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Irrigation System of Pakistan PDF
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Project and Report 1 Irrigation System of Pakistan
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Project and Report 1 Irrigation System of Pakistan
Declaration
We hereby declare that contents of this report ―Irrigation System of Pakistan‖ are the product of
our own study and no part as been copied from any published source (Except the references,
tables, figures etc.). We further declare that this work has not been submitted for award of any
other diploma /degree.
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Dedicated
To
Our Guide
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to ALLAH, lord of all the worlds, the most Affectionate, the most Merciful, who
taught writing by pen, taught me what I knew not. After the Almighty Allah, all praise and
thanks to the Holly Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Who is forever a model of guidance and
knowledge for humanity.
If there were dreams to sell, marry and sad to tell and crier rings the bell, what would you
buy? , we will say that ―University Charming Days‖. Actually it is impossible, but it shows my
blind love to this institution which is homeland of knowledge, wisdom and intellectuality. We
are proud of being the students of this university.
The work presented in this manuscript was accomplished under the sympathetic attitude,
fatherly behavior, animate direction, observant pursuit, scholarly criticism, cheering perspective
and enlightened supervision of Prof. Dr. Allah Bakhash, Dean Faculty of Agricultural
Engineering and Technology UAF. His thorough analysis and rigorous critique improved not
only improve the quality of this dissertation, but also our overall understanding in irrigation
system of Pakistan. We are grateful to his ever inspiring guidance, keen interest, scholarly
comments and constructive suggestions throughout the course of our studies.
May Allah almighty infuse us with the energy to fulfill his noble inspiration and expectation and
to further modify our competence. May Allah bless him with long happy and peaceful life
(Aameen).
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Contents
History of Irrigation...............................................................................................12
1.1 What is Irrigation?............................................................................................................................. 12
1.1.1 Objectives of Irrigation: ............................................................................................................. 12
1.1.2 Water Resources for Irrigation: ................................................................................................. 12
1.2 History of Irrigation in World: ........................................................................................................... 13
1.3 History of Irrigation in Sub-Continent:.............................................................................................. 14
1.4 Irrigation in Pakistan: ........................................................................................................................ 15
1.5 Irrigation System: .............................................................................................................................. 15
1.5.1 Components of Irrigation System: ............................................................................................. 16
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ABSTRACT
Pakistan is an agricultural country and its irrigation system relies heavily on availability of fresh
surface water. Pakistan has the world largest continuous irrigation system with three major
storage reservoirs, 19 barrages, 12 link canals, 46 main canals and thousands of hydraulic
structures. This was initiated in the last century and continuous to expand with more area coming
under canal irrigation.
This report takes stock of the present situation of water-resources, present needs and future
requirements; the challenges imposed, and suggest short, medium, and long-term strategies to
cope with the situation. The suggested short-term strategies include starting a mass-awareness
campaign, propagation of high-efficiency irrigation systems, changes in cropping-patterns,
identification of feasible surface-water storage sites and dams, and activation of water-user
organizations. The medium-term strategies suggest giving priority to lining of distributaries,
minors and watercourses in saline groundwater areas, construction of small dams and installation
of tube wells in technically feasible areas, improving flood and drought- forecasting methods,
and a much wider application of conjunctive water-use approach and propagation of high-
efficiency irrigation systems. Institutional reforms for better co-ordination and a wider
formulation of a national water-policy are other priority areas under the medium-term strategic
plan. Long term strategies include formulation of a regulatory framework on groundwater
abstraction, construction of large storage dams, better flood and drought-forecasting mechanisms
and resolving water-distribution problems between provinces. It is recommended that a National
Commission on Water, supported by an expert‘s panel, be created to steer the formulation of the
strategies and ensure the implementation of the strategies proposed.
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Chapter No. 01
History of Irrigation
1. Surface Water.
2. Rainfall/Precipitation.
3. Groundwater.
Surface water is diverted to the fields by the use of rivers, canals, channels etc.
Rainfall/Precipitation may directly fall into the fields; groundwater is abstracted from soil and
diverted to the fields.
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History of irrigation in the world is very old. Archaeological investigation has identified
evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops. Perennial
irrigation was practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly watered
throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in
the field.
Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate
land plots which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile
sediment had settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse. There is evidence of the
ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the
natural lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry
seasons, the lake swelled annually from flooding of the Nile, (Wikipedia).
In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and
civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding and
water harvesting, (Wikipedia).
Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley
was grown in areas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support such a
crop. The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known
irrigation methods still in use today. They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North
Africa. The system comprises a network of vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into
the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tap groundwater. The noria, a water wheel with clay pots
around the rim powered by the flow of the stream (or by animals where the water source was
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still), was first brought into use at about this time, by Roman settlers in North Africa. By 150
BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother filling as they were forced into the water.
The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCE, in
the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development for the next thousand years,
were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground
canals, the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to
their engineering superiority in this sector, they were often called ―masters of irrigation‖. Most of
these irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa,
because of the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and
further extended during the reign of King Parakrama Bahu (1153–1186 CE), (Wikipedia).
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forms the nucleus of Upper Bari Doab canal was constructed by Ali Mardan Khan, an engineer
and governor of Punjab.
Upper Bari Doab canal at Madhopur headwork was constructed in 1858 and started
irrigation about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from
Ravi‖ (Biswas, 1992pp.202).
In the middle of the 19th century when British took control there were only a few
inundation canals in Sub-Continent. By the end of 19th century a number of separate inundation
systems were developed for each river. At the end of 19th century efforts were also made to
construct a weir controlled irrigation system. The inundation systems were merged with various
perennial irrigation schemes when they were completed.
relatively high in order to irrigate more land with low cropping intensities. Another design
objective was to keep the administrative and operational requirements and cost as low as possible
and therefore the number of control structures in the canals was kept to a minimum. The
irrigation intensity was also kept low at an average of 75 percent. This design practice is known
as protective irrigation (Jurriens 1993, Jurriens et al. 1996).
Watershed receive rainfall and contributes to the formation of river, dams and barrages are
storage structures and rise the head of water, link canals deliver water from one river to another
river, main canal takes its supply from river and water of main canal is used for irrigation
through branch, major, minor and watercourse. In next pages we will discuss these components
of an irrigation system one by one.
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References:
Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September
1993.
Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development
Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.
Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development
Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.
http://www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/
Dillehay TD, Eling HH Jr, Rossen J (2005). "Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian
Andes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (47): 17241
4.doi:10.1073/pnas.0508583102. PMC 1288011.PMID 16284247
Snyder, R. L.; Melo-Abreu, J. P. (2005). "Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and
economics" (PDF). Volume 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. ISSN 1684-8241
Siebert, S.; J. Hoogeveen, P. Döll, J-M. Faurès, S. Feick, and K. Frenken (2006-11-
10). "Tropentag 2006 – Conference on International Agricultural Research for
Development" (PDF). Bonn, Germany. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
Provenzano, Giuseppe (2007). "Using HYDRUS-2D Simulation Model to Evaluate
Wetted Soil Volume in Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems". J. Irrig. Drain Eng. 133 (4):
342–350.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(342)
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Chapter No. 02
2.1 Introduction:
Pakistan‘s Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the strong heart of the country‘s
economy. Its creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original
system (1847-1947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and
institutions (particularly the Water and Power Development Authority [WAPDA] and the
provincial irrigation departments) who have spent the last 60 years adding new dams and
barrages, building new link and branch canals, and modernizing and maintaining the world‘s
most complex and extensive irrigation system. From the 1950s onward, the IBIS has also been
the product of the generosity and intellectual input of a host of international experts and
international institutions, particularly the World Bank (Shahid, 2009).
The Indus River rises in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar. It flows
in Tibet for about 200 miles before it enters Ladakh, (part of Kashmir under Indian control) and
then flows on towards Gilgit in Pakistan. Flowing through the North in a southerly direction
along the entire length of Pakistan, it falls into the Arabian Sea near Pakistan‘s port city of
Karachi. With a total length of 3,200 km (1,988 miles), the river‘s estimated annual flow is
approximately 207 billion m3. The Indus River feeds ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and
arid countryside. Its five major tributaries are the Jehlum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the
Sutlej (also having origin in Tibetan plateau). Another two tributaries of the Indus, the Kabul and
the Kurram, rise in Afghanistan. Most of the Indus basin lies in Pakistan and India, with about 13
per cent of the total catchment area of the basin situated in Tibet and Afghanistan. The Indus
drainage basin area is shared by Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and China.
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The Indus River system is the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world with a
command area of 20 million hectares and an annual irrigation capacity of over 12 million
hectares. Irrigation in the Indus River basin dates back centuries; by the late 1940s the irrigation
works along the river were the most extensive in the world. These irrigation projects had been
developed over the years under one political authority that of British India, and any water
conflict could be resolved by executive order. The Government of India Act of 1935, however,
put water under provincial jurisdiction, and some disputes did begin to crop up at the sites of the
more extensive works, notably between the provinces of Punjab and Sindh.
Pakistan‘s Indus River Basin System comprises five main rivers, namely the Indus,
Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.
IBIS is also aided by a number of smaller rivers (Kabul, Swat, Haro, Kunhar, Chitral,
Tochi, Shah Alam, Naguman, Adezai, Soan etc.) and streams/Nullahs, these five
rivers supply water to the entire Indus Basin Irrigation System.
These rivers have their origin in the higher altitudes and derive their flows mainly
from snow-melt and monsoon rains.
Catchment area of Indus is most unique in the sense that it contains seven (7) of the
world‘s highest peaks after Mount Everest. Among these include the K2 (28,253 ft.),
Nanga Parbat (26,600 ft.), Rakaposhi (25,552 ft.) etc.
Further to above, seven (7) glaciers situated in the Indus catchment are among the
largest in the world, namely, Siachin, Hispar, Biafo, Baltura, Baltoro, Barpu and
Hopper
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Origin Western Tibet in the Kailas Mountain range and near the source of Rivers
Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra.
Length 960 miles/1536 Km
Catchment Area 47,100 Sq. miles/75,369 Sq.km (70% in India)
Pakistan portion Flows into Pakistan (Punjab) near Ferozepur and eventually joins Chenab 3
miles u/s Punjnad Barrage
Tributary Rivers Eight major tributaries (all except Rohi Nallah join Sutlej in India)
Largest Tributary River Beas (290 miles/464km), catchment area (6,200 Sq. miles/9,920
Sq.km)
Dams on the River Bhakra, Nangal, Pong, Pandoh (all in India),
Barrages on River Rupar Barrage, Harike Barrage, Ferozepur Barrage (India), Sulemanki &
Islam in Pakistan
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Origin Forms at the confluence of streams Bhaga & Chandra which join at a
place called Tandi in Occupied Jammu & Kashmir state.
-Upper most part is snow covered and forms the North East part of
Himachal Pradesh
-From Tandi to Akhnur the river traverses through high mountains
Length 770 miles/1,232 Km
Catchment Area 26,100 Sq. miles/41,760 Sq.km
Pakistan portion The river enters Pakistan a little over Head Marala with very sharp
changes in slope (130 ft./mile above Tandi reduced to 2 ft./mile close to
Trimmu)
Tributary Rivers Twelve major tributaries (6 each in occupied Jammu & Kashmir and
Pakistan). Doara, Dowara, Halsi, Bhimber, Palku and Budhi join close to
Marala
Largest Tributary Palku Nullah (75 miles/120km), catchment area (793 Sq. miles/1,269
Sq.km)
Dams on the River Salal, Baglihar (India),
Barrages on River Marala, Khanki, Qadirabad, Trimmu, Punjnad (Pakistan)
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Origin Originates in the Kashmir Valley about 34 miles (54 km) east of Anant Nag.
Length 510 miles/816 Km
Catchment Area 24,500 Sq. miles/ 39,200Sq.km
Pakistan portion -From Mangla to Jehlum city it moves southwards and then turns westwards
up to Khushab;
-Beyond this it moves south up to its confluence with River Chenab and
Trimmu;
-Slope up to Muzaffarabad is 35 ft./mile, 60 ft./mile up to Kohala, 10
ft./mile up to Mangla
Tributary Rivers Ten major tributaries (including Neelum/Kishan Ganga, Kunhar, Poonch,
Kanshi)
Largest Tributary Kishan Ganga/Neelumh (165 miles/264km), catchment area (2,480 Sq.
miles/3,968 Sq.km)
Barrages on River Mangla Dam, Rasul Barrage
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Origin -One of the largest rivers of the world and the main river of the Indus
valley;
-Originates near lake Mansarovar on north of Himalayas range in the
mountain of Kailash Parbat in Tibet at an elevation of 18,000 ft.;
Length 925 miles/1,489 Km above Tarbela
Catchment Area 1,80,000 Sq. miles/2,88,000 Sq.km
Tributary Rivers Twenty seven (27) major tributaries above Guddu Barrage
Largest Tributary Shyoke river (400 miles/640km), catchment area (12,600 Sq.
miles/20,160 Sq.km)
Dams on the River Tarbela
Barrages on River Kalabagh, Chashma, Taunsa, Guddu, Sukkar, Kotri, Jinnah
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There was no question over water sharing in Sub-Continent till early 20th century.
However, the situation changed after World War-I. There were several new projects like Thal,
Haveli, Bhakra Dam and Sutlej Valley canals in Punjab and Sukkar Barrage in Sindh were
proposed. It was first time in the history that some regions particularly Sindh as lower riparian,
felt that their river rights were threatened (Malik, 2011).The dispute of Indus Waters sharing
began long before the partition of India and Pakistan in the form of interstate differences
between the Punjab, Sindh, Bahawalpur, and Bikaner(Michal,1967).
Government of India acted as neutral third party and facilitated through negotiations.
Independent commissions were appointed to arbitrate in case of negotiation failure. ―The
situation was serious when Upper Bari Doab Canal was completed in 1858 and started irrigation
about one million acres of land between the Ravi and Bias Rivers with the water from Ravi‖
(Biswas, 1992pp.202).
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is not permitted to build dams for water storage purposes (for consumptive uses) on the western
rivers passing through India, it is allowed to make limited use of waters including run of the river
hydroelectric power projects.
However the committee submitted report on 30 June, 1970. One Unit was dissolved
splitting West Pakistan into four provinces. And this report could not attain any attention.
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2.5 Conclusion:
In short we can say that Indus river system is the largest system of irrigation. It includes
five main rivers with their tributaries. It is the strong heart of the Pakistan‗s economy. Its
creation is a tribute to the British irrigation engineers who created the original system (1847-
1947) that Pakistan inherited in 1947 and to the Pakistani irrigation engineers and institutions
who maintained the system. There were no disputes on the shearing of I.R.S water till 20th
century, however the situation changed after the World War-I. In-order to resolve these disputes
several commissions and committees were made as we discussed in previous pages. In next
pages we will discuss about departmental structure of Pakistan irrigation system.
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References:
―World Water Assessment Programme,‖ The United Nations World Water Development Report
3: Water in a Changing World, (Paris: UNESCO, and London ―Earthscan, 2009), p.29.
M. Zeitoun and N. Mirumachi, "Trans boundary Water Interaction I: Reconsidering Conflict and
Cooperation", International Environmental Agreements, 8: 4, 2008, p. 298.
Pacific Institute initiated a project in the late 1980s to track and categorize events related to water
and conflict which have been continuously updated ever since. See, Dr. Peter H. Gleick, ―Water
Conflict Chronology,‖ Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security,
2009, at <http://www.worldwater.org/conflict/list/>.
Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2009-10, op.cit. (ref.21), p.13.
Ahmer Bilal Soofi, Dawn (Islamabad), February 20, 2010,
http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-contentlibrary/dawn/the
newspaper/editorial/water-war-with-india-020
Ali, C. M. (1973). Emergence of Pakistan. Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan,
University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Biswas, Asif, K. (1992) Indus Water Treaty: the Negotiating process, water
international.P.202.
Government of the Punjab Effects of water Regulation, irrigation and power department,
2002. P.4
Haider.Ghulam, Dr.(2002).Water Resources Development, Conservation and
Management, The Environ Monitor,(vol.11, No.6).
Malik, B. A. (2005). Indus water treaty in retrospect. Brite Publishers, Lahore.
Malik, B. A. (2011). Save Water Save Pakistan (First Ed.). Islamabad-Lahore-Karachi
(Pakistan): Ferozsons
Rajput, Muhammad Idris (2007) Water problems: perspective from Sindh. Problems and
politics water sharing and management in Pakistan. Edited by Parvez Iqbal Cheema,
Rashid Ahmad Khan, And Ahmad Rashid Malik, Islamabad Policy Research Institute.
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Chapter No. 03
3.1 Introduction:
Irrigation system of Pakistan is the world largest system. Different departments are made
to manage this system. Success of this system totally depends upon the performance of these
departments. There are two levels of these departments;
Federal Level
Provisional Level
The irrigation system of Pakistan is primarily managed and operated by the Provisional
Government. At Federal level, a separate ministry of water and power exists for management,
planning and development of irrigation system. Now we will discuss about these departments in
details.
WAPDA
IRSA
3.2.1 WAPDA:
Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was established in 1958. Following are
the responsibilities of WAPDA.
The responsibility of large scale construction and water resources facilities such as
storage dams, barrages, and link canals lies within WAPDA.
It is responsible for planning and execution of ground water development and
management schemes such as pipe drainage, tube well drainage and reclamation projects.
After the completion of these projects, transfer to the provisional Irrigation departments
for operation and maintenance.
3.2.2 IRSA:
IRSA is the abbreviation of Indus River System Authority.
a) When and why it was formed?
21st March, 1991, will go down in the history of Pakistan as a pivotal breakthrough in its
leap towards the 21st century and turning point in its march towards national consolidation. On
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that day was unraveled a dispute that had been festering in this part of the subcontinent for the
past seventy years.
There was an agreement that the issue relating to Apportionment of the Waters of
the Indus River System should be settled as quickly as possible,
In the light of the accepted water distributional principles the following
apportionment was agreed to;
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c) Current Situations:
Following are the current situations of IRSA including discharge from different dams and
barrages.
Punjab = 57,900cs
Sindh = 3,500cs
Baluchistan = 4,800cs
KPK =3,100cs
Reference (http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)
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Rivers
Canals
Drainage
Streams
Hill torrents
Springs
b) Responsibilities:
Perform all the duties and functions of the irrigation wing of irrigation and power
department.
Plan, design, construct, operate and maintain the irrigation, drainage and flood
control infrastructure located within the territorial jurisdiction of PIDA.
Introduce the concept of participatory management through the pilot AWB and
FO‘s and to adopt and implement policies aimed at promoting growth and
development of FO‘s monitoring of their performance planning.
It will also be responsible for its own finances including the collection charges
from the clients (Government of the Punjab for flood control and other public
services corporation and district councils) and from AWBs and for negotiating
transfer payments and subsidies from the Government of the Punjab.
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c) Current Situations:
The first AWB was set up on the lower Chenab canal (east) circle Faisalabad that
commands for 1.6 million acre. The second Area Water Boards has been established at lower
Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) circle Sahiwal that commands about 0.07 million acres of land. The
Area Water Boards was formed to assume the responsibilities of managing and progressively
financing the operation and maintenance cost of irrigation and drainage network within its
jurisdiction Preliminary the Area Water Boards was responsible for management of the canal
command and its branch system from Barrage to district heads drainage and flood control
infrastructure. Under the act 1997, the Area Water Boards are expected to perform the following
functions
Approve and monitor the operation and maintenance work plan of FOs.
Recommend the development Schemes for annual development programs.
Approve rotational program of the water distribution
Checking water thefts and other offences
Monitor expenditures and budget allocations.
Assist the authority and Govt. in the formation, promotion and development of FOs
and Monitor their work.
b) Current Situations of AWBs:
PIDA Authority shall appoint a registrar for an Area Water Board and a registrar at its
Head Office who shall perform all functions relating to the registration of the farmer
organizations
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3.4 Conclusion:
This was all about different departmental structures of irrigation system of Pakistan.
Every province has its own irrigation and drainage authority to manage its irrigation system.
Success of our irrigation system is totally depends upon the performance of these departments. In
next pages we will discuss about different barrages of Pakistan in details.
References:
―Irrigation & Drainage Practices for Agriculture‖ by Dr. Muhammad Rafique Chaudhary
(http://www.pakirsa.gov.pk/)
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Chapter No. 04
4.1 Introduction:
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Baghak Dam
Band-e-Chaman Turbet Band-e-Chaman 49 2,000 1994
Dam River
Bisialla Dam
Bostan Darra Quetta Darra Manda 66 170 1987
Dam River
Brewery Dam
Kuchnai Darra Quetta 2008
Dam
Duz Durg Dam Mastung Duz Dur River 50 40 1984
Galangoor Dam
Ganj Dara Dam
Ghargi Dam Pishin n/a 50 100 1986
Ghat Amoon
Dam
Ghunza Dam Pishin n/a 50 178 1984
Ghuti Shela
Dam
Giwari Dam
Gogi Dam Ziarat Gogi River 54 400 1981
Gokar Dam
Gur Dam Kalat n/a 50 404 1982
Haero Dam
Hingi Dam Quetta Hingi 49 163 1995-96
Hub Dam Malir Hub River 157 856,924 1979
Khad Koocha Mastung Kad Koocha 50 95 1984
Dam River
Khajeer Dam Qila Saifullah Khajeer River 49 250 1991
Khori Dam
Kohar Dam Loralai
Nari Kach Dam
Kullan Dam
Lalai Dam
Machka Manda
Dam
Mana Storage Ziarat Mana River 62 1,480 1961
Dam
Mangi Dam Ziarat Boin Viala 59 105 1982
River
Mirani Dam Makran Dashat River 128 302,396 2007
Morinko Dam
Murghai Check
Dam
Murghai Kotal
Dam
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Nail Mirdadzai
Storage Dam
Nishpa Dam Mastung Nishpa River 49 93 1994
Nousahr Dam
Nundra Kapper
Dam
Palian Dam
Pinakai Dam Qila Saifullah Pinakari River 50 39 1994
Rindak Storage
Dam
Sabakzai Dam Zhob Zhob River 114 32,700 2007
Sasnak Mana Ziarat Sasnak River 62 220 1993
Storage Dam
Sassi Punnu
Dam
Shadak Dam Pishin Shadak River 50 70 1983
Sgadi Kaur
Storage Dam
Shagai Dam Quetta n/a 50 309 1993
Sherran Manda
Dam
Shiker Dam Pishin Shiker River 62 49 1988
Spin Dam
Spinkarez Dam Quetta Nar River & 95 5,513 1995
Murdar River
Tabai Dam Quetta Tabai River 49 142 1994
Takhtani Dam
Tang Storage
Dam
Tanga Dam
Tangi Dababari
Dam
Tangi Dam Qila Saifullah Tangi River 50 61 1997
Thamarak Dam Pishin n/a 50 195 1986
Tooth Dam Kalat Tooth River 52 397 1991
Torkehezi Dam
Trikh Tangi
Dam
Under Base Qila Saifullah Under Base 50 70 1985
Dam River
Walitangai Dam Quetta Walitangai 79 413 1961
Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Garuk Dam, Pelar
Dam, Winder Dam, Hingol Dam, Sukleji Dam, Naulong Dam and Darawat Dam.
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Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Baluchistan i.e. Munda Dam and
Kalam Dam.
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Some purposed or under construction dams are also present in Punjab i.e. Akhori Dam and
Kalabagh Dam.
a) Attock District:
Following is a list of operational small dams in Attock district;
Basal Dam
Thatti Syedan Dam
Sawal Dam
Talikna Dam
Jabba Dam
Jalwal Dam
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b) Chakwal District:
There are 12 small dams in Chakwal District having storage capacity of 26,411 in acres
feet irrigating 11,089 acres of area.
c) Jehlum District:
d) Dams of Sindh:
In Sindh there are two dams Karoonjhar Dam and Chotiari Dam, Also there are two
under construction dams in Sindh, Darawat Dam in Jamshoro District and Nai Gaj Dam in Dadu
District
Diamer Bhasha Dam, Bunji Dam and Dasu Dam are under construction in Gilgit
Baltistan. Satpara Dam is completed in 2013 in Gilgit Baltistan.
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The major reservoirs/dams of the Indus River System are given below;
Tarbela dam
Mangla dam
Chashma reservoir
To augment and regulate the supply of Indus River water to irrigate the land of
Indus Basin System.
Hydropower generation.
Incidental Flood Regulation.
Based on the irrigation demands, reservoir operation studies were conducted by WAPDA
to develop operating rule curves for the dam operation (Tippetts-Abbett McCarthey-Stratton
consulting engineers, 1984).
Tarbela reservoir should be lowered to reservoir elevation (El.) 1300 feet by 20 May
of each year.
The reservoir should be held at El. 1300 feet until 20 June unless inflows exceed low
level outlet capacity and after that allowed to fill El.1505 feet.
Above El.1505 feet, the reservoir should be filled at a rate of 1 foot per day in so far
as permitted by inflows and irrigation demands. Minimum maximum rule curve is
shown in Figure 4.4.
Drawdown of the reservoir should be in accordance with the irrigation demands
balanced against the amount of water available from inflows plus storage.
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c) Reservoir Levels:
The minimum reservoir level is 1300 feet. This level will assure the required
minimum net head of 179 feet on the turbines with a margin of safety open and the
tailwater level is at El. 1115 feet or lower.
The maximum operating reservoir level is El. 1550 feet (normal full pool level). The
maximum water level for spillway design flood is El. 1552.2 feet which allow
adequate free board.
After satisfying irrigation requirement, the reservoir may be kept as high as possible
to maximize power production.
The rate of filling should not exceed 10 feet per day. The allowable rate of rise should
be determined according to operation experience. The normal releases for irrigation
should be made through the turbines whenever possible so that power can be
generated. Each turbine can produce 175,000 KW (or 239,000 Horse-power) when
the wicket gates are 95% open and the net head on the turbine is 378 feet. Under these
conditions discharge from each turbine is 6,450 cfs making a total of 25,000 cfs for
the four.
The irrigation tunnel will be used when the irrigation demand is higher than the
turbine discharge.
The irrigation tunnels should not be used with water level above El1505 when the
spillway provides sufficient release. Minimum discharge is 50000 cfs for the service
spillway and 70,000 cfs for the auxiliary spillway.
The sill level of irrigation tunnel is El.1160, 65 lower than the power intakes. Thus
until the delta encompasses the intakes, most of the heavier suspended sediment
would go through this tunnel and not through the power waterways.
Rapid variations in the downstream flow should be avoided.
Every year the reservoir should be drawn down to El.1300, (minimum pool level) to
effect sediment flushing.
d) Previous Benefits from the Reservoir:
The project has been instrumental in achieving self-sufficiency in food through timely
water releases for irrigation. Billions of units of electrical energy generated at Tarbela dam saved
the country's foreign exchange required otherwise for thermal power generation. The total
project cost was Rs.18.5 billion. During the past 18 years of its operation, the dam contributed
over 68.332 billion in terms of direct benefits from water releases and power generation. The
total cost has been repaid three times and over.
From 1975 to 1993 about 154.65 MAF of water has been released from the dam for the
development. The benefits obtained from these releases were Rs.31, 561 million. About 6.31
MAF of water was released from the storage during 1992-93 which is worth Rs.1893 million
calculated at a rate of Rs.300 per acre feet.
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Additional benefits were achieved from the project with incidental flood control. Most of
the floods occur during the summer monsoon season. The flood discharge is composed of
snowmelt flood (base flow) plus storm flood. It has been estimated 1,773,000 cfs (a constant
snowmelt flood, 6000 cfs + PMF, 1,173,000 cfs). Assuming discharge through the turbines and
one irrigation tunnel, the probable maximum flood, when routed through the reservoir, showed
surcharge of 2 feet above full reservoir level of 1550 feet AMSL. The maximum discharge over
the spillway is 1,495,000 cfs. The maximum and minimum design curves ensure to take care of
incidental floods.
Table 4.6: ―Water Benefits from Tarbela Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)‖
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Figure 4.7: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)‖
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Table 4.7: ―Water Benefits from Mangla Dam (WAPDA, 1993, 2001, 2004)‖
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Although these benefits are quite high, recovering the total cost of the project several
times over, but it is however, a limited source. The country has been facing the major problem of
rapidly increasing population and food requirements. These problems seriously affected the
existing policies and it is essentially needed to design a policy which may overcome these issues
by expanding irrigated agriculture and increasing power generation.
At the time of construction of Mangla Dam, Government of Pakistan requested the World
Bank that a provision should be made in the design and construction of the Mangla Dam to
facilitate its raising at a later stage by another 30-40 ft. The Government of Pakistan agreed that
the incremental cost of the provision for rising would not be charged to the Indus Basin
Development Fund. The World Bank accepted this proposal and hence, all the impounding
structures of the Mangla Dam Project were designed and constructed in 1967 for raising it by
another 30 ft. In year 2003, work on Mangla rising was started. It was proposed to raise the
Mangla dam by 30 feet. (WAPDA and Mangla Joint Venture, 2003). This will raise the present
maximum reservoir conservation level of 1202 ft. to 1242 ft. The work on Mangla rising is in
progress as shown in Figure 4.14. About 70% construction work has been completed on Mangla
rising till May 2008. The project is expected to be completed in year 2009. This would increase
the average annual water availability by 2.9 MAF. Power generation from the existing power
plant would also increase by about 11%. Elevation capacity curves after Mangla raising showing
depletion in storage due to sediments for the period 2007 to 2082 are shown in Figure 4.15
(WAPDA and MJV 2003).
Figure 4.9: ―Elevation-Capacity Curves for Mangla Raising (WAPDA and MJV, 2003)‖
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Chashma Barrage
Taunsa Barrage
Jinnah Barrage
Guddu Barrage
Sukkar Barrage
Kotri Barrage
Rasul Barrage
Marala Barrage
Khanki Barrage
Qadirabad Barrage
Trimmu Barrage
Panjnad Barrage
Balloki Barrage
Sidhnai Barrage
Sulemanki Barrage
Islam Barrage
Mailsi Barrage
Ghazi Brotha Barrage
Munda Barrage
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Salient Features:
Barrage Taunsa
Year of Completion 1959
Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) 750,000
No. of Bays 53
Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) 26
Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs) 36501
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Salient Features:
Barrage Jinnah
Year of Completion 1946
Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) 950,000
No. of Bays 42
Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) 28
Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs) 7500
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Barrage Guddu
Year of Completion 1962
Max. Design Discharge (cusec) 1200000
No. of Bays 64
Length of Barrage 3840 ft.
Off taking canals 5
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Sukkar Barrage is used to control water flow in the River Indus for the purposes of
irrigation and flood control. The barrage enables water to flow through what was originally a
network of canals 6,166 miles (9,923 km) long, feeding the largest irrigation system in the world,
with more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of irrigated land. The retaining wall has 66 spans
each 60 feet (18 m) wide. Each span has a gate weighing 50 tons.
Salient Features:
Barrage Sukkar
Year of Completion 1932
Max. Design Discharge (cusec) 1500000
No. of Bays 54
Length of Barrage 4490 ft.
Off taking canals 7
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Barrage Kotri
Year of Completion 1955
Max. Design Discharge (cusecs) 875,000
No. of Bays 44
Max. Flood level from floor (ft.) 43.1
Total Design Withdrawals for Canal(cusecs) -
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Salient Features:
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Salient Features:
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Salient Features:
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Salient Features:
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Salient Features:
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Mailsi barrage and syphon is constructed on Sutlej river to control water for flood and
irrigation purposes. Ghazi Brotha Barrage is on Indus River and is used for irrigation and flood
control purposes. Munda Headworks is situated on River Sawat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
approximately 5 km downstream of the under construction Munda Dam and 35 km of Peshawar.
It is used for irrigation and flood control purposes in River Sawat.
4.5 Conclusion:
Above all information was about the dams and barrages of Pakistan, some of them was
constructed after Indus Water Treaty in 1960 to overcome the shortage of water in eastern rivers
by constructing link canals from western rivers, in next pages we will discuss about different
canals off-taking from these barrages, their location and discharge etc.
References:
Economic Survey of Pakistan - P&D Division, Islamabad
South Asia - Water Vision 2025 - A Document Framed by Global Water Partnership
(2000)
Engr. Dr Izhar ul Haq, ―Barrages and Dams in Pakistan‖ for Pakistan Engineering
Congress, 1990.
Pakistan Water & Power Development Authority, ―Annual Report 1999- 2000‖, 2001.
Asim R. Khan, M. Kaleem Ullah, Saim Muhammad, ―Water Availability and Some
Macro Level Issues Related to Water Resources Planning and Management in the Indus
Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan‖, 2002
Planning Commission, Govt of Pakistan (Sep 2001), ―Ten Year Perspective Development
Plan 2001-11& Three Year Development Programme 2001-04‖.
Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September
1993.
www.scribid.com
Sridhar seema(2008), Kashmir and Water: conflict and cooperation, In shahid imtiaz
Advanced Contemporary Affairs(Ed),Lahore: Advanced Publishers, pp 263-269.
Partial data acquired from Indus River System Authority for flows of rivers in Pakistan.
www.wikipedia.com
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Chapter No. 05
Canal may be regarded as a man-made water way that serves the function of drainage or
irrigation. Canal takes the water from river and transports it to the field area where utilization is
made. The canals come out from river dams and barrages. A canal may be lined or unlined
depending upon its material of formation. If a canal is made up of natural material then it is
unlined, if the material is other than natural material then canal is lined.
Perennial Canals
Non-Perennial Canals
Inundation Canals
a) Perennial Canals:
These are crucial in canal system of Pakistan. Perennial canals ensure regular supply of
water all the year round. These canals supply water to farmer‘s field. Perennial canals sprout
from barrages or dams. Punjab has many of these canals. These include Lower and upper Bari
Doab, Lower & Upper Chenab canal and Sidhnai. Apart from these Upper Jehlum and river
Sutlej‘s Canals are also important. Trimmu Headworks is the starting point of Jehlum canals.
Sutlej River originates from it at Islam, Panjnad, Ferozpur and Sulaimanki Headworks.
b) Non-Perennial Canals:
Non-perennial canals only run in Monsoon and summer. They get their water from rains.
This category also has many canals. These include Sutlej, Sidhnai (from Ravi) and haveli (from
Chenab) canals. They also constitute an important part in canal system of Pakistan.
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c) Inundation Canals:
Rainy weather and season is the only time when these canals run. It actually happens due
to raised level of water in rivers. Uncertain water quantity is supplied by them. Their source of
water is also river but there is a difference. They carry extra flood water. That is why these are
also called flood canals. Some canals of Chenab and Indus River are the examples.
Chashma-Jehlum
Taunsa-Punjnad
Marla-Ravi
Upper Chenab-Ravi
Rasul-Qadirabad
Qadirabad-Balloki
Balloki-Sulemanki
Trimmu-Sidhnai
Sidhnai-Mailsi
Mailsi-Bahawal
Abasia Link Canal
BRBD
The link canals have a total length of about 800 Km with a total capacity of about
100,000 cusecs. These canals transport water from the three western rivers to the three eastern
rivers which run short of water as their water has been allotted to India. Now we will discuss the
features of these link canals.
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canals in Pakistan. Here we will discuss the main canals off-taking from the barrages discuss in
previous chapter.
a) Balloki Barrage:
Fall Structure 20
Head Regulators 55
Bridges 17
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b) Sidhnai Barrage:
From Sidhnai Barrage Sidhnai canal with discharge capacity of 127 cusec, Sidhnai-Mailsi
and Mailsi- Bahawal link canals are off take.
a) Sulemanki Barrage:
1) Pakpatan Canal:
Location: Multan
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 5508 cusecs and tail discharge is 24 cusecs.
Length of Canal: 113.47 miles Area to Be Irrigated.
Gross area is 1046326 and culturable area is 961158.
Location: Multan.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 6820 cusecs and tail discharge is 5106 cusecs.
Length of Canal: 49 miles Area to Be Irrigated.
Gross area is 616035 and culturable area is 547472.
3) Fordwah Canal:
Location: Multan.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 3447 cusecs and tail discharge is 2993 cusecs.
Length of Canal: 8.97 miles.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 465024 and culturable area is 430112.
b) Islam Barrage:
1) Qaim Canal:
Location: Multan.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 483.00 cusecs and tail discharge is 61 cusecs.
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2) Bahawal Canal:
Location: Multan.
Design Discharge: Head discharge is 500 cusecs and tail discharge is 386 cusecs.
Length of Canal: 2.40 miles.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 57469and culturable area is 52023.
a) Marala Barrage:
Following irrigation canals off take from Marala Barrage;
b) Khanki Barrage:
Only one canal off-takes from Khanki barrage which is Lower Chenab Canal.
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Lower Chenab Canal: It was dug in 1892. Following distributaries are coming out of L.C.C;
Rakh Branch Canal
Jhang Branch Canal (Upper)
Jhang Branch Canal (Lower)
Gogera Branch canal etc.
These canals irrigate 1.2 million acres of cultivable lands in Hafiz Abad, Nankana Sahib,
Faisalabad, Jhang, Toba Tek Singh and Chiniot districts through a network of 67 distributaries.
The land of LCC (W) Area Water Board is very famous all over the world for the production of
rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, wheat, oil seed and fodder. The Lower Chenab Canal (East) is
about 300 km in length and 60 km in width. It covers a gross area of about 2.12 million acres
with CCA of 1.84 Million acres in the districts of Gujranwala, Hafiz Abad, Sheikhupura,
Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib and Toba Tek Singh.
Salient Features of L.C.C:
Table 5.1: ―Salient Features of LCC‖
Sr no. Discharge U/S Discharge D/S U/S level D/S level Drop
(cusec) (cusec) (FSL) ft (FSL) ft Ft
1 1099 1066 666.90 664.59 2.31
2 1055 938 657.45 654.73 2.72
3 938 878 651.49 649.29 2.20
4 878 755 646.44 640.44 6.00
5 755 640 636.73 631.18 5.58
6 640 576 628.88 626.41 2.47
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c) Trimmu Barrage:
From Trimmu barrage Haveli canal, Rangpur canal and T-S link canals off take. Both
canals run parallel and ultimately fall in river Ravi at Sidhnai. T-S link canal is a link canal while
Haveli canal is an irrigation canal.
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Haveli Canal:
d) Panjnad Barrage:
1) Panjnad Canal:
2) Abbasia Canal:
a) Mangla Dam:
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b) Rasool Barrage:
Lower Jehlum and R-Q link canals off take from Rasool Barrage. R-Q link canal is the
link canal and Lower Jehlum canal is an irrigation canal.
Design Discharge: Its authorized head discharge is 5500 cusec. Its authorized tail
discharge is 3705 cusec.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross command area is 1728349.00 Acre. Its Culturable command
area is 1485776.00 Acre.
a) Jinnah Barrage:
Thal Canal: The amount of water that it carries is 2.534 MAF. It is divided into 2 different
divisions.
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b) Chashma Barrage:
Chashma Right Bank and C-J link canals are off-take from Chashma Barrage.
c) Taunsa Barrage:
1) Kachi Canal (Under Construction): It will irrigate Muzaffargarh, D.G.Khan, Rajanpur districts
of Punjab and Dera Bugti, Naseerabad, Bolan, Jhal Magsi Districts of Baluchistan.
Command Area:
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Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 947874 acres and CCA is 901984 acres.
3) Muzaffargarh Canal:
Location: Muzaffargarh Zone.
Area to Be Irrigated: Gross area is 906490 and cultural command area is 838380.
1) Ghotki Feeder/Canal:
2) PAT Feeder/Canal:
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3) Desert Feeder/Canal:
Year of Completion 1962
Design Discharge 12945 cusecs
Off-taking location Right bank canal (Guddu Barrage)
Location of area Sukkar, Mirpur,Rohri,Kalat Distt
NARA canal is the longest canal of Pakistan, carrying discharge almost equal to that of
Thames River at London and its bed width which is 346 ft. is 1 ½ (one and half) times as big as
of Suez Canal.
Year of Completion 1932
Design Discharge 13649cusecs
Length 226CM
Off-taking location Left bank canal (Sukkar Barrage)
Area to be irrigated 2240186acres 0.91mHa
Location of area Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.
2) Rohri Canal:
Rohri Canal is the 2nd largest canal of Pakistan which through slightly shorter in length
than Nara Canal is yet taking discharge much more than the former.
Year of Completion 1932
Design Discharge 10883cusecs
Off-taking location Left bank canal (Sukkar Barrage)
Area to be irrigated 26001213acres 1.1mHa
Location of area Hyderabad, Sanghar Distt.
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6) Rice Canal:
7) Dadu Canal:
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5.5 Conclusion:
Some irrigation canals are also off take from link canals. Upper and Lower Sawat canals
are off take from Munda Barrage. Left and Right Warsak canals are off take from Warsak dam
on Kabul River and only one canal also off takes from Ghazi brotha project. This was all about
the canal system of Pakistan. In next chapter we will discuss about telemetry system installed by
Government of Pakistan to observe withdrawal of water in different canals at different places of
Pakistan.
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References:
Safdar, M. (2007) Indus basin irrigation system of Pakistan. U.E.T.
Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, Lahore, ―Proceedings - Water for
the 21st Century: Demand, Supply, Development and Socio- Environmental Issues‖, June
1997.
Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September
1993.
www.scribid.com
Kirmani, S. (1959). Sediment problems in the Indus Basin, part I: Sedimentation in
reservoirs, Proceedings of the West Pakistan Engineering Congress, 43. Lahore, West
Pakistan Engineering Congress, Paper No. 336.
Salman, M.A.S. and K. Uprety (2002). Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia’s
International Rivers—A Legal Perspective. (Part II: India-Pakistan Relations). Law,
Justice and Development Series, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Zawahri, N.A. (2007). India, Pakistan, and Cooperation along the Indus River System,
Water Policy (Accepted for Publication).
Gulhati, N.D. (1973). Indus Waters Treaty: An Exercise in International Mediation. New
York: Allied Publishers.
Farhan Sami, ―Water Quality Monitoring of Hudiara Drain‖, an independent consultancy
for data analysis and water quality management plan, November 2001.
Dr. Nazir Ahmad, ―Water Resources of Pakistan‖, Miraj uddin Press, Lahore September
1993.
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Chapter No. 06
Telemetry System
Agriculture.
Water management.
Meteorology.
Oil and gas industry.
Space science.
Swimming Pools.
Defense, space and resource exploration.
Rocketry.
Flight testing.
Military intelligence.
Energy monitoring.
Resource distribution.
Medicine/Healthcare.
Fishery and wildlife research and management.
Communications. Etc.
Here we will discuss only its applications in agriculture and water management.
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6.2.1 Agriculture:
Many activities related to healthy crops and good yields depend upon well-timed
availability of weather and soil data. Therefore, wireless weather stations play a key role in
disease prevention and precision irrigation. These stations transmit parameters essential for
decision-making to a base station: air temperature and relative humidity, precipitation and leaf
fitness for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed (to
calculate evapotranspiration), water deficit stress (WDS) leaf sensors and soil moisture (crucial
to irrigation decisions). Because local micro-climates can vary significantly, such data needs to
come from within the crop, so telemetry system is used for this purpose.
6.2.2 Water Management:
Telemetry is important in water management, including water quality and stream gauging
functions. Main applications include AMR (automatic meter reading) groundwater monitoring,
leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. It can also be used on canal
heads to monitor the flow rate.
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1. Improper maintenance,
2. Lack of technical persons to operate telemetry system.
3. Sensor failure of the system.
4. No proper care. Etc.
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6.4 Conclusion:
In short telemetry system has many advantages. It reduces labor cost and save time. It
provides timely and exact data. But in Pakistan due to previous mentioned problems it is failed to
provide correct data. Therefore it is need of time to manage our telemetry system to avoid from
problems. In next chapter we will discuss different other problems faced by irrigation system of
Pakistan.
References:
David Hope, ―Justification for Large SCADA / Telemetry Systems‖, Perth, Western
Australia, November, 1998.
E.C. Mellinger, K.E. Prada, R.L. Koehler, K.W. Doherty, "Instrument Bus, An Electronic
System Architecture for Oceanographic Instrumentation", WHOI-86-30, August 1986.
H. Berteaux, S. McDowel, J. Bullister1 Carl Aibro, and A.J. Fougere, "Conceptual
Design: An Integrated Sea Water Sampler for the Ocean Sciences", National Science
Foundation, June 1989.
IEEE Serial Ascii Communication Protocol, IEEE- 997 Standard, 1985.
www.pakisan.com
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Chapter No. 07
7.1 Introduction:
The future of Pakistan‘s agriculture depends on the future of its irrigation and drainage
system, which currently faces major problems. Increasing water logging and salinity,
overexploitation of fresh groundwater, low efficiency in delivering and use, inequitable
distribution, unreliable delivery, and insufficient cost recovery are some of these problems.
These problems, however, are only symptoms of a deeper problem the treatment by the
government of irrigation water as a public good. Such a treatment has caused inefficient pricing
of water, misallocation of resources and widespread rent-seeking behavior. In this chapter we
will discuss about different major problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan.
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flood embankments, and irrigation systems that obstruct natural drainage flows. Since the 1960s
efforts have been made to provide drainage in the irrigated areas and several large drainage
programs are ongoing. Out of the gross canal commanded area of 16.7 million hectare acres
about 6.5 million hectare acres requires drainage, of which about 1.86 million hectare acres are
covered under ongoing projects. Providing drainage to such a vast area is a large undertaking. An
area of about 2.38 million hectare acres is estimated to have a water table of less than 5 feet. The
government considers such areas disaster areas give them high priority for drainage. On-going
projects cover only 0.85 million hectare acres of designated disaster areas.
Provision of drainage is essential for maintaining the agriculture sector resource base:
disposal of drainage effluent in the rivers, canals, and evaporation ponds will not be feasible in
the long run. An outlet to the sea with link drains from the rest of the basin will be required to
carry highly saline effluent to the sea. Drainage investments are highly viable, with rates of
return close to 20 percent. The absence of natural drainage and the continuous nature of the
Indus Plain groundwater system require that all drainage infrastructures be developed in an
integrated manner. Independently developed local schemes may be in danger of being
overwhelmed by neighboring undrained areas with high water tables and becoming ineffective.
Because of the large scope of the investments and cross linkages, balanced development in the
drainage sector requires integration of local area drainage needs and such infrastructural
developments as outfall drains for the conveyance of drainage effluent from larger tracts.
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Following problems are faced by irrigation system of Pakistan due to inadequate planning
by government of Pakistan.
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7.4 Conclusion:
There are so many other problems faced by irrigation system of Pakistan, including
influence of Indian dams on western rivers, water tempering by cultivators, conveyance losses
etc. so there is a need to mitigate these problems for efficient working of irrigation system of
Pakistan. Government of Pakistan is continuously trying to mitigate these problems and to
improve infrastructure of irrigation system.
References:
Bandaragoda D. J., and G. R. Firdousi (1992) Institutional Factors Affecting Irrigation
Performance in Pakistan. International Irrigation Management Institute Country Paper
Pakistan. 4: 30–32.
Pakistan, Government of (1988) Report of the National Commission on Agriculture.
Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Islamabad.
Mase, Toru (1990) Study of Water User‘s Associations for Irrigation in Asia. Journal of
Irrigation Engineering and Rural Planning (Japan) 18: 5–16.
Scott, William E., and David A. Redding (1988) Agricultural Credit in Pakistan.
Islamabad: U.S. Agency for International Development. March.
World Bank (1992) Islamic Republic of Pakistan: Changes in Trade and Domestic
Taxation for Reform of the Incentives System and Fiscal Adjustment. Washington, D.C.:
World Bank.
Chapter No. 08
8.1 History:
Around the third century BC, the farming communities in Baluchistan (in present-
day Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran), and Kutch (in present-day India) used rainwater harvesting
for irrigation. The north Punjab areas Rawalpindi, Attock, Jhelum and Chakwal natives rely on
water sources from rainfall and ground water. Pakistan is known as an arid country having
subtropical climate and it may be divided into two regions.
Indus plain
Highlands
Dry climate is dominant in most of the country parts except northern highlands. On an
average about 750 mm of rain fall occurs annually in northern areas. Baluchistan receives about
250 mm of rainfall annually (MINFAL, 2010).
Water
Harvesting
methods
Micro- Macro-
catchments catchments
Contour
Contour Hillside Water
bench
bunds conduit spreading
terraces
Eyebrow Wadi-bed
Meskat Large bunds
terraces cultivation
Vallerani WH
Small pits Cisterns
basins
8.3.1 Land-Based:
When the infiltration requirements of the soil have been fulfilled and excess amount of
rainwater flow as overland flow and then become the runoff and this runoff accumulated in
reservoirs for agriculture growth purposes, in ponds for recharging purposes and in tanks for
household, this type of rainwater harvesting technique is called land-base.
8.3.2 Roof-Based:
The rainwater that falls on the top of the roof is harvested for a domestic purpose, small
scale agriculture purposes and is also sometimes used for drinking water because this water is
usually collected from clean surfaces. This type of water harvesting is called roof-based water
harvesting. Further there are three basic components of a typical roof top rain water harvesting
system.
a) Rooftop Catchment:
Rooftop catchment of a RWH system is the surface, which receives the rain water
directly. This can be the roofs in a rooftop system and hill, slopes and watershed or any other
surface in a runoff system.
b) Gutters and Down Pipes:
These are the pipelines and drains that carry rain water from the catchments to the rain
water harvesting. Gutters can be of PVC/PE or Galvanized Iron sheets.
c) Filter unit:
If intended to use rainwater as drinking source.
d) Storage Tank:
Among the above elements the storage tank is the most key item especially its capacity
that determines the cost of the system and its reliability for sustainable water inflow.
Following factors should be considered for the identification of most suitable sites for
rainwater harvesting (Prinz and Anupam 2002).
8.4.1 Rainfall:
For designing a rainwater harvesting system, the information about the rainfall intensity,
distribution and other characteristics is the most basic requirement. The distribution of rainfall is
very important. In several rainfall-runoff models, a threshold value of 5mm/event is usually used
for estimation of runoff generation (Prinz and Anupam 2002). Practical rainfall factors intended
for rainwater harvesting system comprise.
Number of days when the rainfall increases the threshold rainfall of the catchment
on weekly and monthly basis.
In years, for the mean monthly possibility and incidence of rainfall.
Possibility as well as reoccurrence for maximum and minimum monthly rainfall.
Frequency distribution for rainstorm of various definite intensities.
Intensity of rainfall.
In dry and hilly areas the main advantage of rain water harvesting is supplying water for
irrigation and domestic purposes. It also plays an important role to increase the moisture contents
of the soil, recharging the groundwater. The main advantages of rainwater harvesting are given
below;
The uncertainties of the rainfall and limited supplies of water are the major
disadvantages of rainwater harvesting.
For longer dry period it is not a reliable source of water.
Less storage capacity limits, on the other hand the increased storage capacities
will require more operating as well as construction expenses.
The animal wastes and other wastes may contaminate the rainwater making the
rainwater risky for human uses.
Cistern leakage may be caused for deterioration of slopes load-bearing.
Storage sites may be dangerous for children if suitable entrance safety is not
available.
& Kashmir and Khabarpakhtun Khwah (Bagh, Rawalakot, Muzaffarabad, and Abbottabad)
which required technical improvement (Gardezi, n.d). The Sukaar Foundation and Water Aid
Pakistan have been striving to promote initiatives of rainwater harvesting in villages of Thar to
cope with the issue of water scarcity.
People in Thar Desert have been harvesting 0.06 % of total annual rainfall, enough to
meet one fourth of their yearly drinking water needs. The use of 0.25 % of total annual rainfall
can increase current rainwater harvesting capacity by three times and enable people to meet their
drinking water needs. By using further 0.28 % of total annual rainfall, the 23 % of total
cultivable land of Tharparker can be cultivated to produce low delta Rabi crops enough to meet
food needs of the people and help cope with frequent drought periods in the area (Suthar, 2012).
Importance of rainwater harvesting in Pakistan due to water scarcity especially the
drinking water should be realized. Due to unplanned urbanization, exploitation of ground water
usage has increased manifold and it is very hard to manage the water supply by the WASAs of
the country. The water conservation through rainwater harvesting in urban areas can be a
contribution to Sustainable Water Strategy for Pakistan. The marking out of potential rainwater
harvesting with the help of annual precipitation along with water demand in the present
investigation will of course help to conserve and manage water more efficiently and effectively
(Bhatti and Nasu, 2010). In urban areas, scarcity and accelerating demand of water is a major
concern as in case of Pakistan and it can be reduced by rainwater harvesting, using various
existing structures like rooftops, parking lots, playgrounds, parks, ponds, flood plains, etc.
Lahore(1931-2011)
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Rain 27 26 30 17 17 48 165 154 69 12 6 11
fall(mm)
Faisalabad(1951-2004)
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Rain 13 17 22 20 14 35 100 85 38 6 3 8
fall(mm)
100
80
60
Rain fall(mm)
40
20
Multan(1950-2001)
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Rain 8 10 18 13 12 13 58 35 22 4 3 7
fall(mm)
60
50
40
30 Rain fall(mm)
20
10
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Chakwal(1981-2005)
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Rain 22 30 40 42 10 10 61 90 50 20 5 12
fall(mm)
Rawalpindi(1981-2005)
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Rain 50 80 82 50 30 55 250 300 100 25 10 20
fall(mm)
Murree(1981-2005)
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Rain 25 35 130 125 70 100 290 250 125 75 30 20
fall(mm)
Chakwal
Year 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
Rain 700 550 400 530 400 550 250 330 280 400
fall(mm)
Lahore
Year 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
Rain 550 390 1130 830 615 520 1185 550 750 650
fall(mm)
1200
1000
800
200
0
1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
Faisalabad
Year 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Rain 430 620 650 350 360 420 270 350 290 350
fall(mm)
600
500
400
100
0
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Murree
Year 1960 1961 1962 1965 1970 1975 1980 1995 2000 2005
Rain 1275 1900 1280 1720 1710 1600 1700 1250 450 750
fall(mm)
Multan
Year 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Rain 215 105 220 120 160 520 300 210 130 80
fall(mm)
500
400
300
Rain fall(mm)
200
100
0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Karachi is the provincial capital of Sindh Province and is the largest city where Lahore in
the capital of Punjab, the second largest city of Pakistan. Karachi is relies on the surface water
for domestic use. The Rawalpindi city is the fourth largest city of Pakistan and mainly relies on
groundwater. The Faisalabad and Multan are certainly located in the flat alluvial plain of Punjab
province whereas Peshawar and Rawalpindi are located in hilly areas.
8.9 Conclusion:
Rainwater harvesting is a best technique in rain fed areas for agriculture purposes. In
Pakistan there are so many potential sites for rainwater harvesting. It is used to overcome the
shortage of irrigation water. In this technique rainwater is stored in this way risk of flood is also
minimized. There is a need to adopt this technique to conserve our water resources.
References:
Ahmad, I. (2013) College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Punjab:
Lahore.
AHMED, A., U. MUSTAFA AND M.KHALID.2011. Impact of roof top rain water
harvesting technology, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Ashfaq, A. and Ashraf, M. (2014) Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Groundwater
Behaviour in the Soan Basin of Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan.
Pakistan Meteorological Department: Lahore
Chapter No. 09
Groundwater is a reliable resource, which can be utilized any time. Groundwater is used for
agriculture, drinking water supply and industry all over the world, including Pakistan. Thirty five
percent of agricultural water requirements in Pakistan are met from groundwater. Most of the
drinking water supplies are also drawn from groundwater. If cost of one tube well is taken as Rs.
50,000, the total investment for groundwater development in Pakistan will be Rs. 30 billion.
Groundwater development is a significant factor in alleviating poverty, especially in rural areas
where groundwater access secures the agricultural output. Groundwater usage contributes US$
1.3 billion to the national economy per year. Studies have shown that due to use of groundwater,
yields of crops have increased 150-200 percent and cropping intensities have increased from 70
to 150 percent (Qureshi, 2004).
Total Groundwater potential = 67 MAF. The Indus plains constitute about 34 million
hectares (over 85 million acres) of cultivable land, which is under-lain predominantly by sand
alluvium to a considerable depth. Annual recharge to ground water system of this Indus plain is
estimated around 55 MAF, out of which about 48 MAF is within the commands of Indus basin
irrigation system (IBIS). Presently, 39 MAF is being extracted annually. Ground water is also
found in some rain-fed (Barani) lands, and inter- mountain valleys at depths varying from 100 to
200 ft. During 1950s, large area in the Indus basin became waterlogged and soil salinity
increased adversely affecting the agricultural productivity. It was the time when government got
involved and took initiatives in the ground water development. The efforts began to control the
twin menaces of waterlogging and salinity by the way of providing drainage facilities.
Government embarked on a series of SCARPs in the late 1950s aimed at lowering the ground
water table by providing "vertical drainage" through large capacity deep tube wells. Because of
better economic returns, priority was given to locating SCARPs in the areas with ground water
quality suitable for supplemental irrigation, making the drainage a byproduct in effect. During
past four decades, about 15000 SCARP tube wells have been installed by the Government in 57
projects covering a gross area of about 7.7 million hectares affected land for putting it back into
production. Almost 75% of all SCARP tube wells were installed in the Punjab. About 81% of
total tube wells installed in Punjab province are located in fresh ground water areas, whereas,
remaining 19% tube wells have been installed in saline ground water areas. The tube wells
installed in the fresh ground water areas have been pumping water directly into watercourses;
thus, they are being used for irrigation in addition to canal water. However, the tube wells
installed in the areas with saline ground water, discharge saline water directly into drains, from
where it is being disposed of.
Before the introduction of widespread irrigation, the groundwater table in the Indus Basin
varied from about 40 feet in depth in Sindh and Bahawalpur areas to about 100 feet in Rechna
Doab (the area between Ravi and Chenab Rivers).After the introduction of weir-controlled
irrigation, the groundwater table started rising due to poor irrigation management, lack of
drainage facilities and the resulting additional recharge from the canals, distributaries, minors,
water courses and irrigation fields. At some locations, the water table rose to the ground surface
or very close to the surface causing waterlogging and soil salinity, reducing productivity.
In the late 1950s, the Government embarked upon a programme of Salinity Control and
Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) wherein large deep tube wells were installed to control the
groundwater table. Over a period of about 30 years, some 13,500 tube wells were installed by the
Government to lower the groundwater table. Of these, about 9,800 tube wells were in the Punjab.
The projects initially proved to be quite effective in lowering the water table but with time, the
performance of the SCARP tube wells deteriorated. The development of deep public tube wells
under the SCARPS was soon followed by private investment in shallow tube wells. Particularly
in the eighties, the development of private tube wells received a boost, when locally
manufactured inexpensive diesel engines became available. Most of these shallow tube wells
were individually owned. Now more than 500,000 tube wells supply about 41.6 MAF of
supplemental irrigation water every year, mostly in periods of low surface water availability.
These tube wells compensated the loss of pumping capacity of the SCARP tube wells and helped
in lowering the water table.
The main source of groundwater in the Punjab lies in the four hydrogeological zones,
namely Potohar plateau & salt range, Piedmont areas, alluvial plains and Cholistan desert. Indus
River and its tributaries drain the province. In Punjab a lot of work has been carried out on
seepage from the irrigation system and the resulting recharge to the groundwater (PPSGWP,
1998). The groundwater potential is based on rainfall recharge, groundwater recharge and
recharge from irrigation system. The rainfall recharge of 9.90 MAF (15% from 380 mm/year) in
different SCARP areas was worked out during the period 1987-97 (PPSGWP, 1998). The
recharge from return flow, irrigation application, and sub-surface inflows was assessed 7.08
MAF (22.5% of 31.5 MAF). Canal seepage varies from 2 to 8 cfs/msf depending on the size of
canal and drainage characteristics. A delivery of 24 large canals for the irrigation year 1990-91
was with an average of 54 MAF. The recharge from these canals was estimated 21.70 MAF
(40% of 54 MAF). The recharge from rivers was 3.5 MAF and return flows from domestic and
industrial use were assessed as 0.57 MAF (22.5% of 2.52 MAF). The total available groundwater
resource of the Punjab Province was estimated 42.75 MAF.
The most important feature is the Indus River, the sole source of surface water for the
Province. The groundwater lies in the three hydrogeological zones namely Eastern (Thar) desert,
Western mountain and Indus valleys. Useable groundwater in the Province is mainly found in the
Indus Plain, which is recharged from the meandering river and from the irrigation network that
has been developed in the area. The other source of recharge - rainfall, is quite scanty and its
contribution to the resource is limited. Rainfall recharge was 1.96 MAF (2% of 265 mm per
year) as worked out by ACE and Halcrow (2001). The recharge from return flows (22.5% of
38.2 MAF), irrigation returns (22.5% of 3.5 MAF) was assessed 8.58 MAF and 0.79 MAF
respectively. In the Sindh, canal water losses have been taken as 15 % of the total average canal
supply of 45 MAF for the period 1988-2000. The recharges from these canals was estimated 6.76
MAF. The recharge from the rivers was assessed 0.3 MAF. The total available resource of the
Sindh Province was assessed to be 18 MAF.
K.Pk lies in the four broad geological units namely, metamorphic and igneous rocks of
the northern mountains, Mesozoic rocks of the southeastern part, Tertiary rocks of the
southeastern part and upper Tertiary. The main groundwater resources in the Province are the
alluvial plains and many valleys, which are intermountain basins of tectonic origin. The rainfall
recharge was estimated 0.7 MAF (7% of rainfall over a sub-catchment). The average flows for
the period 1988-2000 was 6.68 MAF (ACE and Halcrow, 2001). In this Province, recharges from
the canal system were worked out 1.0 MAF (15% of 6.7 MAF). The groundwater recharges
include returns from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge
from rivers. The recharge from the return irrigation flows was assessed 1 MAF (15% of 6.5
MAF) and other return flows (15% of 0.88 MAF) were worked out to be 0.13 MAF. The total
groundwater resource of the NWFP was assessed as 3.11 MAF.
The regions of the Province, which are underlain by unconsolidated sediments formed by
the deposition of mountainous outwash from the surrounding highlands, have been divided into
12 distinct Basins, flood plains and valleys fills. The Province lies in the five hydrological zones
namely, Mountain ranges, Piedmont plains, Valley floor, plains and rolling sand plains. The
groundwater, in substantial quantities, occurs in unconsolidated aquifers in almost all basins and
sub-basins. The groundwater resources in six basins of the province namely Hamune, Lora,
Kachhi Plain, Nari, Pishin and Zhob have been assessed. The effective rainfall coefficient of
20% to the annual rainfall for the mountain areas is used to estimate rainfall of 1.21 MAF. In
Baluchistan canal supplies are small in total and restricted to the east of the Province, adjacent to
Sindh Province. For the period 1988-2000 the average canal flow was 1.94 MAF and recharge
from these canals was assessed as 0.29 MAF (15% of 1.94 MAF). Most of irrigated area of this
Province lies in a saline groundwater zone. Other components of groundwater recharge include
return flows from irrigation application, other return flows, sub-surface inflows and recharge
from rivers. The recharge from return flows of irrigation application was estimated 0.37 (22.5%
of 1.62 MAF) and other return flow was 0.08 MAF (20% of 0.45 MAF). The total groundwater
resource of Baluchistan Province was assessed as 2.13 MAF, mg/l, for drinking purposes, as
there are no alternatives. In Mastung Valley, the groundwater has been found to have high
fluoride content. The Makran coast and Kharan have also been reported to have high fluoride
groundwater.
Total water withdrawal in 2008 was an estimated 183.4 km3, of which surface water
withdrawal accounts for 121.8 km3 (66.4 percent) and groundwater withdrawal accounts for 61.6
km3 (33.6 percent). This mainly refers to the IBIS, the withdrawal outside the IBIS being
extremely small (GoP, 2008a).
Groundwater is pumped using electricity and diesel fuels. There are currently one million tube
wells, of which 87 percent are operated by diesel. Power failures, extended load shedding and
poor electricity supply are the main reasons for the slow growth of electric tube wells compared
to diesel-operated tube wells (Ahmad, 2008b).
Groundwater salinity in various provinces is shown in Figure 9.4. About 17 percent area
of Punjab and 75 percent in Sindh is underlain by saline groundwater (TDS>3000 ppm). About
70 percent of tube wells pump saline water for irrigation, which is escalating secondary
salinization. Problems are not only due to salinity but also sodicity.
Leaching from municipal and industrial effluents, fertilizers, pesticides, solid wastes, and
disposal of saline drainage effluent and seawater intrusion causes pollution and contamination of
groundwater. Untreated sewage and sullage in urban areas are disposed of into rivers and other
surface water bodies through a mixed system of open drains and sewage pipes in the major
metropolitan centers and primarily through open drains in the other urban centers. It is estimated
that in the province of Punjab, 112 comics of municipal and sewerage effluent is being disposed
of into the river bodies. The major part, i.e. 83 comics, of municipal and sewerage effluent of
Lahore city is disposed of into the river Ravi. Leakage of effluents from septic tanks and
sewerage drains endanger the aquatic and human life. A large number of industrial units are
scattered throughout Pakistan in rural and urban areas. These units dispose their wastewater into
the nearby drainage.
Fig 9.4: ―Groundwater Quality vs. Tube well Percentage for Different Provinces‖
health a it contains heavy metals. Soil salinity remains a hazard for the Indus basin and threatens
the livelihood of farmers, especially the small-scale ones. Land degradation is reducing the
production potential of major crops by 25%, valued at an estimated loss of US$ 250 million per
year (Haider et al. 1999). Groundwater overdraft has also led to sea water intrusion in the coastal
areas of the Indus basin which is threatening ecology of wetlands. Important aquatic resources,
mangrove forests and coastal areas need to be protected. Mangrove forests cover 130,000 ha and
are an important source of firewood and provide the natural breeding ground for shrimps.
Attacking the twin menace is a massive undertaking, and the IDA's assistance is only a
small part of the effort. The IDA has made 27 irrigation loans or credits to Pakistan for a total of
US$1,305 million. Nine of these, or US$457 million, were principally for drainage to control
salinization and waterlogging. Nevertheless, the problem is far from solved, and Pakistan
continues to lose almost as much irrigated land each year as it gains from investments.
The SCARP Transition Pilot Project was supported by an IDA credit for SDR 8.7 million
(US$1O million). Although the vertical SCARP tube wells had been highly successful at
lowering the water table and reducing soil salinity, they were an unsustainable burden on the
government's budget. The costs of operating and maintaining the wells were substantial, and the
government did not recoup these expenditures from the farmers. Service grew progressively
worse as the tube wells began to deteriorate and power supplies grew less and less reliable. The
transition pilot was designed to resolve these problems by eliminating public tube wells in areas
with plentiful fresh groundwater and enabling farmers to construct their own tube wells.
The projects in execution include 15 reclamation projects covering a gross area of 6.99 million
acres, involving construction of 3841 tube wells and 8979 miles of drains of which 4669 miles of
tile drains. The total estimated cost of these schemes is Rs. 10215.00 million. There can be no
doubt that the SCARP-projects have provided some relief to the affected lands but it is also
generally agreed that the objectives were only partially achieved. The SCARPs also had a great
impact through their demonstrative effect. This is evidenced by the construction of private tube
wells which number increased from a few thousands at the start of the programme to over
200000 by June 1985. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in
reducing the waterlogging and salinity conditions. Cropping intensities also increased but there
are many other factors involved and the exclusive contribution of the SCARPs has not yet been
evaluated. After 30 years of struggle and with billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from
solving the problem. The percentage change in water quality due to different SCARP projects is given in
table 9.4.
9.9 Conclusion:
This was all about groundwater and its quality. In some areas of Pakistan groundwater is
fit for agriculture and in some areas its quality is not good. Similarly due to continuous pumping
of water groundwater table declining day by day, water logging is also another problem of
groundwater. SCARP projects also have greater contribution in changing the groundwater
quality. The small capacity private tube wells in SCARP areas greatly helped in reducing the
waterlogging and salinity conditions. It is our bad luck so that after 30 years of struggle and with
billions of Rupees invested, Pakistan is still far away from solving the problems of groundwater.
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