Durability of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete in Marine Structures
Ni Zhen1*, Xudong Qian1, Harald Justnes2, Tor Arne Martius-Hammer2, Kiang Hwee Tan1, Khim Chye Gary Ong1
1Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
2Department of Architecture, Materials and Structures, SINTEF Building and Infrastructure, Norway
ABSTRACT
Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) has been applied in marine
structures in recent years due to its lower density compared to
conventional concrete. The main durability issue is the corrosion of steel
reinforcement induced by the chloride ion ingress and subsequent
spalling due to volume expansion of steel rust. Besides, a damaged
surface is prone to water absorption and loss of effective buoyancy in the
case of floating structures. This paper presents two chloride resistance
tests and a long-term water absorption test on LWACs cast using two
types of coarse lightweight aggregates and various percentage of silica
fume. The test results show that, with the same water to cement ratio and
silica fume percentage, LWAC cast using expanded slate has a better
chloride resistance than those using expanded shale. Besides, increasing
the percentage of silica fume could yield a better durability performance
of LWAC.
KEY WORDS: Lightweight aggregate concrete, durability, chloride
resistance, water absorption, floating structures.
INTRODUCTION
Lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) has been widely used in
construction of high-rise buildings and long-span bridge decks (Chandra
and Berntsson, 2002). The structural weight is significantly reduced
compared to conventional concrete, which allows for higher live load
capacity. In recent years, the application of LWAC is seeing an
increasing popularity in floating marine structures, such as floating
bridges, concrete vessels and floating offshore production platforms.
Being the world’s first concrete tensioned leg platform (TLP), Heidrun
TLP was constructed by LWAC with a mean density of 1943 kg/m3 and
28-day strength of 79 MPa (fib, 2000). In order to achieve higher
turnover, its design service life was more than 60 years. When it comes
to reinforced concrete floating structure, the major durability issue is the
chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement due to the abundance
of chloride ions in marine environment. Chloride ions are not detrimental
to concrete itself, rather, through concrete’s intrinsic porosity, it can
ingress into the concrete cover and cause corrosion of the steel
reinforcement. Subsequent expansion in volume of steel rust will result
in spalling of the concrete cover. This not only affects the structural
integrity, but also exposes the concrete interior, which is prone to water
absorption and loss of effective buoyancy over time.
Chia and Zhang (2002) found that the chloride resistance of LWAC is
comparable to normal weight concrete (NWC) with the same water to
cementitious material (w/c) ratio, and a lower w/c ratio would benefit the
chloride resistance for both. Liu et al. (2011) reported that LWAC
exhibited higher resistance to chloride penetration compared to NWC
with similar 28-day compressive strength. These findings outperform the
conventional views that LWAC would exhibit a poor durability
performance due to the high porosity of lightweight aggregates. This can
be attributed to the better quality of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ)
due to an improved mechanical interlocking between lightweight
aggregates and cement paste (Zhang and Gjørv, 1989). In terms of long-
term performance, Thomas and Bremner (2012) tested the chloride
resistance of LWAC after being placed in a harsh marine environment
for 25 years. They showed that the chloride diffusion in a real marine
environment is much less than the measured value in an accelerated
laboratory test. However, to conduct such a long-term test would be
difficult and time consuming, thus the more conservative accelerated
experimental programs are still preferable and widely used. Justnes et al.
(2016) proposed a methodology relating the chloride diffusion
coefficient with concrete cover thickness and the presented benchmark
can be used for structural service life design or evaluation.
Due to the high porosity of lightweight aggregates, the damaged surface
of LWAC is prone to water penetration under hydrostatic pressure and
water absorption without an external pressure. Liu et al. (2011) found
that both increase as the fraction of lightweight aggregates increases. For
floating marine structures, the maximum hydrostatic pressure which the
material experiences is limited by the maximum water depth that the
structure can reach. Hence, the effect of water absorption should be more
significant than water penetration under pressure.
Silica fume has been proven effective in reducing concrete’s
permeability to chloride ions and water, and hence enhancing its
durability performance. Perraton et al. (1988) reported a significant
reduction in chloride ion diffusion with increase in silica fume content.
Dotto et al. (2004) instigated the effect of silica fume on the corrosion
behavior of steel reinforcement bars. They noted that, though silica fume
would cause a lower pH value in pore solution, the electrical resistivity
of concrete increases as the addition of silica fume content increases.
They hence concluded that silica fume could be effectively used in
protecting steel reinforcement against corrosion.
 coarse lightweight aggregates respectively. For each of them, cement
The main objective of this study is to investigate the effect of two distinct was replaced with silica fume at percentages of 0%, 10% and 20% by
coarse lightweight aggregates, namely expanded shale and expanded weight. All the mixtures had the same w/c ratio of 0.27. Table 2 presents
slate, on the chloride resistance and water absorption of high the mix proportions in details.
performance LWACs whose average 28-day strength is 60 – 70 MPa.
This study also aims to verify the effect of various percentages of silica Table 2. Concrete mix proportion
fume in replacement of ordinary Portland cement. Two accelerated tests
were adopted to evaluate concrete’s resistance to chloride penetration. Coarse Mixtures1
Besides, a long-term monitoring of water absorption is implemented in Series Mix Aggregate w/c [kg per m3 of concrete]
this study since there is no existing accelerated test method that correlate (CA) OPC SF Water CA FA2
with the long-term water absorption behavior of concrete.
ST0 468 0 126 590 491
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS 1 ST10 ST 421 47 126 590 491
ST20 0.27 374 94 126 590 491
LWAC Specimen Preparation
AC0 458 0 124 594 487
Materials. ASTM Type I ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with a density 2 AC10 AC 412 46 124 594 487
of 3140 kg/m3 was used to prepare the concrete specimens in this study.
The silica fume (SF) used has a micro silica (SiO2) content of 91.73% AC20 366 92 124 594 487
and density of 2270 kg/m3. Sieve analysis showed that the amount of 1 Mixtures:all are shown in SSD mass
2FA: Fine Aggregates, i.e., Asanolight Sand
silica fume retained on 45-µm sieve was 0.3%. The two types of coarse
lightweight aggregates used in this study were expanded slate, named
Stalite (ST) (Fig. 1-a) from the United States and expanded shale, Mixing, casting and curing conditions. Prior to mixing, coarse
Asanolight Coarse (AC) (Fig 1-b) from Japan. In addition, the fine lightweight aggregates were pre-soaked for 24 hours and dried to
aggregates is also lightweight, which is Asanolight sand from Japan. In saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. For each mix proportion, three
the remaining of this paper, Asanolight shall refer to the Asanolight cylinder specimens, with a diameter of 100 mm and length of 200 mm,
coarse aggregate without further clarification. The properties of these were cast. Some 100 mm cubic specimens were also cast to test the
lightweight aggregates are summarized in Table 1. developed LWACs' compressive strength and density. The specimens
were demolded one day after casting and moist cured in a fog room at
100% relative humidity (RH) for 7 days, followed by exposure to the
laboratory condition of RH around 80% until 28 days. The ambient
temperature during mixing, casting and curing were around 28 °C. When
the LWAC specimens were 28 days of age, each cylinder was cut into
three 50 ± 3 mm thick disc-shape specimens. Nine disc specimens can
thus be obtained, and three disc specimens would be tested in each of the
following tests.

Rapid Chloride Penetrability Test (RCPT)

a. Stalite b. Asanolight Coarse RCPT (ASTM C1202, 2016) gives an indicative measure of the
Fig. 1 Coarse lightweight aggregates used in this study. concrete's resistance to the penetration of chloride ions. It determines the
electrical conductance of a concrete specimen by monitoring the current
Table 1. Properties of lightweight aggregates passed through over time. The more charges passed through the
specimen, the poorer the specimen's chloride resistance is.
Asanolight
Aggregate Stalite (ST) Asanolight Sand Before the testing, the disc specimens were coated with epoxy on the side
Coarse (AC)
surface to ensure a one-dimensional flow of chloride ions. After the
Coarse Coarse Fine
Type epoxy coating had dried, the test specimens were then air vacuumed for
expanded slate expanded shale expanded shale
3 hours, followed by being vacuumed in de-aerated lime water for
Finesses modulus 6.73 6.11 2.78 another hour and then soaked for 18 ± 2 h (ASTM C1202, 2016). During
Density, SSD the test, an electrical field of 60 V was maintained across the ends of the
1475 1419 1965
(kg/m3) specimen for 6 hours. One end surface of the concrete was immersed in
Water absorption, 3.0 % sodium chloride (NaCl) solution and the other in 0.3 M sodium
4.28 7.72 -* hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The current passed through the specimen
1h (%)
Water absorption, were recorded by a computer program so that the total charge passed
5.86 11.15 12.07 through the specimen can be calculated.
24h (%)
Smoother, with
Appearance of Non-Steady State Migration (NSSM) Test
Rough an apparent -
outer surface
outer shell
The NSSM test was conducted according to the Nordic test standard NT
* The 1-hour water absorption for lightweight fine aggregates was not
BUILD 492 (1999). Similar to RCPT, an external electrical potential was
measured due to the difficulties in dealing with the lightweight sand of
applied across the specimen forcing the chloride ions to migrate into the
very low density.
specimen. After a certain period, the test specimen was axially split in
halves and spayed with silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution. The chloride
Mix proportions. Two series of LWACs were developed with the two
penetration depth can then be measured from the white silver chloride
(AgCl) precipitation and would be used to calculate the migration
coefficient.
The pre-conditioning procedures were same as RCPT, except that no
coating was applied in this case. After pre-conditioning, the specimen
was fitted and secured into a rubber sleeve such that no leaking would
occur. It was then placed on a plastic support in the catholyte reservoir,
which was filled with 10% NaCl solution. The sleeve above the specimen
was filled with 300 ml anolyte solution of 0.3 M NaOH, to immerse the
anode. An electric field of 30 V was applied across the specimen for 24
hours. At the end of the test, the specimen was disassembled and rinsed
with tap water. Excess water was wiped off before the specimen was split
axially. A 0.1 M AgNO3 solution was then sprayed on the freshly split
sections. The chloride penetration depth was measured when the white
silver chloride precipitation on the split surface is clearly visible. The
chloride migration coefficient was calculated as (NT Build 492, 1999):
0.0239(273+𝑇𝑇)𝐿𝐿 (273+𝑇𝑇)𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑
𝐷𝐷𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = (𝑈𝑈−2)𝑡𝑡
(𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 − 0.0238� ) (1)
𝑈𝑈−2
where,
𝐷𝐷𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = non-steady state migration (NSSM) coefficient (×10-12 m2/s);
𝑈𝑈 = the applied voltage (V);
𝑇𝑇 = average value of the initial and final temperatures in the anolyte
solution (°C);
𝐿𝐿 = thickness of the specimen (mm);
𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 = the average value of the penetration depths (mm); and
Water absorption I was then plotted against the square root of time t0.5.
Two individual linear regressions can be obtained, one for the first six
hours and the other for data points recorded from 1 day to 7 days. The
initial and secondary sorptivity were determined as the slope of these two
regressions (ASTM C1585, 2004). The initial water absorption at 1 hour
is also of interest. Besides, in order to monitor a longer term water
absorption of LWACs, this test was conducted for as long as 75 days, as
opposed to the recommended 10-day measurement in ASTM C1585
(2004).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mechanical properties
The compressive strength and demolding density of the developed
LWACs are presented in Fig. 1. Comparing the two types of coarse
lightweight aggregates, LWACs cast with Stalite generally has a higher
compressive strength and lower density than that of Asanolight. This
indicates that LWACs cast with Stalite has a higher strength to weight
ratio and hence are more effective as structural concrete, especially for
floating structures. The higher compressive strength of Stalite LWACs
is contributed by the improved aggregate-paste bond, or the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ), as Stalite has a rougher surface as opposed to the
apparent shell of Asanolight.
(a)
80 1860
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Demolding Density (kg/m3)

𝑡𝑡 = test duration (s). 75 1840
70 1820
Water Absorption Test
65 1800
Water absorption test determines the concrete’s sorptivity, which is rate 60 1780
of absorption, of water by measuring the increase in the mass of a
specimen as a function of the square root of time. The testing procedure 55 1760
was based on ASTM C1585 (2004) with some modifications and was 50 1740
performed on the cut surfaces rather than as-cast surface.
45 1720
The specimens were coated with epoxy on the side surface to ensure a 40 1700
one-dimensional flow of water. The test specimens were pre-conditioned 0 10 20
in an environment with constant temperature of 50 ± 2 °C and RH of
1-day SF (%) 7-day
80% for 3 days. This was achieved by placing the specimens in a
desiccator inside an oven with pre-set temperature at 50 °C and a 28-day Demolding Density
saturated potassium bromide (KBr) solution at the bottom of the
desiccator. After 3 days, the specimens were then transferred to separate (b)
sealable containers and stored at room temperature for at least 15 days 80 1860
before the start of the absorption test.
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Demolding Density (kg/m3)

75 1840
The end surface that would not be exposed to water was sealed by a 70 1820
plastic sheet and secured with an elastic band to avoid water evaporation.
65 1800
The initial mass of the specimen was recorded. The sealed specimen was
then placed on two bamboo sticks in a container, which was then filled 60 1780
with tap water to a level of 1 to 3 mm above the bottom of specimen. The 55 1760
water level was maintained as such throughout the test. After the first
contact with water, the mass of the specimen was recorded at intervals 50 1740
as recommended. Before each measurement, excess water on the test 45 1720
specimen was removed with a damped paper towel. The absorption, 𝐼𝐼
(kg/m2), was calculated as (ASTM C1585) 40 1700
0 10 20
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 /𝐴𝐴 (2) 1-day SF (%) 7-day
where, 28-day Demolding Density
𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 = the change in specimen mass (g), at time t; and Fig.1 Compressive strength and demolding density of LWACs
𝐴𝐴 = the exposed area of the specimen (m2). incorporating (a) Stalite and (b) Asanolight Coarse
For LWACs incorporating the same type of coarse lightweight
aggregates, as the percentage of silica fume increases, the compressive
strength increases while the demolding density decreases. Hence,
increasing the percentage of silica fume can be beneficial for the
application of floating structures despite the higher cost of silica fume
compared to ordinary cement. The higher compressive of silica fume
containing LWACs is due to the improved ITZ, and enhanced
microstructure due to improved pozzolanic reaction, as Rafat (2011)
pointed out in his review on the effect of silica fume on hardened
concrete. The decrease in density with increasing silica fume dosage,
however, is not well understood or documented in the existing literatures.
Chloride penetration resistance
As seen in Fig. 2, both the total charges passed and the migration
coefficient for LWACs made with Stalite are lower than that of
Asanolight, indicating a higher resistance against chloride ions at the
same silica fume percentage. This is consistent with the trend in
compressive strength due to improved ITZ. Besides, the higher water
absorption rate of Asanolight indicates it possesses a more porous
Water absorption
Fig.3 presents the results of the water absorption test, including the initial
and secondary sorptivity, as well as the initial water absorption. The
LWACs made of Asanolight have higher values for all the three
parameters. This owes to the higher water absorption of the aggregate
itself, which is almost two times of that for Stalite as previously
presented in Table 1.
As the percentage of silica fume increases, the initial water absorption
decreases for LWACs with the same type of coarse lightweight
aggregates. This is consistent with the effect of silica fume on chloride
resistance with an improved microstructure. However, no obvious trend
exists in the initial and secondary sorptivity, as the values are quite close
to each other. This indicates a minimal effect of silica fume on the rate
of water absorption, since the ITZ does not contribute as much as
aggregates’ porosity in water absorption.
30 80
70
25

Initial Absorption (g/m2)

structure. Hence, LWACs cast with Asanolight also show a higher

Sorptivity (g/m2 h0.5)

60
permeability of water and external ions than Stalite.
20
50
For the same type of coarse lightweight aggregates, chloride resistance
15 40
improves when silica fume percentage increases. This is because silica
fume consists of very fine spherical particles and has a very high content 30
10
of amorphous silicon dioxide. Such extreme fineness and high silica
20
content make it a highly effective pozzolanic material. Besides the
5
acceleration of cement hydration, the pozzolanic reaction of silica fume 10
can densify the microstructure by turning calcium hydroxide into C-S-H
0 0
binder. The ITZ is hence improved and become more tortuous against
ST0 ST10 ST20 AC0 AC10 AC20
external substances.
Mix
One should also note that the total charges and migration coefficients
both show a tremendous drop when the silica fume content increase from Initial Sorptivity Secondary Soptivity Initial Absoprtion
0% to 10%, whereas there is not so much decrease from 10% to 20%
silica fume. Therefore, silica fume is more efficient in improving Fig 3. Initial water absorption, initial sorptivity and secondary sorptivity
LWAC's chloride resistance when the replacement percentage is low.
Since the cost of silica fume is higher than OPC, the optimal replacement The long-term results of the water absorption presented in Fig. 4
percentage should be carefully determined based on the evaluation of indicates that the water absorption would reach a steady state in general
durability performance and economical consideration. where the weight of the specimen does not increase further. Again,
LWACs made with Asanolight exhibit a higher water absorption
1000 5 compared to Stalite. For LWACs cast with Stalite, the long-term water
absorption is lower as the percentage of silica fume increases.
900 4,5
NSSM Coefficient (10-12m2/s)

350
Total Charges (Coulumbs)

800 4
700 3,5 300
Water absprotion, I (g/m2)

600 3 250
500 2,5
200
400 2
150
300 1,5
200 1 100
100 0,5 50
0 0
0
ST0 ST10 ST20 AC0 AC10 AC20
0 20 40 60
Mix Time, t (day)
ST0 ST10 ST20
RCPT NSSM AC0 AC10 AC20
Fig 2. RCPT and NSSM test results Fig. 4 Long-term water absorption of LWACs

However, such trend is not observed in LWACs made with Asanolight.
Such phenomenon may result from an ineffective pre-conditioning for
the specimens. The purpose of pre-conditioning is to ensure an
equilibrium of RH across the interior of the concrete pores. Castro et al.
(2011) did a comprehensive work on the effect of various pre-
conditioning for water absorption test and claimed that the standard pre-
conditioning is good enough for the concrete specimen to reach such an
equilibrium state. Since the water abortion of Asanolight aggregates is
very high and they were pre-soaked prior to mixing, there is a high
chance that the interior of the specimens do not reach the equilibrium
state when the test first began. This results in an inaccurate outcome of
the water absorption test for LWACs made with Asanolight. A more
effective pre-conditioning method should be further explored for coarse
lightweight aggregates with higher water absorption, such as Asanolight.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This study investigates the durability of LWAC with respect to chloride
penetration resistance and water absorption through experimental tests.
The conclusions drawn are as follows:
1. The durability performance of LWAC made with Stalite as coarse
aggregates is generally better than that of Asanolight in terms of
chloride resistance and water absorption behavior.
2. Silica fume can enhance the durability of LWACs. With an
increasing percentage of replacement, both chloride resistance and
water absorption of LWAC improve. However, over-replacement
of OPC with silica fume may not be economical and the optimal
replacement level should be determined based on an overall
evaluation.
3. Long-term measurement of water absorption of LWACs provides
an indication on the loss of effective buoyancy for floating
structures in case there is a damaged surface.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Land and Livability National
Innovation Challenge (L2NIC) Directorate (Grant number L2NICTDF1-
2015-2), Ministry of National Development, National Research
Foundation and JTC Corporation, for providing the research grant to
conduct this research on concrete materials for large marine floating
structures.
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