Fundamentals of Computers

Presentation made by:

Engr. Sana Zafar
Index
• Evolution of computers
– History of computing
• Basics of computer and its operation:
– Functional Components and their
interconnections
– Classification of Computers
• Software Concepts:
– Types of Software - System Software, Utility
Software and Application Software;
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

• The development of the modern

day computer was the result of
advances in technologies and
man's need to quantify.

• Let us look at some of the

important milestones in the
evolution of computers.
 ABACUS

•The abacus was invented in 3000 BC i

Babylonia.
•Beads on rods to count and calculate
•still widely used in Asia!
Slide Rule 1630
based on Napier’s rules for
logarithms used until 1970s
 PASCAL’S ADDING MACHINE

• In 1642 AD, Blaise Pascal , a French

mathematician invented a calculating machine
named as Adding Machine.
• This machine was capable of doing Addition
and Subtraction. This device is known as the
First Calculator of the world.
 LEIBNITZ’S CALCULATOR

In 1671 AD, Gotfried Leibnitz, a German

Mathematician improved the Adding machine and
made a new machine capable of performing
multiplication and division also.
first stored program - metal cards
first computer manufacturing
still in use today!
BABBAGE’S DIFFERENCE ENGINE

Charles Babbage was a British

mathematician. In 1822, he designed a machine
called Difference Engine. It aimed at
calculating mathematical tables.
Since the technology was not so advanced at
that time this machine could not be made.
 BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL ENGINE

• In 1833, Charles Babbage designed a machine

called Analytical Engine. It had almost all the
parts of a modern computer. Unfortunately, this
machine could not be built because of lack of
technology. His designs remained a concept.
• His great designs earned him the title of
‘FATHER OF COMPUTERS‘.
 LADY ADA

Lord Byron's daughter, Ada, Countess of

Lovelace, suggested to Babbage that he use
the binary system in his machine.
She wrote programs for his analytical
engine in 1840, becoming the world's first
computer programmer.
HOLLERITH’S TABULATING MACHINE

• Hollerith, a Mathematician, invented a fast

counting machine named Tabulating
Machine in 1880.
• This machine was used by American
Department of Census to complete their
1880 census data.
 MARK I COMPUTER

• Howard Aiken of Harvard University in USA

joined hands with the company IBM.
• He developed a computer named Mark I in
1943.
• It could perform mathematical operations
very fast.
• It could perform one operation per second.
 ENIAC

• The first electronic computer ENIAC was

developed in 1946 by a team lead by Professor
Eckert and Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania in USA.
•Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) was very huge and very fast.
• It could solve 5000 operations per second.
 INTEL 8080 PROCESSOR

In 1974 the Intel 8080 processor was

introduced - it became the basis for the first
personal computers.
Definition of Computer

Electronic Device
Accepts and stores input
Manipulates result
Outputs results
Under direction of stores programs and
instructions
 Characteristics of Computer
• Speed

• Accuracy
• Diligence : not afflicted to tiredness, monotony, lack
of concentration like human beings.
• Reliability
• Versatility : can work with different types of data like
sound, graphics, audio.
• Memory
What is Data and Information

• Data is raw facts

ex: India, 200, 4, Cricket, Wicket

• Information is meaningful and arranged

form of data
ex: India’s score in Cricket is 200 for 4
wickets.
HARDWARE
Hardware refers to physical
components that can be seen and
touched. E.g. CPU, Memory, I/O
devices.

SOFTWARE
Software is a set of programs that
make the Hardware of the
computer run.
Program is a set of instructions.
 FIRMWARE
Firmware is like prewritten program that is
permanently stored in read-only memory.
BIOS ( Basic Input Output Services )
instructions are an example of firmware.

LIVEWARE
It is the term generally used for the people
associated with and benefited from the
computer system.
Classification of Computer
Systems
•On the basis of Technology
•Generations of computers
•On the basis of Purpose
•General Purpose, special Purpose computers
•On The basis of size & Speed
•Micro, Mini & Super Computers
•On the basis of how it functions
•Analog, Digital & Hybrid Computers
Technology Based Classification of Computer
Systems

Each generation of computer is

characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate,
resulting in increasingly

•smaller, •more efficient and

•cheaper, •reliable devices.
•more powerful
 FIRST GENERATION
TIME PERIOD : 1940's-1950's
Structure of
TECHNOLOGY USED : Vacuum Tubes a Vaccum
Tube
SIZE AND SPEED : Huge, taking up entire
rooms, Slow
speed
LANGUAGE USED : Machine language
COST : System and UNIVAC

working cost
very high.
OTHER FEATURES :
●
Used a great deal of electricity.
●
Generated a lot of heat. ENIAC
●
Input was based on punched cards and paper
tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
SECOND GENERATION
TIME PERIOD : 1950's- 1960's
TECHNOLOGY USED : Transistors
SIZE AND SPEED : Lesser size and increased speed
LANGUAGE USED : Assembly language and TRANSISITORS
languages like
COBOL and
UNIVAC
FORTRAN
1108
COST : Cost decreased
OTHER FEATURES : More efficient and reliable.
Though the transistors still generated a great deal of heat
that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards
for input and printouts for output.
IBM 1401
EXAMPLE : UNIVAC 1108, IBM 1401, CDC 1604
THIRD GENERATION
TIME PERIOD : late 1960's-1970's
IBM
TECHNOLOGY USED : Integrated Circuit 360/50

SIZE AND SPEED : Size Lesser and speed further increased

LANGUAGE USED : Operating System was developed.

COST : Cost decreased further

OTHER FEATURES : Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with
third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory.

Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

EXAMPLE : IBM-360 series, Honeywell Model 316, Honeywell

– 6000
FOURTH GENERATION
TIME PERIOD : 1970's-today

TECHNOLOGY USED : Microprocessor

SIZE AND SPEED : Reduced size and

tremendous speed
The Macintosh 128K, the first
LANGUAGE USED : High Level Languages Macintosh, was the first
commercially successful personal
like PASCAL, computer to use images, rather
• COBOL, C, C++, JAVA than text, to communicate.

COST : Reduced Cost

OTHER FEATURES : Microprocessors also moved out of

the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as
more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
•As these small computers became more powerful, they could be
linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the
development of the Internet.
•Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, Intel 4004D
microprocessor
the mouse and handheld devices.
 FIFTH GENERATION
TIME PERIOD : 1990's -today

TECHNOLOGY USED : Microprocessor

SIZE AND SPEED : Reduced size and tremendous speed

LANGUAGE USED : Based on Artificial intelligence

COST : Reduced Cost

OTHER FEATURES : Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial

intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

EXAMPLE : Parallel Inference Machine

Note
• Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making
computers behave like humans.
•Voice Recognition is the field of computer science that deals with designing computer
Size and Speed Based Classification of Computer
Systems
The current classifications of computers place them
into four categories:

●
Super Computers,

●
Mainframes,

●
Minicomputers,

●
Microcomputers (Personal Computers)
 SUPER COMPUTER
The fastest type of computer.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications
that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer.
Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, , nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.
Characteristics

●
Powerful
●
Expensive
●
Dedicated to one purpose - weather, satellites, military
●
Used by large governments or very large companies
●
Can be used by thousands of people at the same time
●
Very large - fill rooms
Sixteen racks of IBM's Blue Gene/L supercomputer
can perform 70.7 trillion calculations per second,
making it the fastest machine known so far.
MAINFRAME
In the early days of computing, mainframes were huge
computers that could fill an entire room or even a whole floor.

As the size of computers has decreased while the power has

increased, the term mainframe has fallen out of use in favor of
enterprise server. You'll still hear the term used, particularly in
large companies to describe the huge machines processing
millions of transactions every day.

Characteristics: 
●
Expensive
●
Powerful and fast
●
Is not limited to one job
●
Used by business and small government organizations
The main difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is
that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few
programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to
execute many programs simultaneously.
 MINICOMPUTER
Another term rarely used anymore, minicomputers fall
in between microcomputers (PCs) and mainframes
(enterprise servers).

Minicomputers are normally referred to as mid-range

servers now.

Characteristics:
●
Smaller than mainframe
●
Can do several jobs at once
●
Can be used by many people at one time
●
Used by small companies
 PERSONAL COMPUTER
The term microcomputer, also known as personal computer
(PC), or a computer that depends on a microprocessor.

A microcomputer contains a central processing unit (CPU) on

a microchip (the microprocessor), a memory system (read-only
memory and random access memory), placed on a motherboard.

Example:  desktop, notebook, laptop, handheld devices.

Charcteristics:
●
developed in 1980
●
designed for single user
●
not very powerful or expensive
●
found in homes
Classification of Computers of On the
basis of
How It Functions

The current classifications of

computers place them into four
categories:

Analog Computer

Digital Computer

Hybrid Computers
 Classification of Computers of On the
basis of Digital Computers
How It Functions

Analog Digital
Computers Computers

• Operate on continuous data, like • Digital computers work on

measuring temp. changes
discrete data.
• Faster
• digital computer can process
• Accuracy of an analog computer
is restricted to the accuracy with data with greater accuracy
which physical quantities can be • We generally use digital
sensed and displayed.
computers for business and
• Specific Purpose computers
scientific data processing.
 Hybrid Computers
• Hybrid computers are computers that comprise
features of analog computers and digital computers.
• The digital component normally serves as the
controller and provides logical operations, while the
analog component normally serves as a solver of
differential equations.
 Purpose Based Classification of
Computer Systems

General Purpose Special Purpose

Computers
The First Real Computers:
1939: Konrad Zuse
completed the first
programmable, general-
purpose digital computer
Computers
Special-purpose computer:
Dedicated computers that perform
specific tasks
Controlling the temperature and humidity
Monitoring your heart rate
Monitoring your house security system
 Types of
Software
Software
( Set of programs that govern the operations of
computer )
System Software Application Software

( Software that controls ( Set of programs to carry out

operations for a specified
internal computer operations )
application )

Operating Language
Utilities Packages Customized
System Processor
Software
( Software ( Software ( perform ( General
which converts house utility ( Tailor
which acts as made
HLL progran keeping ) software )
an interface software
into machine
between user language ) according
and the to user’s
hardware ) needs )
 Anti Virus e.g., Norton,
File Management tools
Compression tools
Disk Management tools ( Disk Cleanup, Disk
Fragmentor, Backup)
APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Word Processor
Presentation tools
Spreadsheet Package
Database Management System
Business Software ( ex: School Management System,
Inventory Management System, Payroll System, Financial
Accounting, Hotel Management, Reservation System)
 Language Processors
There are three types of Language Processors:
• Assembler: This language processor converts the program written
in Assembly language into machine language.

• Compiler: This converts HLL program into machine language in

one go.
After the compiler is not needed. It is removed from the
memory.Therefore, better memory utilization.

• Interpreter: This converts HLL program into machine language

by converting and executing it line by line.
It must be present In memory every time program is executed.
Therefore, unnecessary usage of memory.
 Fifth Generation

Fourth
Generation

Third Generation
(High Level Language)

Second Generation
(Assembly Language)

First Generation
(Machine Language)

Low Level Language

Need For Operating
System
To make computer system convenient to use
To use computer hardware in an efficient
manner
It decides
How to do?
What to do?
When to do?
Functions of Operating
System
• Processor Management
– Keep track of processor
– Decide which job should use the processor
– Allocate Processor
– Deallocate Processor
• File Management
– Keep track of files
– Decide which job should use the file and for what purpose
– Allocate the file for use
– Deallocate file after use
Functions of Operating System
• Device Management
– Keep track of devices
– Decide which job should use the processor
– Allocate Processor
– Deallocate Processor
• Memory Management
– Keep track of processor
– Decide which job should use the processor
– Allocate Processor
– Deallocate Processor
Types of Operating System
• Interactive (GUI)
• Time Sharing
• Real Time
• Distributed
FIRST GENERATION : Machine language
i.e. language of 0 and 1
SECOND GENERATION : Assembly language
Similar to English
Uses mnemonics codes
THIRD GENERATION : High Level Language
Very close to English
E.g. C, C++, Java, VB
FOURTH GENERATION : Languages for accessing
databases
FIFTH GENERATION : Uses a visual or graphical development
interface to create source
language that is usually compiled
with a 3GL or 4GL language
compiler Used mainly in artificial intelligence
research E.g. Prolog, OPS5, and Mercury
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A
COMPUTER
B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
(Block Diagram)

Secondary
Memory
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Input/Output

Secondary
Memory
INPUT UNIT
• Accepts data from outside world.
• Converts data into binary form acceptable to the
machine.
• Send data in binary form to computer for further
processing.
INPUT DEVICES

LIGHT PEN SCANNER

 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Input/Output

Terminal
– Simpler than a PC
– Designed strictly for input and output
– Has keyboard and screen
– Does not have a processor
– Connected to computer with telecommunication line
– Allows user to key data directly into computer

Page 28
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Input/Output
• Common input methods:
– Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) – used to
process bank checks
– Optical character recognition (OCR) – directly scans typed,
printed, or handwritten material
– Imaging – inputs digital form of documents and photos
– Bar code labeling – scans bar codes on packages or
products, and reads into computer

Page 29
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Input/Output

• Common output methods:

– Print – output to paper using various types of
printers
– Computer output microfilm (COM) – microfilm
generated for archive copies in small space
– Voice response units – computer recognizes
input, generates verbal response messages

Page 29
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Input/Output

…
t er est
Of in
Multimedia –
relatively new term for computer input and output
in the form of text, graphics, sound, still images,
animations, and/or video

Page 29
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Computer Memory

Secondary
Memory
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Computer Memory

Memory
– All data flows to and from memory
– Divided into cells:
• Each has a unique address
• Memory cell types:
– Byte – stores one character of data
– Word – stores two or more characters of data

Page 31
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Bits and Coding Schemes

• Each memory cell is a set of circuits

• Each circuit is on or off (represented by 1 or 0)
• Each circuit corresponds to a bit (binary digit)
• Most computers – 8 bits (circuits) represents a
character (byte)
• 2 common bit coding schemes used today:
– ASCII
– EBCDIC

Page 32
Bits and Coding Schemes

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

Figure 2.4 Computer Coding Schemes Page 32

 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Arithmetic/Logical Unit

Secondary
Memory
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Arithmetic/Logical Unit

• Consists of VLSI circuits

on a silicon chip
• Carries out:
– arithmetic – add, subtract,
multiply, divide …
– logical operations –
comparing two numbers

Page 33
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS of C OMPUTER
S YSTEMS
Computer Files
(Secondary Memory)

Secondary
Memory
 B ASIC C OMPONENTS OF
C OMPUTER S YSTEMS
Computer Files (Secondary Memory)
• When power is off, everything stored in Main memory is lost
• Computer files are used to store data for long term
• File storage devices (Secondary Memory) :
– Magnetic tape drives, disk drives, floppy drives
– Optical CD or DVD drives

Page 33
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
Computer Files

• Types of DASD
– Fixed (hard) drives

Figure 2.7 Diagram of a Magnetic Disk Drive Page 34

 BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
Computer Files (Secondary Memory)

• Types of DASD
– Removable:
• Floppy drives
• Zip drives
• Newest: portable
DASD for PCs –
keychain drive