CE 30148331- Foundation Design

Chapter 4
Site Exploration and Characterization

Dr. Shadi Hanandeh

Al- Balqa' Applied University

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 Chapter 4
Site Exploration and Characterization

Three Categories:
1- Site Investigation: defining the soil profile
and recovering soil samples

2- Laboratory Testing

3- In-Situ Testing
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 Chapter 4
Site Exploration and Characterization

The Objectives:
1 Determining the location and thickness of each
soil strata
2 Determining the location of groundwater table
and other related characteristics
3 Recovering soil samples for testing and
evaluation
4 Conducting tests, either in the field or in the
lab, to measure relevant engineering properties
5 Defining special problems and concerns 1. 3
 Field Exploration
• Site Boring Layout
• Test Boring Methods.
• Number and Frequency of Borings
• Depth, Sampling Methods and Field Testing
 Example of Boring Layout

The boring layout is generally selected based on experience and engineering judgment.
This is an example of a layout we try to have at least one boring on each corner of the
project layout, with a number of borings at the center.
Figure 4.4 A boring log. Samples 2 and 4 were obtained using a heavy-wall sampler, and the
corresponding blowcounts are the number of hammer blows required to drive the sampler.
Samples 1, 3, and 5 are standard penetration tests, and the corresponding blowcounts are
the N60 values, as discussed later in this chapter. If the groundwater table had been
encountered, it would have been shown on the log.
From the different boring you will be able to provide the designer with the soil profile in
the project location. Based on these 3 borings, B1, B5, and B4, you are able to bore a
general cross section of the variations of the soil between the different borings.
 Subsurface Exploration/Sampling
Borehole Spacing
Site conditions/uniformity
type of structure (bridge, building, landfill)
typically one borehole/2500 ft2
Borehole Depths
Magnitude of loading/soil conditions

To determine how frequent you boring should be, you need to have an idea about the
general site conditions and its uniformity and the type of structure you are building. This
table presents the structure footprint that is covered by each boring (how strong your soil
is determines how much you can bore).
To determine how deep your borehole should be you may use these empirical relations,
which relates the depth of the boring to the number of stories and the anticipated depth of
the foundation.
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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

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 Boring Methods
• Subsurface Drilling
• Continuous Auger Drilling
• Solid Stem Auger
• Hollow Stem Auger
• Rotary Mud-Drilling
• Coring
 Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

The heart of site investigation

Exploratory Boring:
– Drilling a serious of vertical holes in the
ground (known as borings or exploratory
borings)
– Typically (3” to 24”) dia and (7’ to 100’)
deep
Small, shallow borings → can be drilled
with light weight, hand-operated augers.
– For boring depth ≤ 13 ft (4 m)
– (or portable power-operated equipment)
Auger Drilling
Bring the loose soil from the
bottom of the hole to the surface.
Soil samples are highly-disturbed.
Can be conducted using a solidstem
or hollow-stem augers.
Can detect the change in soil type
by the change in penetration
speed and the sound of drilling.
 Auger Drilling
Solid-Stem Auger:
Auger must be withdrawn toobtain soil samples
and conductother tests.

Hollow Stem Auger

Casing with outer spiral

For sampling, remove plug and
insert sampler
Typically 5ft sections
Maximum depth 60-150ft
Prevent caving and squeezing.
Hollow-Stem Augers
Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

Deep borings → can be drilled using a truck-

mounted drill rigs (heavy equipment)
– For boring depth up to ≈ 100 ft (30 m)
– Some can drill to 200 ft (60 m) deep
Augers: - Flight auger
- Bucket auger

Flight Auger Bucket Auger

Subsurface Exploration and Sampling
In case of cavity or squeezing → lateral support
is needed
– Casing
– Hollow-stem auger
– Rotary wash boring: using bentonite slurry
(bentonite clay + water) to provide hydrostatic
pressure on the sides of the boring.
 Rotary Mud-Drilling

1- Rotary Mud-Drilling:
- The drilling "mud," a mixture of
water and bentonite, is
circulated through the tank.

- The mud is pumped down the

drill stem to the hole bottom,
where it picks up soil cuttings
and carries them to the surface
and into the tank.

-The mud also serves to support

the borehole walls
 Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

The heart of site investigation

Exploratory Boring:
– Drilling a serious of vertical holes in the
ground (known as borings or exploratory
borings)
– Typically (3” to 24”) dia and (7’ to 100’)
deep
Small, shallow borings → can be drilled
with light weight, hand-operated augers.
– For boring depth ≤ 13 ft (4 m)
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– (or portable power-operated equipment)
 Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

Deep borings → can be drilled using a truck-

mounted drill rigs (heavy equipment)
– For boring depth up to ≈ 100 ft (30 m)
– Some can drill to 200 ft (60 m) deep
Augers: - is held vertically on the ground , it is pressed and rotate
1- Flight auger 2- Bucket auger

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Flight Auger Bucket Auger

Subsurface Exploration and Sampling
In case of cavity or squeezing → lateral support
is needed
– Casing
– Hollow-stem auger
– Rotary wash boring: using bentonite slurry
(bentonite clay + water) to provide hydrostatic
pressure on the sides of the boring.

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Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

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 Coring

Necessary if bedrock is
encountered during drilling.

A diamond core bit is attached to

a core barrel

The core is advanced by rotary

drilling.

Water must be circulated during

coring, and the cuttings are
washed out.
Coring of Rocks

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Coring of Rocks

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Coring of Rocks

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 RQD

• Rock Quality Designation index, or RQD, was introduced by Don Deere in

1963. It judges rock quality based solely on measurements of recovered
rock core (above left) in 10 foot increments, based on percent recovery and
percentage of the pieces longer than 4 inches.
 RQD
• RQD = Σ pieces > 4” long (100)
total length cored

• 100-90 Excellent
• 90-75 Good
• 75-50 Fair
• 50-25 Poor
• <25 Very poor
the reported RQD value varies along the scan
line of the recovered core
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 Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

Soil Sampling:
The primary purpose of drilling the exploratory
borings is to obtain representative soil samples
→ to determine soil profile and to perform
laboratory tests to evaluate the engineering
properties of soils.
Soil Properties:
– Shear strength properties,
– Compressibility properties,
– Atterberg limits (LL, PL, IP, IL),
– Gs, grain size distribution, hydrometer test. 38
Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

In order to evaluate the shear strength

parameters and compressibility of cohesive
soils → we need undisturbed soil samples,
Soil Samples:
– Undisturbed (represent the soil in the field)
– Disturbed (bulk /remolded samples)
However, it is almost impossible to obtain
undisturbed samples due to the following factors:
1) Relief of confined soil stress (σc), causes
unkown lateral expansion of sample
(esample ≠ efield) 39
Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

2) Volume displacement of the soil caused by the

wall thickness of the sampler,
• Volume of soil displaced:

• L = penetration length of the sample

• Area ratio, , Ar
Volumeof soildisplaced D 2o- - D2i
Ar = =
Volumeof collectedsoil Di2 40

• To minimize disturbance → Ar ≤ 10%

Example

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Subsurface Exploration and Sampling

3) Shearing and compressing of soil sample

• L r = recovery ratio

Length of recoveredsample (actual length)

Lr = L
Theoreticallength of recoveredsample
1 (side friction = 0)
• Lr = > 1 (expansion)
< 1 (side friction and compression of soil sample)
< 0.5 NOT GOOD SAMPLE

4) Possible drying and desiccation

5) Vibrating the sample during recovery and 42
transportation.
 Subsurface Exploration and Sampling
Methods to obtain high-quality samples

1- Standard Split Spoon Samplers

2- Shelby Tube Samples: thin-wall sampler: 3”
outside dia and 1/16” wall thickness, 3 ft long.
Usually used in cohesive soils.
3- Heavy-wall Sampler: for sand soils, different
sizes are used. The sampler can be opened to
retrieve soil and liners → called split barrel
sampler.

4- Piston Samplers
 Standard Split Spoon Samplers
A steel tube with an inside
and outside diameters of
34.9mm and 50.8mm.

- Sampling tube is split

along the length

- Hammered into the ground

- Number of blows required

to drive the sampler
through three 152.4mm
intervals is recorded.
 Shelby Tube (Thin-wall)
Samplers
• Thin wall (1/16in) sampling
• tube (Di=1.875in and Do=2in)
• " Sampler pushed into the soil
• hydraulically
• " Sampler with the soil inside is
• sealed and taken to the lab.
• " Fairly undisturbed soil
• samples.
 Piston Samplers
Minimizes sample
disturbance caused by backpressure
-The sampler is lowered to
the bottom of the borehole
-The thin wall tube is pushed
into the soil hydraulically.
- The pressure is then
released through a hole in
the piston.
 Heavy-Wall Samplers
-Thicker walls provide
better strength &
durability
-However, it creates more
disturbance
- Sampler pounded into
the ground
 Subsurface Exploration and Sampling
Methods to obtain high-quality samples

1- Shelby Tube Samples: thin-wall sampler: 3”

outside dia and 1/16” wall thickness, 3 ft long.
Usually used in cohesive soils.

2- Heavy-wall Sampler: for sand soils, different

sizes are used. The sampler can be opened to
retrieve soil and liners → called split barrel
sampler.

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 In-Situ Testing
The effect of soil disturbance can be significant on
laboratory testing,
→ In-situ testing is an alternative to laboratory testing of
pre-assumed “undisturbed” soil samples.
Advantages of In-situ Tests:
– Less expensive, more tests can be performed →
more details,
– Testing soil under in-situ stress condition,
– Test results are available immediately.
Disadvantages:
– No sample is obtained → soil classification difficult?
Depends on in-situ data
– Engineers has less control over confining stresses 49
and drainage
 In-Situ Testing
1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
2) Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and (PCPT or CPTu)
3) Vane Shear Test (VST)
4) Dilatometer Test (DMT)
5) Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
6) Becker Penetration Test
7) Plate Load Test (PLT)

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 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
SPT is the most popular and economical in-situ
test to get information for foundation design.
Equipment:
– Sampler (split-spoon sampler),
– Hammer 140 lb (63.5 kg),
Test Procedure:
Drill boring with dia of (2.5-8 in)(60 to 200mm) to the depth of the test,
Insert the SPT split-spoon sampler which is connected
with steel rods to hammer with 63.5 kg into boring,
Raise the hammer a distance of (760 mm) 30” and allow it to fall.
Repeat the process until the sampler has penetrated a
distance of (460 mm) 18”. Record the number of blows required
for each 6” interval.
Stop test if more than 50 blows are required for any interval, or more than51 one hundred
total blows required (refusal),
Compute N value required to penetrate the last (305 mm) 12“.
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
140lb Hammer
30in free fall
Drive sampler over 18 inches
Record no. of blows per each 6 inch penetration
-SPT blow count=blows for 2nd 6 inch penetration +
blows for 3rd 6inch penetration.
-SPT blow count = standard penetration number, N.
-Conducted at 5ft intervals.

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Standard Penetration Test
 Standard Penetration Test

Figure 4.18 The SPT sampler in place in the boring

with hammer, rope, and cathead.
Source: Adapted from Kovacs et al., 1981.
Standard Penetration Test

This corrected blowcount is referred to as “N60 “,

because the original SPT (Mohr) hammer has about 60% efficiency,
and this is the “standard” to which other blowcount values are compared
N60 is given as

Corrections of Test Data

N60 = EmCBCSCRN
0.6
N60 = SPT N value corrected for field procedure,
Em = hammer efficiency y ( (Table 4.3) )
CB = borehole diameter correction (Table 4.4)
CS = sampler correction (Table 4.4) 55
CR = rod length correction (Table 4.4)
N = measured SPT N value
Standard Penetration Test
Standard Penetration Test
Standard Penetration Test
Figure 4.19 Types of SPT hammers.
 Standard Penetration Test
Correction for Overburden Pressure

200lb/ft3 100kPa
(N1)60 = N60  = N60   2N60
 zo  zo

Correlation with Relative Density

cP = 60+25log(D50)
(N1)60 100%
Dr = cA =1.2+0.05log( t 100
)
cPcAcOCR
cOCR = (OCR)0.18
Dr = relative density;
cP = grain size correction factor; cA = aging correction
factor; ; cOCR = overconsolidation correction factor; ;
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D50 = grain size at which 50% of soil finer (mm); t = age of
soil (time since deposition).
 Standard Penetration Test

Relative Density, Dr (%) – for granular soils:

n 0’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m2 (also
called vertical effective stress)
n D50 = sieve size through which 50% of soil will pass
in mm.

Correlation with Relative Density

(N1)60 100%
Dr =
cPcAcOCR

Term used to indicate the in-situ denseness or looseness of granular soil.

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 Standard Penetration Test
Correction with Shear Strength
N60 versus  ’ (effective friction angle) for
uncemented sands, for depths > 7 ft (Fig
4.11).
Schmertmann (1975):

 12.2 + 20.3 σ

 vo

1 atm = 14.6956 psi = 760 torr = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar =101.325 kPa

Hatanaka and Uchide (1996):

Standard Penetration Test

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Standard Penetration Test

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 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Mechanical cone versus electrical cone – both

truck mounted.
CPT: cylindrical rod with 60o cone apex angle
penetrates at the rate of 2 cm/sec

Measurements:

Cone tip resistance (qc)

– Sleeve friction (fs),
– Porewater pressure (PCPT): 66

– u1 - at the cone tip, u2 - behind the base,

u3 – behind the sleeve.
• Mechanical cone measure at 20 cm interval
• Electrical cone – Built in strain gauge able
to measure qc and fs continuously.
• CPT define the soil much greater than SPT

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Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Base area = 10 cm2
Penetration Rate: 2 cm/sec Sleeve area = 150 cm2
Cone angle = 60o

U3
Sleeve

fs

U2
U1
qc
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 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Tip 10 cm2

U2
Tip 15 cm2 10 cm2
Sleeve
U1 U3
Standard piezocones 15 cm2

2 cm2 Mini-cones
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Range of CPT probes (from left: 2 cm2 , 10 cm2 , 15 cm2 , 40 cm2 )

 Typical PCPT Test Results
Tip Resistance (MPa) Sleeve Friction (MPa) Rf (%) Pore Pressure (MPa)
0 2 4 6 8 10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0 2 4 6 8 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 0 0 0

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
epth (m) De
1 1
u2
2 2
u1
3 3
4 4 U3
5 5 Tip
6 6
fs

7 7 7 7
U2
8 8 8 8 U1
9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10 qc
11 11 11 11 1.80 Base
12 12 12 12 1.60

13 1.40
13 13 13

re Pressure (MPa) Por

1.20
14 14 14 14
1.00
15 15 15 15 0.80
16 16 16 16 0.60

0.40
0.20 72
fs 100% 0.00
Rf = -0.20
qc 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (sec)
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

Application of CPT and PCPT Test

Soil classification & stratification
Evaluation of undrained shear strength (su)
Evaluation of resilient modulus (Mr)
Evaluation of consolidation parameters (cv, OCR,
etc.)
Prediction of embankment settlement
Prediction of ultimate pile capacity

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 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Soil Classification:
– Different approaches are available to classify the
solil from CPT data,
– General:
Sand: Rf < 1%; clay: Rf > 1 %, and peat: Rf > 5-6%
Available CPT classification methods:
Schmertmann (1978)
Douglas and Olsen (1981)
Robertson et al. (1983, 1991)
Probabilistic region estimation method (Zhang &
Tumay 1999)
Fuzzy classification method (Zhang & Tumay 1999)
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correction for tip resistance
• When pore pressure is collected, referred to as piezocone or CPTu sounding. Three
basic measurements qc, fs, u2.
• qc is typically corrected for pore pressure effects (qt).
• Because of the geometry of the cone penetrometer, the pore pressure just
behind the cone,u2, will affect the qc measured and qc must be corrected by
the following equation

where a is net area ratio of tip, ranges from 0.6 to 0.8 depending on probe design.
• Normalization for overburden stress.
Qt = (qt-σvo)/σ′vo
Fr = 100%[fs/(qt-σvo)]
Bq = (u2-u0)/(qt-σvo) = pore pressure parameter

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correction for tip resistance

• Normalization for overburden stress.

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 Correlation with Soil Behavior Type

• The CPT does not recover any soil samples during penetration. However, there are well- accepted
methods for evaluating soil behavior type (SBT) from the test data. Soil behavior type is slightly
different from standard soil classification, such as that from the Unified Soil ClassificationSystem, but
it could be argued that SBT is actually more useful than USCS. Robertson (2010) presents an updated
normalized SBT (SBTn) chart as shown in Figure 4.23. In this chart, the SBTn depends on normalized
CPT parameters Qtn and Fr. If n = 1, Qtn and Frcan readily be determined using Equations 4.15 and
4.16. If n ≠ 1, an iterative procedure is used to first compute n as follows (Robertson and Cabal, 2012):

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correction should be applied to the sleeve friction

fs = measured sleeve friction

u2 = water pressure at base of sleeve
u3 = water pressure at top of sleeve
As = surface area of sleeve
Asb = cross-section area of sleeve at base
Ast = cross-sectional area of sleeve at top

• However, the ASTM standard requires that cones have an equal end area
friction sleeve (i.e. Ast = Asb) that reduces the need for such a correction.
For 15cm2 cones, where As is large compared to Asb and Ast, (and Ast =
Asb) the correction is generally small. All cones should have equal end
area friction sleeves to minimize the effect of water pressure on the sleeve
friction measurements. Careful monitoring of the zero load readings is
also required.

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 CPT Classification

and
Cemented Sannd

Silty Sandd ity S

Sands, Limerocks Very Shell

Dense or

Silty Clay
ey S
Clay

tl
Si
&
nd
Sa
s
ey ay
ay Cl
Cl
anic Clay Orga

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Friction Ratio (%)

Schmertmann (1978) Douglas & Olsen (1981)82

 CPT Classification

1. Sensitive fine grained, 2. Organic material, 3. Clay, 4. Silty clay to clay, 5. Clayey silt to
silty clay, 6. Sandy silt to clayey silt, 7. Silty sand to sandy silt, 8. Sand to silty sand, 9.
Sand, 10. Gravelly sand to sand, 11. Very stiff fine grained, 12. Sand to clayey sand.
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Robertson et al. (1983)
 CPT Classification

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Probabilistic Region Estimation Method

 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Correction with Relative Density

 qc  2000lb/ ft2
Dr =    100%
0.18   zo
315QcOCR  
Qc: compressibility factor
= 0.91 for highly compressible sands
= 1.00 for moderately compressible sands
= 1.09 for slightly compressible sands
Correlation with Shear Strength
qc vo
Su =
Nk
Su = undrained shear strength 85
Nk = cone tip factor (10 to 20, av.=15)
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Correction between qc and φ’ for sand (NC)
For OC soil: subtract 1 – 2o
Kulhaway & Mayne (1990)

1
   cq
   + =   log 0.38 0.1 tan 
 σvo 

Modulus of Elasticity (Es): 86

Es= 3q for sands

Es= 7q for clay
 Vane Shear Test (VST)
Consists of inserting a metal vane into the soil
and rotating it until the soil fails in shear
Used to estimate the undrained shear strength
(Su) of soft to medium cohesive soils

6 Tf
Su =
7 d3
Tf = torque at failure
d = diameter of vane
λ = empirical correction
factor (0.6 – 1.2)

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Vane Shear Test (VST)

6 Tf
Su =
7 d3
Tf = torque at failure
d = diameter of vane
λ = empirical correction
factor (0.6 – 1.2)

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 Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
The pressuremeter is a cylindrical balloon that is inserted
into the ground (into pre-bored hole) and inflated
Measuring of volume and pressure to estimate in-situ
stress, compressibility, and strength of soil
PMT provides more direct measurements of soil
compressibility and lateral stresses than SPT and CPT.

Reloading Elastic Plastic

region region region

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 Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure, ko
Po
ko =
σ vo
The stress-strain elastic modulus, Es
∆P
Es = 2(1+ ν)Vo
∆V
Some correlations
Pc = 0.45Pl (preconsolidation pressure)
Pl Po
Su = (undrainedshearstrength)
Np
 Ep  90
Np =1+ln    empiricalvalue(5-12,av.=8.5)
3Su 
 Dilatometer Test (DMT)
Test Procedure
Insert the dilatometer into soil to the desired depth
Apply nitrogen gas pressure to the membrane. Record
the pressure required to move center of membrane
(0.05 mm) into soil (PA) and that required to move its
center (1.1 mm) into the soil (PB).
Depressurize the membrane and record the
pressure acting on the membrane when it
returns to its origin position (PC) and it is
a measure of porewater pressure in the soil.
membrane

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 Dilatometer Test (DMT)

Dilatometer Modulus: ED =34.7(PB -PA)

PA u
HorizontalStress Index: kD =
 vo 
PB -PA
MaterialIndex: ID =
PB u

Correlations
Classification
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure, ko,
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR,
Modulus of elasticity, E, or constrained modulus,
92
M.
 Dilatometer Test (DMT)
Some Correlations from DMT (Marchetti, 1980)
0.47
 kD 
a) ko =  -0.6
1.5
b) OCR =(0.5kD)1.6

c) Su = 0.22
 vo 
 Su   Su  ( (0.5kD)1251.25
d)   = 
vo OC σvo NC

e) E =(1- 2)ED 93
 Becker Penetration Test

For very large grained soils (gravel, cobbles, &

boulders)
Becker hammer drill → pile driving hammer used to
drive a 135 mm (5.3 3”) to 230 mm (9”) diameter
double-wall steel casing into the ground
Calculate penetration resistance
Becker blow count, NB = number of blows to dive
casing 12” (300 mm).

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 Plate Load Test

Circular or square plates

6” → 30” dia, (1’×1’) square
Considered as a model footing
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 Plate Load Test

Bf Bf
qf = qP Sf =SP
BP BP

Housel (1929) has suggested that the bearing

capacity of a footing on cohesive soils (c,  ) as:
V = A.q+P.S

V = total load on bearing area A

A = contact area of footing (or plate) From 2 PLT → q, S
P = perimeter of footing →Use it for footing
q= bearing pressure beneath A 97

S = perimeter shear
 Overconsolidation Ratio
• Correlation with SPT Data For OCR in sands,
silty sands, and sandy silts, Mayne (2007)
gives

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 Overconsolidation Ratio
• Correlation with CPT Data For OCR in sands,
silty sands, and sandy silts, Mayne (2007)
gives

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 Overconsolidation Ratio
• Correlation with CPT DaCorrelation with DMT

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 Overconsolidation Ratio
• Correlation with CPT Data For OCR in sands,
silty sands, and sandy silts, Mayne (2007)
gives

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 Economical Consideration

In summary, when it comes to situ investigation, the more extensive the investigation the
higher the cost. However, the cost of construction will decrease as better planning102is done.
There is an optimal value that will minimize the total cost of the project and that should be
your target value.
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