance of higher education (Hoare,
2007). It is sometimes also considered that the
model of governance where the state takes on
the supervisory role may be more apt instead of
strict governmental controls which to some extent
are disadvantageous for higher education in the
developing countries (Hoare, 2007). However, it
seems that a direct control of the state sometimes
may be necessary to regulate the activities of
higher education system of the country. This is
especially true in the case of private universities
of the country.
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The greatest challenge to higher education in both
public and private universities of Bangladesh is
establishing the principles of good governance.
Good governance actually includes transparency,
accountability, efficiency and so on. It seems that
assurance of quality rather just quantity is a critical
issue in higher education in the private and public
universities of the country. It also understood
through good governance, institutions can be
more competent in allocating limited resources
and be more devoted to instituting internal qual-
ity controls.
Undoubtedly, with the emergence of private
universities in the country, there has been a sea of
change in the overall relationship between higher
education and the government while the status of
435

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
higher education in its traditional form has been
questioned. Universities have a responsibility to
maintain meritocratic values at the same time as
encouraging social mobility. The private universi-
ties are providing opportunities for social mobility.
But, without adequate control by the government,
expansion of private universities will not contrib-
ute to the development of higher education of the
country. But, in the absence of proper government
monitoring, spread of private universities will not
contribute to the development of higher educa-
tion in the country. It is necessary to realise and
ensure that private universities do not only serve
the needs of the marketplace. They should have
social commitment. Social responsibility should
be the key motive behind it. Entrepreneurialism
should not become the motivating force behind
the establishment of any private university.
The active and sincere involvement of the
government and academia can help address is-
sues related to the four aspects of the private
universities -- access, governance, equality and
quality. The enrollments in higher education are
not increasing at the rate students are graduating
from colleges (Aminuzzaman, n. d.). Failure to
meet the increasing social demand for higher
education and to provide underprivileged people
with equality of opportunity at universities and in
the market may lead to a situation which creates an
imbalance in the social and economic systems of
the country. It is imperative to devise appropriate
plans in these respects. It is important to put more
rational and efficient institutional management in
the universities. The government should develop
new effective policies to regulate standards in both
public and private universities. The government
should provide public universities sufficient funds
for research based on its productivity assessment
and relevance.
Incentives based on research productivity and
the quality of teaching with special allowances
for full-time faculties who meet certain standards
may be introduced in both private and public
universities. It is also imperative to give emphasis
436

on establishing links between universities and
industrial sectors to develop research potentials
and activities. Both public and private universi-
ties may introduce mechanism of assessment of
the academic disciplines through external peer
evaluation committees. The government should
offer more financial support to public institutions,
such as the National University and its affiliated
colleges, which may not be able to strive for meri-
torious students and qualified faculties.
It is palpable that if funding for the public sec-
tor’s higher educational institutions continues to
be seriously constrained over the next few years
while high quality private institutions are restricted
to the wealthy, it will likely lead to a significant
decline in equitable access to higher education.
There is also a need to build national capacity
in higher education in the developing countries
(Marginson, 2007) like Bangladesh. There will
be no permanent improvement in the quality and
governance in the universities (both private and
public) without the introduction of performance
evaluation. A performance evaluation, in this re-
spect, may help the universities of the country to
plan future strategies (Jalaliyoon and Taherdoost,
2012). In order to achieve and sustain nationally
and internationally acceptable quality education,
it is imperative to set an autonomous quality as-
surance body. It may be an accreditation council
or board. This council may undertake formal
accreditation reviews, promoting internal quality
enhancement and quality improvements in both
public and private universities.
Each university should prepare a strategic
plan for their academic and professional staff
development with appropriate provisions for
funding. There should be a consistent attempt to
enhance teaching quality in both public and private
higher educational institutions. Other important
challenges are to finance to enhance the human
resources, facilities and infrastructure of higher
education in the universities. The public universi-
ties always suffer from fund shortages. The current
poor level of funding in public universities affects

Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
the capacities of the institutions in carrying out
long-term planning.
It can be noted that political problems and
student unrests in the higher education system in
Bangladesh seriously affects the progress of the
universities. The government and universities
should take initiatives to thwart the interferences
of the political personnel and parties. The higher
education system of the country needs to devise
effective policies to embark upon the constraints
and meet the challenges. There is little doubt that
owing to the globalisation process, the coming
decades will see private universities come to the
forefront of higher education in the country. It is
therefore essential to realise what is happening
and plan the future path for the development of
both public and private universities.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Governance: A means by which Higher
Educational Institutions (HEI) are organised and
managed. University governance is the way in
which universities are operated. Internal gover-
nance of the university includes the controlling
mechanisms between various actors inside an
HEI for example, management and trustee board.
External governance encompasses the influence
from outside the institution on the governance of
the institution for example, supervising authority
such as, University Grant’s Commission (UGC).
Low Ranking Private University: A low
ranking private university operates in temporary
arrangements in hired accommodations. It runs
without adequate resources or apposite infrastruc-
ture. It has poor quality students and less qualified
faculties. It mostly depends on part time faculties.
Middle Ranking Private University: A
middle ranking private university operates in
both own and rented buildings. It does not have a
campus with appropriate facilities. It has average
quality students and it mostly depends on part
time faculties.
Public University: A public university is
a university which is mainly funded by public
means through a national government. Tuition is
 
Public and Private Higher Education Concerns and Challenges
much cheaper than that of a private university. It
is subject to government rules and regulations.
The largest universities (in terms of areal size) in
Bangladesh are all public.
Private University: A private university is
owned and operated by the private sector. The
term “private” simply means that the university’s
funding comes from tuition and investments.
Although a private university is not operated by
a government, it is subject to government rules
and regulations.
Session Jam: A term commonly used in Ban-
gladesh to refer to the failure of public universi-
ties to ensure measures so that students graduate
according to schedule. A prolonged session
jam seriously obstructs academic activities of a
university. A session jam usually occurs due to
long-lasting closures of the universities caused
by political unrest or violence.
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Top Ranking Private University: A type
of private university which has its own campus
with quite commendable infrastructural facilities.
A top ranking private university has meritorious
students and qualified permanent faculties. It also
recruits part time faculties. This type of university
has high tuition fees.
University Grants Commission (UGC):
The University Grants Commission (UGC) of
Bangladesh is the statutory apex body in the field
of higher education in Bangladesh. The primary
objectives of the UGC are to supervise, maintain,
promote and coordinate university education. Its
mission is to ensure quality higher education for
Bangladesh.
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