MINI-TESLA COIL

To get started right away, just tap any placeholder text (such as this) and start
typing.
 GROUP 2
Member List

1. Mg Nyi Kaung Sett-----------------------(II Ep-15)

2. Mg Si Thu Aung---------------------------(II Ep-18)
3. Mg Aung Khant Zaw---------------------(II Ep-23)
4. Mg Aein Min Khant----------------------(II Ep-20)
5. Mg Hein Khant Zaw----------------------(II Ep-19)
6. Mg Kyaw Thu Wai------------------------(II Ep-25)
7. Mg Thurein Kyaw Lin--------------------(II Ep-24)
8. Ma Khine Su Htet-------------------------(II Ep-33)

2
 CONTENTS

1. Transistor---------------------------------Pg 4
2. Field Effect Transistor-----------------Pg 11
3. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor--------Pg 14
4. Bipolar Junction Transistor----------Pg 14
5. Usage Of MOSFETs And BJTs--------Pg 16
6. Other Transistor Types---------------Pg 17
7. Introduction To Resistors------------Pg 22
8. Types Of Resistors------------‐--------Pg 24
9. Electromagnets-------------------------Pg 25
10. Inductors---------‐----------------Pg 26
11. Transformers---------------------Pg 27
12. Testing&Charging---------------Pg 31

3
4
Fig (1) (MOSFET), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain
(D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an
insulating layer (pink).

A transistor is a semiconductor device used

to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the
controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today,
some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.

Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed

the concept of a field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was
not possible to actually construct a working device at that
time. The first working device to be built was a point-
contact transistor ivented in 1947 by American
physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working
under William Shockley at Bell Labs. They shared the
1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement. The most
widely used transistor is the MOSFET (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the

5
 MOS transistor, which was invented by Egyptian
engineer Mohamed Atalla with Korean engineer Dawon
Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET was the first truly
compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-
produced for a wide range of uses.
Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the
way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers,
among other things. The first transistor and the MOSFET are on
the list of IEEE milestones in electronics. The MOSFET is the
fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. An estimated total of
13 sextillionMOSFETs have been manufactured between 1960
and 2018 (at least 99.9% of all transistors), making the MOSFET
the most widely manufactured device in history.

Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and some

from germanium, but certain other semiconductor
materials can also be used. A transistor may have only one
kind of charge carrier, in a field-effect transistor, or may
have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction
transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube,
transistors are generally smaller, and require less power to
operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over
transistors at very high operating frequencies or high

6
 operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made to
standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers.

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, is by far the
most widely used transistor, used in applications ranging
from computers and electronics to communications
technology such as smartphones. The MOSFET has been
considered to be the most important transistor, possibly the
most important invention in electronics, and the birth of
modern electronics. The MOS transistor has been the
fundamental building block of modern digital
electronics since the late 20th century, paving the way for
the digital age. The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it a
"groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture
around the world". Its importance in today's society rests on
its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated
process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves
astonishingly low per-transistor costs.
The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named
an IEEE Milestone in 2009. The list of IEEE Milestones also
includes the inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the
MOSFET in 1959.
Although several companies each produce over a billion
individually packaged (known as discrete) MOS transistors every

7
year, the vast majority of transistors are now produced
in integrated circuits(often shortened to IC, microchips or
simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and
other electronic components, to produce complete electronic
circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors
whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as
many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs). "About 60 million
transistors were built in 2002… for [each] man, woman, and child
on Earth."
The MOS transistor is the most widely manufactured
device in history. As of 2013, billions of transistors are
manufactured every day, nearly all of which are MOSFET
devices. Between 1960 and 2018, an estimated total of
13 sextillion MOS transistors have been manufactured,
accounting for at least 99.9% of all transistors.
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a
ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have
replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and
machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a
standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry
out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical
system to control that same function.

8
Types

PNP P-channel

NPN N-channel

BJT JFET
BJT and JFET symbols

P-channel

N-channel

JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

JFET and MOSFET symbols

Transistors are categorized by

o structure: MOSFET (IGFET), BJT, JFET, INSULATED-
GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT), "other
types";
o SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL:
the METALLOIDS GERMANIUM(first used in 1947)

9
 and SILICON (first used in 1954)—
in AMORPHOUS, POLYCRYSTALLINE and MON
OCRYSTALLINE form—,
the COMPOUNDS GALLIUM ARSENIDE (1966)
and SILICON CARBIDE (1997),
the ALLOY SILICON-GERMANIUM (1989),
the ALLOTROPE OF
CARBON GRAPHENE (research ongoing since 2004),
etc. (see SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL);
o ELECTRICAL POLARITY (positive and negative): N–
P–N, P–N–P (BJTs), n-channel, p-channel (FETs);
o maximum POWER RATING: low, medium, high;
o maximum operating frequency: low, medium,
high, RADIO (RF), MICROWAVE frequency (the
maximum effective frequency of a transistor in a common-
emitter or common-source circuit is denoted by the term fT,
an abbreviation for TRANSITION FREQUENCY—the
frequency of transition is the frequency at which the
transistor yields unity voltage gain)
o application: switch, general purpose, audio, HIGH
VOLTAGE, super-beta, matched pair;
o physical packaging: THROUGH-HOLE metal, through-
hole plastic, SURFACE MOUNT, BALL GRID
ARRAY, power modules (see PACKAGING);
o amplification factor HFE, βF (TRANSISTOR
BETA) or gm (TRANSCONDUCTANCE).

Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon,

surface-mount, BJT, n–p–n, low-power, high-frequency switch.

10
A popular way to remember which symbol represents which type
of transistor is to look at the arrow and how it is arranged. Within
an NPN transistor symbol, the arrow will Not Point iN. Conversely,
within the PNP symbol you see that the arrow Points iN Proudly.

Field-Effect Transistor

The field-effect transistor, sometimes called a unipolar

transistor, uses either electrons (in n-channel FET) or holes (in p-
channel FET) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are
named source, gate, drain, and body (substrate). On most FETs,
the body is connected to the source inside the package, and this
will be assumed for the following description.
In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting
channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The
conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a
voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence
the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by
the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–
source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS)
increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a
roughly quadratic rate (IDS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold
voltage at which drain current begins) in the "space-charge-
limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not

11
observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65
nm technology node.
For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of
the FET is advantageous.
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET(JFET)
and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly
known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting
its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the
insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate
forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the
source and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the
solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly,
forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices
operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input
impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of
an input voltage.
Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which
the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced by a metal–
semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-
mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which a two-dimensional
electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge
transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies
(microwave frequencies; several GHz).
FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-
mode types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or

12
off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the
channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the
conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero
bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete"
the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more
positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-
channel devices and a lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly
all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would
forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-mode
devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET,
MOS-FET, or MOS FET), also known as the metal–oxide–silicon
transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS), is a type of field-effect
transistor that is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of
a semiconductor, typically silicon. It has an insulated gate, whose
voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to
change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be
used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The MOSFET is
by far the most common transistor, and the basic building block
of most modern electronics. The MOSFET accounts for 99.9% of
all transistors in the world.

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

13
Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using
both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction
transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a
combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin
layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type
semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type
semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors
(a p–n–p transistor). This construction produces two p–n
junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction,
separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base
region (two junction diodes wired together without sharing an
intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor).
BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of
semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a collector. They are
useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and
collector are controllable by a relatively small base current. In an
n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base
junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the
junction), and the base-collector junction is reverse biased
(electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the
junction), and electrons are injected into the base region.
Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse
into the reverse-biased base–collector junction and be swept into
the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will
recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the

14
base current. As well, as the base is lightly doped (in comparison
to the emitter and collector regions), recombination rates are
low, permitting more carriers to diffuse across the base region. By
controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the
number of electrons entering the collector can be
controlled. Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter
current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than
100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors
designed for high-power applications.
Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low-
input-impedance device. Also, as the base–emitter voltage (VBE) is
increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–
emitter current (ICE) increase exponentially according to
the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of
this exponential relationship, the BJT has a
higher transconductance than the FET.
Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light,
because absorption of photons in the base region generates a
photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is
approximately β times the photocurrent. Devices designed for
this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are
called phototransistors.

15
Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs

The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor for

both digital circuits as well as analog circuits, accounting for
99.9% of all transistors in the world. The bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) was previously the most commonly used
transistor during the 1950s to 1960s. Even after MOSFETs became
widely available in the 1970s, the BJT remained the transistor of
choice for many analog circuits such as amplifiers because of their
greater linearity, up until MOSFET devices (such as power
MOSFETs, LDMOS and RF CMOS) replaced them for most power
electronic applications in the 1980s. In integrated circuits, the
desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly
all market share for digital circuits in the 1970s. Discrete
MOSFETs (typically power MOSFETs) can be applied in transistor
applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators,
amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

Other transistor types

For early bipolar transistors, see Bipolar junction transistor

§ Bipolar transistors.

o field-effect transistor (FET):
o metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET), where the gate is insulated by a
shallow layer of insulator;
o p-type MOS (PMOS);

16
 o n-type MOS (NMOS);
o complementary MOS (CMOS);
o RF CMOS, for power electronics;
o multi-gate field-effect transistor(MuGFET);
o fin field-effect transistor (FinFET), source/drain region
shapes fins on the silicon surface;
o thin-film transistor, used in LCD and OLEDdisplays;
o floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), for non-volatile storage;
o power MOSFET, for power electronics;
o lateral diffused MOS (LDMOS);
o carbon nanotube field-effect transistor(CNFET), where the
channel material is replaced by a carbon nanotube;
o junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET), where the gate is
insulated by a reverse-biased p–n junction;
o metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor(MESFET),
similar to JFET with a Schottky junction instead of a p–n
junction;
o high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT);
o inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET);
o fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET);
o organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the
semiconductor is an organic compound;
o ballistic transistor (disambiguation);
o FETs used to sense environment;
o ion-sensitive field-effect transistor(IFSET), to measure ion
concentrations in solution,
o electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor (EOSFET), neurochip,
o deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor (DNAFET).
o bipolar junction transistor (BJT):

17
 o heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several hundred
GHz, common in modern ultrafast and RF circuits;
o Schottky transistor;
o avalanche transistor:
o Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected together to
provide a high current gain equal to the product of the
current gains of the two transistors;
o insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium-
power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT, to give a
high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected
between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs
are particularly suitable for heavy-duty industrial
applications. The ASEA Brown
Boveri (ABB) 5SNA2400E170100 , intended for three-phase
power supplies, houses three n–p–n IGBTs in a case
measuring 38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each
IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes;
o phototransistor.
o emitter-switched bipolar transistor (ESBT) is a monolithic
configuration of a high-voltage bipolar transistor and a low-
voltage power MOSFET in cascode topology. It was
introduced by STMicroelectronics in the 2000s, and
abandoned a few years later around 2012.
o multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor
logic and integrated current mirrors;
o multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level
signals in noisy environments such as the pickup of a record
player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large
number of transistors in parallel where, at the output, the

18
 signal is added constructively, but random noise is added
only stochastically.
o tunnel field-effect transistor, where it switches by
modulating quantum tunnelling through a barrier.
o diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into
semiconductor substrate; can be both BJT and FET.
o unijunction transistor, can be used as simple pulse
generators. It comprise a main body of either P-type or N-
type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end
(terminals Base1 and Base2). A junction with the opposite
semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of
the body for the third terminal (Emitter).
o single-electron transistors (SET), consist of a gate island
between two tunneling junctions. The tunneling current is
controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a
capacitor.
o nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions
through sub-microscopic, water-filled channels.
o multigate devices:
o tetrode transistor;
o pentode transistor;
o trigate transistor (prototype by Intel);
o dual-gate field-effect transistors have a single channel with
two gates in cascode; a configuration optimized for high-
frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
o junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple
nanowire of silicon surrounded by an electrically isolated
"wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons
through the wire.

19
 o vacuum-channel transistor, when in 2012, NASA and the
National Nanofab Center in South Korea were reported to
have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in only
150 nanometers in size, can be manufactured cheaply using
standard silicon semiconductor processing, can operate at
high speeds even in hostile environments, and could
consume just as much power as a standard transistor.[84]
o organic electrochemical transistor.
o solaristor (from solar cell transistor), a two-terminal gate-
less self-powered phototransistor.

We used 2N2222A NPN transistor in our project Mini Tesla Coil

Fig (2) 2N2222A NPN Transistor

Brief Description on 2N2222A:

2N2222A is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will

be left open (Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground

20
and will be closed (Forward biased) when a signal is provided to
base pin. 2N2222A has a gain value of 110 to 800, this value
determines the amplification capacity of the transistor. The
maximum amount of current that could flow through the
Collector pin is 800mA, hence we cannot connect loads that
consume more than 800mA using this transistor. To bias a
transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current (I B)
should be limited to 5mA.
When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum
of 800mA to flow across the collector and emitter. This stage is
called Saturation Region and the typical voltage allowed across
the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE) could be 200 and
900 mV respectively. When base current is removed the
transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off
Region and the Base Emitter voltage could be around 660 mV.
 
Where to use 2N2222A
The 2N2222A transistor is very much similar to the commonly
used NPN transistor BC547. But there are two important features
that distinguish both. 2N2222A can allow collector current up to
800mA and also has power dissipation of 652mW which can be
used to drive larger loads than compared with BC547.

Applications

Can be used to switch high current (up to 800mA) loads

It can also be used in the various switching applications.

Speed control of Motors

21
Inverter and other rectifier circuits

Can be used in Darlington Pair.

Introduction to Resistors

 · A resistor is a two-terminal device that is used to resist the

flow of current. It is one of the most commonly used
components in electrical circuits.
 · Resistance of any resister is described in ohms. Ohm is
denoted by the Greek letter omega. Each resister has a
different value of resistance which tells us how strongly it
resists the flow of current. More the value of resistance more
is the capability of resisting the current.
 · Resistance will be considered as one ohm if the potential
difference between the two ends of the conductor is 1 V and
a current flowing through it is 1 Ampere.
 · Resistance can be derived from Ohm’s law which indicates
voltage is directly proportional to the current flowing through
the conductor.

V= I * R

 · Each resistor comes with two wires, also called as leads.

Between these two leads there lies a ceramic part which
actually resists the flow of current. Resistor consists of three
colored strips that indicate the value of resistance.
 · Some resistors come with four colored strips. In such case,
fourth strip indicates the value of tolerance. Tolerance is the
value of the deviation of resistance from its given value on
the resistor. Gold color of forth strip indicates tolerance is 5%
and silver color indicates tolerance is 10%. Where there is no

22
 forth strip, tolerance is considered as 20%. Suppose, if
resistance has 50-ohm resistance with no forth strip. Then
tolerance of such resistor can be 50 ±20%.
 · Resistance of any resistor also depends on its resistivity, its
length and cross-sectional area.
 · Resistors also indicate temperature coefficient.
Temperature coefficient is known as a resistance due to the
change in temperature. There are two types of temperature
coefficients. Positive temperature coefficient and negative
temperature coefficient. If resistance increases with the
increase in temperature then it is called positive temperature
coefficient and if resistance decreases with the decrease in
temperature then it is called negative temperature
coefficient.

Fig (3)

Types of Resistors

23
Resistors come in different forms, sizes, and shapes. Resistors are
used in different applications depending on the current rating
voltage and resistance. Let’s discuss resistor types and their
applications. Resistors are mainly classified into two types:

 1. Linear Resistors
 2. Non-Linear Resistors

1. Linear Resistors

 · Resistors are termed as linear resistors where current is

directly proportional to the applied voltage.
 · Resistance of these resistors changes with the change in
temperature and voltage.
 · In order words, resistors which follow Ohm’s law are linear
resistors.
 · Linear resistors are further classified into two types
o o Fixed Resistors
o o Variable Resistors

2. Non-Linear Resistors

 · Resistors are termed as non-linear resistors where they do

not pertain to follow ohm’s law but their value of resistances
changes with the slight change in temperature or current.
 · Non-linear resistors are further divided into two types:
o o Thermisters
o o Varisters

Coils can be classified by the frequency of the current they are

designed to operate with:

24
  Direct current or DC coils or electromagnets operate with a
steady direct current in their windings
 Audio-frequency or AF coils, inductors or transformers
operate with alternating currents in the audio
frequency range, less than 20 kHz
 Radio-frequency or RF coils, inductors or transformers
operate with alternating currents in the radio
frequency range, above 20 kHz

Coils can be classified by their function:

Electromagnets

Main article: Electromagnet

Fig (4)

Field coil electromagnet on the stator of an AC universal motor.

Electromagnets are coils that generate a magnetic field for some

external use, often to exert a mechanical force on something.
[15] A few specific types:
 Solenoid - an electromagnet in the form of a straight hollow
helix of wire
 Motor and generator windings - iron core electromagnets
on the rotor or stator of electric motors and generators
which act on each other to either turn the shaft (motor) or
generate an electric current (generator)

25
 o Field winding - an iron-core coil which generates a
steady magnetic field to act on the armature winding.
o Armature winding - an iron-core coil which is acted on
by the magnetic field of the field winding to either create
torque (motor) or induce a voltage to produce power
(generator)
 Helmholtz coil, Maxwell coil - air-core coils which serve to
cancel an external magnetic field
 Degaussing coil - a coil used to demagnetize parts
 Voice coil - a coil used in a moving-coil loudspeaker,
suspended between the poles of a magnet. When the audio
signal is passed through the coil, it vibrates, moving the
attached speaker cone to create sound waves. The reverse
is used in a dynamic microphone, where sound vibrations
intercepted by something like a diaphragm physically
transfer to a voice coil immersed in a magnetic field, and
the coil's terminal ends then provide an electric analog of
those vibrations.

Inductors

Fig (4)

Tank inductor in a tuned circuit in an early shortwave radio

transmitter.

Main article: Inductor

26
Inductors or reactors are coils which generate a magnetic field
which interacts with the coil itself, to induce a back EMF which
opposes changes in current through the coil. Inductors are used
as circuit elements in electrical circuits, to temporarily store
energy or resist changes in current. A few types:
 Tank coil - an inductor used in a tuned circuit
 Choke - an inductor used to block high frequency AC while
allowing through low frequency AC.
 Loading coil - an inductor used to add inductance to an
antenna, to make it resonant, or to a cable to prevent
distortion of signals.
 Variometer - an adjustable inductor consisting of two coils
in series, an outer stationary coil and a second one inside it
which can be rotated so their magnetic axes are in the same
direction or opposed.
 Flyback transformer - Although called a transformer, this is
actually an inductor which serves to store energy
in switching power supplies and horizontal deflection
circuits for CRT televisions and monitors
 Saturable reactor - an iron-core inductor used to control AC
power by varying the saturation of the core using a DC
control voltage in an auxiliary winding.
 Inductive ballast - an inductor used in gas-discharge
lamp circuits, such as fluorescent lamps, to limit the current
through the lamp.

27
Transformers

Fig (5)

Transformer

Main article: Transformer

A transformer is a device with two or more magnetically coupled

windings (or sections of a single winding). A time varying current
in one coil (called the primary winding) generates a magnetic field
which induces a voltage in the other coil (called the secondary
winding). A few types:
 Distribution transformer - A transformer in an electric
power grid which transforms the high voltage from the
electric power line to the lower voltage used by utility
customers.
 Autotransformer - a transformer with only one winding.
Different portions of the winding, accessed with taps, act as
primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
 Toroidal transformer - the core is in the shape of a toroid.
This is a commonly used shape as it decreases the leakage
flux, resulting in less electromagnetic interference.
 Induction coil or trembler coil - an early transformer which
uses a vibrating interrupter mechanism to break the
primary current so it can operate off of DC current.

28
 o Ignition coil - an induction coil used in internal
combustion engines to create a pulse of high voltage to
fire the spark plug which initiates the fuel burning.
 Balun - a transformer which matches a balanced
transmission line to an unbalanced one.
 Bifilar coil - a coil wound with two parallel, closely spaced
strands. If AC currents are passed through it in the same
direction, the magnetic fluxes will add, but if equal currents
in opposite directions pass through the windings the
opposite fluxes will cancel, resulting in zero flux in the core.
So no voltage will be induced in a third winding on the core.
These are used in instruments and in devices like Ground
Fault Interrupters. They are also used in low inductance
wirewound resistors for use at RF frequencies.
 Audio transformer - A transformer used with audio signals.
They are used for impedance matching.
o Hybrid coil - a specialized audio transformer with 3
windings used in telephony circuits to convert
between two-wire and four-wire circuits

29
Transducer coils

Fig (6)

The sensor coil of a metal detector.

These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to

electric signals, and vice versa. A few types:

 Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect external

time-varying magnetic fields
 Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet or
iron object passes near it
 Recording head - a coil which is used to create a magnetic
field to write data to a magnetic storage medium, such
as magnetic tape, or a hard disk. Conversely it is also used
to read the data in the form of changing magnetic fields in
the medium.
 Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an object by
inducing eddy currents in it, a process called induction
heating.
 Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna, to
convert radio waves to electric currents.
 Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring
device

30
  Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the
output audio signal in an electric guitar or electric bass.
 Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer
 Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record
player that uses a coil to translate vibration of a needle to
an audio signal in playing vinyl phonograph records.

There are also types of coil which don't fit into these categories.

The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, is a common size of

battery that was introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a
rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a polarized snap
connector at the top. This type is commonly used in walkie-
talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.
The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary
carbon-zinc and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron
disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-cadmium, nickel-
metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this
format, once common, have not been manufactured in many
years due to their mercury content. Designations for this format
include NEDA 1604 and IEC 6F22 (for zinc-carbon) or MN1604
6LR61 (for alkaline). The size, regardless of chemistry, is
commonly designated PP3—a designation originally reserved
solely for carbon-zinc, or in some countries, E or E-block
Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual
1.5 V LR61 cells enclosed in a wrapper. These cells are slightly
smaller than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can be used in their place
for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter. Carbon-
zinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a
moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary lithium
types are made with three cells in series.

31
9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales
in the United States in 2007, and 2% of primary battery sales and
2% of secondary battery sales in Switzerland in 2008.

Fig (7)

Collage of images showing the opening of a 9-volt battery to

reveal six LR61 size cells, which are similar to the LR8D425 AAAA
cells often used in medical equipment

Fig(8)

Alkaline battery showing rectangular cell construction

32
 Fig (9)

Three different kinds of 9-volt primary battery internals:

rectangular cell zinc-carbon, rectangular cell alkaline, and
cylindrical cell alkaline

Fig (9)

Rechargeable (NiMH) 9-volt battery internals

Testing and charging

Most battery voltage testers and chargers that can also test nine-
volt need another snap clip to hold the battery, while cylindrical
batteries often share a holder that may be adjustable in size.
Because of the proximity of the positive and negative terminals at
the top of the battery and relatively low current of most common
batteries, one informal method of testing voltage is to place the
two terminals across a tongue. A strong tingle would indicate a
battery with a strong charge, the absence, a discharged battery.
While there have been stories circulating of unfortunate

33
outcomes, the process is rarely dangerous under normal
circumstances, though it may be unpleasant.
9 Volt Battery Clip

Fig (10) 9 Volt Battery Clip

1. Plug the battery clip onto a standard 9V battery and

connect the other end to any device that needs 9V.
The Connector leads are polarity color coded, Red and

34
 Black. Features: ... Assures safe secure use, reduces the
potential of short circuits and prevents tampering
with battery contacts. Red and black leads Fig (11)

Switch-an electronic switch is an electronic

component or device that can switch an electrical
circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from
one conductor to another.

Electric Bulb-An incandescent light bulb, incandescent

lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric
light with a wire filament heated to such a high
temperature that it glows with visible light
(incandescence).

Fig (12)

35