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Sequence
A sequence is a function whose domain of definition is the set of natural
numbers.
Or it can also be defined as an ordered set.
Notation:
An infinite sequence is denoted as
{sn } or sn : n or s1, s2 , s3 ,... or simply as sn ,
n 1
Increasing Sequence
A sequence sn is said to be an increasing sequence if sn1 sn n 1 .
Decreasing Sequence
A sequence sn is said to be an decreasing sequence if sn1 sn n 1 .
Monotonic Sequence
A sequence sn is said to be monotonic sequence if it is either increasing or
decreasing.
s
sn is monotonically increasing if sn1 sn 0 or n1 1, n 1 .
sn
s
sn is monotonically decreasing if sn sn1 0 or n 1, n 1 .
sn1
Strictly Increasing or Decreasing
sn is called strictly increasing or decreasing according as
sn1 sn or sn1 sn n 1 .
Sequences and Series -2-
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Let p , p 1 and p 0 then for n 2 we have
1 p 1 np .
n
Proof:
We shall use mathematical induction to prove this inequality.
If n = 2
L.H.S (1 p)2 1 2 p p 2 ,
R.H.S 1 2 p ,
L.H .S R.H .S ,
i.e. condition I of mathematical induction is satisfied.
Suppose 1 p 1 kp .................. (i) where k 2
k
1 p 1 p 1 p
k 1 k
Now
1 p 1 kp using (i)
1 kp p kp 2
1 (k 1) p kp 2
1 (k 1) p ignoring kp 2 0 ,
1 p 1 k 1 p .
k 1
Since the truth for n k implies the truth for n k 1 therefore condition II of
mathematical induction is satisfied. Hence we conclude that 1 p 1 np .
n
Example:
1 n
Prove that 1 is an increasing sequence.
n
n
1
Let sn 1 where n 1 .
n
1
To prove that this sequence is an increasing sequence, we use p , n 2 in
n2
Bernoulli’s inequality to have
n
1 n
1 2 1 2
n n
n
1 1 1
1 1 1
n n n
1 n 1 n n 1 n 1
n 1
n
1 1 n 1
1 1 1
n n n n 1 n 1
sn sn1 n 1.
This shows that sn is increasing sequence.
Sequences and Series -3-
Example:
1
n 1
Bounded Sequence
A sequence sn is said to be bounded if there exists a positive real number
such that sn n .
If S and s are the supremum and infimum of elements forming the bounded
sequence sn we write S sup sn and s inf sn .
All the elements of the sequence sn such that sn n lie with in the
strip y : y . But the elements of the unbounded sequence can not be
contained in any strip of a finite width.
Examples
(1) n
(i) un is a bounded sequence
n
(ii) vn sin nx is also bounded sequence. Its supremum is 1 and infimum is 1 .
(iii) The geometric sequence ar n1 , r 1 is an unbounded above sequence. It is
bounded below by a.
n
(iv) tan is an unbounded sequence.
2
Convergence of the Sequence
A sequence sn of real numbers is said to convergent to limit ‘s’ as n , if
for every positive real number 0 , there exists a positive integer n0 , depending
upon , such that sn s n n0 .
Theorem
A convergent sequence of real number has one and only one limit (i.e. Limit of
the sequence is unique.)
Proof:
Suppose sn converges to two limits s and t, where s t .
s t
Put then there exits two positive integers n1 and n2 such that
2
sn s n n1
and sn t n n2 .
sn s and sn t hold simultaneously n max(n1, n2 ) .
Thus for all n max(n1, n2 ) we have
s t s sn sn t
sn s sn t
2
Sequences and Series -5-
s t
s t 2
2
s t s t
Which is impossible, therefore the limit of the sequence is unique.
Note: If sn converges to s then all of its infinite subsequence converge to s.
Cauchy Sequence
A sequence xn of real number is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for given
positive real number , a positive integer n0 ( ) such that
xn xm m, n n0
Theorem
A Cauchy sequence of real numbers is bounded.
Proof:
Let sn be a Cauchy sequence.
Take 1 , then there exits a positive integers n0 such that
sn sm 1 m, n n0 .
Fix m n0 1 then
sn sn sn0 1 sn0 1
sn sn0 1 sn0 1
1 sn0 1 n n0
n 1 , and 1 sn0 1 ( n0 changes as changes)
Hence we conclude that Sn is a Cauchy sequence, which is bounded one.
Note:
(i) Convergent sequence is bounded.
(ii) The converse of the above theorem does not hold.
i.e. every bounded sequence is not Cauchy.
Consider the sequence sn where sn (1)n , n 1 . It is bounded sequence because
(1)n 1 2 n 1.
But it is not a Cauchy sequence if it is then for 1 we should be able to find a
positive integer n0 such that sn sm 1 for all m, n n0 .
But with m 2k 1 , n 2k 2 when 2k 1 n0 , we arrive at
sn sm (1)2 n2 (1)2 k 1
11 2 1 is absurd.
Hence sn is not a Cauchy sequence. Also this sequence is not a convergent
sequence. (it is an oscillatory sequence).
……………………………
Sequences and Series -6-
Divergent Sequence
A sn is said to be divergent if it is not convergent or it is unbounded.
e.g. n is divergent, it is unbounded.
2
Note: If two subsequence of a sequence converges to two different limits then the
sequence itself is a divergent.
Theorem
If sn un tn n n0 and if both the sn and tn converge to same limits as
s, then the sequence un also converges to s.
Proof:
Since the sequence sn and tn converge to the same limit s, therefore, for
given 0 there exists two positive integers n1, n2 n0 such that
sn s n n1
tn s n n2
i.e. s sn s n n1
s tn s n n2
Since we have given
sn un tn n n0
s sn un tn s n max(n0 , n1, n2 )
s un s n max(n0 , n1, n2 )
i.e. un s n max(n0 , n1, n2 )
i.e. lim un s .
n
Example
1
Show that lim n 1n
n
Solution
Using Bernoulli’s Inequality
n
1 n
1 1 n 1 n.
n n
Also
2
1 1
2 n
n
n 2 1
1 1
n
n 1,
n
n n
Sequences and Series -7-
2
1
1
1 n 1
n
,
n
2
1
1
lim1 lim n lim 1
n
,
n n n
n
1
1 lim n 1.n
n
1
i.e. lim n 1 .n
n
……………………..
Example
1 1 1
Show that lim ............ 0
n ( n 1) 2 (n 2) 2 (2n) 2
Solution
Consider
1 1 1
sn
(n 1) (n 2)
2 2
(2n) 2
and
n n
s n
(2n)2 n2
1 1
sn
4n n
1 1
lim lim sn lim
n 4n n n n
0 lim sn 0
n
lim Sn 0
n
Theorem
If the sequence sn converges to s then a positive integer n
1
such that sn s .
2
Proof:
1
We fix s 0
2
a positive integer n1 such that
sn s for n n1
1
sn s s
2
Sequences and Series -8-
Now
1 1
s s s
2 2
s sn s s sn s
1
s sn .
2
Theorem
Let a and b be fixed real numbers if sn and tn converge to s and t
respectively, then
(i) asn btn converges to as + bt.
(ii) sn tn converges to st.
s s
(iii) n converges to , provided tn 0 n and t 0 .
tn t
Proof:
Since sn and tn converge to s and t respectively,
sn s n n1
tn t n n2
Also 0 such that sn n 1 ( sn is bounded )
(i) We have
asn btn as bt a sn s b tn t
a sn s b tn t
a b n max (n1, n2 )
1 ,
where 1 a b a certain number.
This implies asn btn converges to as + bt.
(ii) sn tn st sn tn sn t sn t st
sn tn t t sn s sn tn t t sn s
t n max (n1, n2 )
2 , where 2 t a certain number.
This implies sn tn converges to st.
1 1 t tn
(iii)
tn t tn t
tn t 1
1
n max (n1, n2 ) tn t
tn t 2 t t 2
Sequences and Series -9-
2
3 , where 3 2
a certain number.
1 t 1 t
2 2
1 1
This implies converges to .
tn t
s 1 1 s
Hence n sn converges to s . from (ii)
tn tn t t
Theorem
For each irrational number x, there exists a sequence rn of distinct rational
numbers such that lim rn x .
n
Proof:
Since x and x + 1 are two different real numbers
a rational number r1 such that
x r1 x 1
Similarly a rational number r2 r1 such that
1
x r2 min r1 , x x 1
2
Continuing in this manner we have
1
x r3 min r2 , x x 1
3
1
x r4 min r3 , x x 1
4
……………………………..........
……………………………..........
……………………………..........
1
x rn min rn1 , x x 1
n
This implies that a sequence rn of the distinct rational number such that
1 1
x x rn x .
n n
Since
1 1
lim x lim x x .
n
n n n
Therefore
lim rn x .
n
Sequences and Series - 10 -
Theorem
Let a sequence sn be a bounded sequence.
(i) If sn is monotonically increasing then it converges to its supremum.
(ii) If sn is monotonically decreasing then it converges to its infimum.
Proof
Let S sup sn and s inf sn
Take 0
(i) Since S sup sn
sn0 such that S sn0
Since sn is ( stands for monotonically increasing )
S sn0 sn S S for n n0
S sn S for n n0
sn S for n n0
lim sn S
n
(ii) Since s inf Sn
sn1 such that sn1 s
Since sn is . ( stands for monotonically decreasing )
s s sn sn1 s for n n1
s sn s for n n1
sn s for n n1
Thus lim sn s
n
Note
A monotonic sequence can not oscillate infinitely.
Example:
1 n
Show that 1 is bounded sequence.
n
1 n
Consider sn 1
n
As shown earlier it is an increasing sequence
2n n
1 1
Take s2 n 1 , then s2 n 1 ,
2n 2n
n n
1 2n 1 1
1
s2 n 2n 1 s2 n 2n 1
Using Bernoulli’s Inequality we have
Sequences and Series - 11 -
n
1
1
n
1
n
1 1 1 1 n
s2 n 2n 1 2n 2 2n 1 2n 1
s2 n 2 n 1,2,3,
s2 n 4 n 1,2,3,
sn s2n 4 n 1,2,3,
Which show that the sequence sn is bounded one.
Hence sn is a convergent sequence the number to which it converges is its
supremum, which is denoted by ‘e’ and 2 e 3 .
Recurrence Relation
A sequence is said to be defined recursively or by recurrence relation if the
general term is given as a relation of its preceding and succeeding terms in the
sequence together with some initial condition.
Example:
1
Let t1 0 and let tn be defined by tn1 2 for n 1 .
tn
(i) Show that tn is decreasing sequence.
(ii) It is bounded below.
(iii) Find the limit of the sequence.
1
Let t1 0 and let tn be defined by tn1 2 ; n 1
tn
tn 0 n 1
1
Also tn tn1 tn 2
tn
tn2 2tn 1 tn 1
2
0.
tn tn
tn tn1 n 1.
This implies that tn is monotonically decreasing.
Since tn 1 n 1,
tn is bounded below tn is convergent.
Let us suppose lim tn t .
n
1
Then lim tn1 lim tn lim 2 lim tn
n n n tn n
1 2t 1
2 t t 2t 1 t 2 t 2 2t 1 0
t t
t 1 0 t 1.
2
Sequences and Series - 12 -
Theorem
Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers has a convergent subsequence.
Proof:
Suppose sn is a Cauchy sequence.
Let 0 then a positive integer n0 1 such that
snk snk 1 nk , nk 1, k 1,2,3,.........
2k
Put
bk sn1 sn0 s s
sn2 sn1 nk nk 1
bk s n1 sn0 s s s s
n2 n1 nk nk 1
s n1 sn0 s s s s
n2 n1 nk nk 1
2
2 2 2k
1 1 1
2 k
2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1k
1
1 k
1 12 2
bk k 1
bk is convergent
bk snk sn0 snk bk sn0 ,
where sn0 is a certain fix number therefore snk which is a subsequence of sn is
convergent.
Sufficient Condition
Let us suppose that sn is a Cauchy sequence then for 0 , a positive
integer m1 such that
sn sm n, m m1 ……….. (i)
2
Since sn is a Cauchy sequence
therefore it has a subsequence snk converging to s (say).
a positive integer m2 such that
snk s n m2 ……….. (ii)
2
Now
sn s sn snk snk s
sn snk snk s
n max(m1, m2 ) ,
2 2
this shows that sn is a convergent sequence.
Example
1 1 1
Prove that 1 ............... is divergent sequence.
2 3 n
Let tn be defined by
1 1 1
tn 1 ............... .
2 3 n
For m, n , n m we have
1 1 1
tn tm .............
m 1 m 2 n
1 m
( n m) = 1 .
n n
In particular if n 2m then
1
tn tm .
2
This implies that tn is not a Cauchy sequence therefore it is divergent.
Sequences and Series - 14 -
1
bn an (b1 a1 ) 0 as n .
2n
we have a unique point s such that
s an , bn
there are infinitely many terms of the sequence whose length is 0 that contain s.
For 1 there are infinitely many values of n such that
sn s 1
Let n1 be one of such value then
sn1 s 1
Again choose n2 n1 such that
1
sn2 s
2
Continuing in this manner we find a sequence snk for each positive integer k such
that nk nk 1 and
1
snk s k 1,2,3,............
k
Hence there is a subsequence snk which converges to s.
Note:
(i) A bounded sequence has unique limit inferior and superior
(ii) Let sn contains all the rational numbers, then every real number is a
subsequencial limit then limit superior of sn is and limit inferior of sn is
1
(iii) Let sn (1)n 1
n
then limit superior of sn is 1 and limit inferior of sn is 1 .
Sequences and Series - 16 -
1
(iv) Let sn 1 cos n .
n
Then uk inf sn : n k
1 1 1
inf 1 cos k , 1 cos( k 1) , 1 cos( k 2) ,................
k k 1 k 2
1
1 k cos k if k is odd
1 1 cos( k 1) if k is even
k 1
lim inf sn lim uk 1
n n
Also vk supsn : n k
1
1 cos(k 1) if k is odd
k 1
1 1 cos k if k is even
k
lim inf sn lim vk 1
n n
Theorem
If sn is a convergent sequence then
lim sn lim inf sn lim sup sn
n n n
Proof:
Let lim sn s then for a real number 0 , a positive integer n0 such that
n
sn s n n0 ……….. (i)
i.e. s sn s n n0
If vk supsn : n k
Then s vn s k n0
s lim vn s k n0 …………. (ii)
k
from (i) and (ii) we have
s lim supsn
k
We can have the same result for limit inferior of sn by taking
uk inf sn : n k .