Lecture Notes Lecture All PDF

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Lecture notes, lecture all
Environmental Science (University of Ontario Institute of Technology)
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Environmental Science:
Environment:
-consists of both biotic factors and abiotic factors
-humans are part of the environment
-humans exist within the environment/ we are part of the natural world
-humans depend on a properly functioning planet for our survival
-humans have modified the environment
-our actions have brought beneficial and harmful changes
Renewable resources:
-cannot be depleted (ex: sunlight)
-resources are renewable only if we do not overuse them (ex: soil, timber, clean water)
Non-renewable resources: can be depleted (ex: oil, minerals)
Human population growth has affected resource availability:
-human population has increased to over 7 billion
-agricultural and industrial revolutions drove growth
-medical-technological revolutions led to longer, healthier lives
Excessive Consumption reduces resource availability:
-human population growth increases environmental problems
-consumption of resources has risen faster than population growth
IPAT Model: I=PxAxTxS
-total impact (I) on environment results from interaction of population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T),
with an added sensitivity (S) factor
-Population: individuals need space and resources
-Affluence: greater per capita resource use
-Technology: increased exploitation of resources
-Sensitivity: how sensitive an area is to human pressure
-further model refinements include education, laws, ethics
Environmental Problems:
-an undesirable change that varies with age, culture, education level, and world view
-ex: pesticide DDT
believed to be safe in 1945, known to be toxic today
still used in Africa to combat malaria

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1.) Population Growth:

-rate of growth has slowed; still over 200,000 people added to the world each day
-can potentially intensify all environmental problems
2.) Land Issues:
-growth of human population has resulted from our increased food production
-the cost is massive use of chemicals
-conversion of habitats
-poor management of farmland results in destruction of millions of acres
3.) Environmental Pollution:
-since the start of industrial revolution atmosphere;
CO2 has increased 31%
CH4 has increased 151%
ozone has increased 36%
-these have lead to climate change
4.) Aquatic Resource Issues:
-over-harvesting and pollution in freshwaters and oceans are getting more attention
-release of pollutants into the ocean poses a serious danger to sea life
-recently, 2.9 million pounds of garbage collected from US beaches
5.) Non-renewable Resources:
-many non-renewable resources are overexploited
-between 1950 and 2001 our population has doubled
-consumption of oil, gas, and coal has increased 4 times
-society needs minerals and fossil fuels but their extraction can degrade the environment
6.) Biodiversity Decline:
-habitat destruction and other causes have driven many species extinct, and threaten many more
*-biggest environmental problem
because we cannot correct mistakes
later
7.) Wicked Problems:
-problems with many causes and
many stakeholders with different
goals

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Avoiding Mistakes of the Past:

-Rapa Nui (Easter Island) once inhabited by 6,000-20,000 people
once lushly forested but resource abuse destroyed habitat (and civilization)
-identified 5 critical factors that determine survival of civilizations:
1.) Climate change
2.) Hostile neighbors
3.) Trade partners
4.) Environmental problems
5.) Response to environmental problems – controllable
-success and persistence of a civilization depend on how societies interact with their environments
Resolving Environmental Problems:
-need to change to new practices that offer sustainable solutions to environmental problems in the near
future;
1.) Re-connect from nature
2.) Interconnectedness
3.) Appreciate Inherent Value
4.) Reduce Consumerism
5.) Increase Diversity
6.) Limit Growth – Sustainability
7.) Long-term view
-developing sustainable solutions to environmental problems (ex: new technologies)
*-Biomimicry: looking to nature to find sustainable answers
-the goal of environmental science is sustainability
limiting human impact on the natural world so that our civilization can continue to exist in a
sustainable way
-Millennium Development Goals: achieve by 2015
-earth does not hold enough resources to sustain 7 billion of us at the North American standard of living
Population Growth:
Human Populations:
-ecological rules apply to humans
took all of human history to reach 1 billion, in 1802
in 1927, reached 2 billion, and then continued to grow rapidly

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reached 7 billion on Oct. 31st 2011

*-due to exponential growth, even if the growth rate remains steady, population will continue to grow
-perspectives on human population have changed over time
-population growth results from technology, sanitation, and food
death rates drop, but not birth rates
-some people say growth is no problem
new resources will replace depleted ones
some resources (ex: biodiversity) are irreplaceable
-quality of life will suffer with unchecked growth
less food, space, wealth per person
Some Countries Fear Falling Populations:
-population growth is correlated with poverty, not wealth
-policymakers believe growth increases economic, political, military strength
-governments offer incentives for more children
-60% of European nations think their birth rates are too low
-in non-European nations, only 8% feel their birth rates are too low
Computer Stimulations predict the future:
-stimulations project trends in population, food, pollution, and resource availability
-status quo leads to:
sudden food/population decrease
pollution increase
-sustainability leads to:
food and population stabilize
pollution decrease
Human Population Impact:
*-humanity uses 1/3 of all Earth’s newly produced organic matter
-all population principles apply to humans
environmental factors limit population growth
-humans can raise environment’s carrying capacity through technology
-demographers study: population size, density/distribution, age structure, sex ratio, birth, death, immigration/
emigration rates

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Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age):

-hunter-gatherer lifestyle
-shape and use of stones 2.5 million years ago, which helped modify their environment
-use of fire as much as 1.5 million years ago
-evolution of homo sapiens `200,000 years ago
-little evidence about population at this time
Neolithic (New Stone Age):
-agricultural revolution
-10,000-12,000 years ago
-initiated permanent change in way humans relate to nature
-made cities, economies possible
Industrial Revolution:
-began in the mid 1700’s
-shift from rural life, animal-powered agriculture, and hand-manufacturing to an urban society powered by
fossil fuels
-improved sanitation/ medical technology
-enhanced agricultural production
Medical-Technological Revolution:
-current revolution
-people live longer and healthier lives
-Green Revolution: shift to modern industrialized agriculture
-Gene Revolution: humans genetically modify organisms for human purposes
1.) Population Size is Increasing:
-nobody knows the ultimate human population size
-but numbers are not the only important aspect
-highest population density is in temperate, subtropical, and tropical biomes
some areas are heavily impacted by urbanization, pollution, fossil fuel use
2.) Population Distribution is Uneven:
-highest population density is in temperature, subtropical, and tropical area – greatest impacted by
urbanization and pollution
3.) Age Structure Affects Future Population Size:
-having many individuals in young age groups results in high reproduction and rapid growth

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-many populations are getting older – different needs

4.) Sex Ratios Affect Future Population Size:
-naturally occurring sex ratios for humans slightly favors males (100 females/106 males)
Factors Affecting Human Population Growth:
-whether a population grows, shrinks, or remains stable depends on:
rates of birth, death, and migration
birth and immigration add individuals
death and emigration remove individuals
-technological advances: widening gap between birth rates and death rates resulting in population expansion
Immigration and Emigration Play Large Roles:
-refugees flee their home country as a result of war, civil strife and environmental degradation
-movement causes environmental problems with no incentives to conserve resources
*-falling growth rates do not mean decreasing population, but only that the rates of increase are slowing
The Demographic Transition: a model of economic and cultural change to explain declining death and birth
rates in industrializing nations
-stable pre-industrial state of high birth
and death rates change to a stable post-
industrial state of low bother and death
rates
-as mortality decreases, there is less need
for large families
-may or may not apply to all developing
countries
*-population growth is seen as a
temporary phenomenon
-Stage 1: countries with large growing
population
-Stage 4: countries with little population growth
Repercussions For Future:
1.) Increasing Population causes environmental degradation
*-99% of the next billion people added will be born in poor, less developed regions that are least able to
support them
-poverty often results in environmental degradation
-Africa’s Sahel region and western China are turning to desert
2.) More Consumption causes environmental degradation

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-resource use is not just a problem in poor countries with high population densities
-affluent societies have enormous resource consumption and waste production people use resources from
other areas, as well as from their own
-attempt to measure using ecological footprint
*-Humanity’s global ecological footprint surpassed Earth’s capacity to support
us in 1987
-Ecological Footprints of Countries Vary Greatly:
-population and consumption lie at the root of many environmental impacts
-developed countries use far more than their equal share of the world’s
resources
-developing countries have much smaller footprints then developed
-creates a “wealth gap”
3.) Conflict caused by Wealth Gap and Population Growth:
-stark contrast between affluent and poor societies causes social and environmental stress
-richest 20% use 86% of world’s resources
-increasing tensions between “haves” and “have-nots”
4.) Some areas affected by HIV/AIDS Epidemic
-in 2006, 40 million people infected (most live in Africa)
Demographic Changes Have Severe Effects:
-6,000 Africans die each day
*-AIDS undermines transition of developing countries to modern technologies
Potential Solutions:
-Millennium Development Goals:
achieve by 2015
does not include population control
*-Earth does not hold enough resources to sustain 7 billion people at a North American standard of living
1.) More Equitable Access to resources:
-poverty and population growth are correlated
-poorer societies have higher growth rates than wealthier societies
consistent with demographic transition theory
have higher fertility/growth rates, with lower contraceptive use
2.) Empowering Women Reduces Growth Rates:

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-fertility rates drop when women gain access to contraceptives, family planning programs and better
educational opportunities
-in 2007, 54% of married women worldwide used contraception
*-women with little power have unintentional pregnancies
3.) Gender Equity through Access to Education:
-women lack the information and personal freedom to achieve equal power with men
2/3 people who cannot read are women
60% of people living in poverty are women
-increasing female literacy is strongly associated with reduced birth rates
Human Consumption:
Human Affluence and Consumption:
-examine how humans use the resources available on Earth
-find that developed countries use considerably more resources to maintain a modern life-style than
developing countries which have higher populations but poorer quality of life
-since natural or ecological “rules” apply to humans, an affluent lifestyle is not sustainable
IPAT Model: shows environmental impact of a person, population or business by including population size,
affluence and technology
-measured using the Ecological Footprint Model
-technology can increase impact but it can also decrease the impact
Ecological Footprint: estimate of environmental impact
-the land/water area needed to provide the resources for a person or a population or a business as well as the
land/water required to assimilate the wastes produced
Economics:
-the study of how people use resources to provide goods and services in the face of variable supply and
demand
*-“oikos” is Greek for “home” (common for both ecology and economics)
-tracks the use of resources for the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services
-all resources for the economy come from the environment
Types of Modern Economics:
-describe how humans think about resources
-create many human impacts on the environment
-Subsistence Economy: people meet needs directly from nature and agriculture; do not buy most products
-Centrally Planned Economy: national government determines how to allocate resources

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-Capitalist Market Economy: buyers and sellers interact to determine prices and production of goods and
services
-Mixed Economy: free market with some government involvement
Mainstream Economics:
-mainstream economic models focus on interactions between households and businesses
-Internal Costs: looks at direct costs of materials and the delivery of the products
-External Costs: views environment only as an external “factor of production”
Classical Model of Mainstream Economics:
-attributed to Adam Smith
-when people are free to pursue their own economic self-interest in a
competitive marketplace, the marketplace will behave as if guided by an
“invisible hand”
-such “laissez faire” approach ensures that free market will benefit society
as a whole
-can contribute to environmental problems:
leads to greater inequities between rich and poor
”main cause” of environmental degradation due to assumption of endless growth
Neo-Classical Model of Mainstream Economics:
-focuses on psychology of consumer choice
-market favors equilibrium between supply and demand
Assumptions of Neo-Classical Economics:
1.) Resources are infinite or substitutable:
some can be replaced
others are non-renewable
2.) Long-term effects are discounted:
the future is given less weight than the present because effects are so far in the future
decisions are made that maximize short-term benefits
3.) Costs and benefits are internal:
in fact, someone else may pay the price
the market does not take costs of pollution into account
by ignoring external costs, economies create false idea of the true costs of particular choices
4.) Growth is good:
assumption is that for people to have a good quality of life economies need to grow

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most economies are still expanding despite predictions that limits innovation has enabled us to push
back the limits on growth
technological innovation has enabled us to push back the limits on growth
Is Endless Economic Growth Sustainable?
-Affluenza: material goods do not always bring happiness
-uncontrolled economic growth is unsustainable:
technology can push back limits, but not forever
more efficient resource extraction and food production perpetuates the illusion that resources are
unlimited
-many economists believe technology can solve everything
Mainstream Economics is Unsustainable:
-both corporate and individual economic choices focus on short-term gain rather than long-term sustainability
-tends to focus on immediate usefulness on profit (“the” bottom line)
-ignores less visible benefits
-assumes unlimited resources and endless growth
Uncontrolled Economic Growth is Unsustainable:
-assumption that “more and bigger is better” is unsustainable
-dramatic rise in per-person consumption has severe environmental consequences
Creates Economy-vs.-Environmental Divide:
-what accounts for the view that we cannot protect the environment and provide for people’s needs?
economic development has clearly diminished biodiversity, decreased habitat, and degraded ecological
systems
many people believe command-and-control environmental policy poses excessive costs for industry and
restricts rights of private citizens
historically, we lived with abundant resources, and exploited them
-philosophers have said that perceived dichotomy between humans and nature is at the root of all our
environmental problems
Ecosystem Goods and Services not considered:

-Natural resources: “goods” we get from our environment
*-the environment enables economic activity by providing goods and services  economic activity can affect
the environment in return
-not usually expressed in traditional monetary terms
-this is one of the reasons why our society often
mistreats the ecosystem
-environmental economists have tried to assign non-
market values to ecosystem services
-these are values that are not usually included in
prices of goods or services

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Potential Solutions:
-need to focus on long-term sustainability rather than short-term gain
-need to live within “our means”
-need to focus on more than monetary economic goals – think about the “triple bottom line”
-need to appreciate the less visible benefits
-economic growth is merely a tool to attain the real goal of maximizing
human happiness
-cannot attain long-term happiness by endlessly expanding our
economy
-need to incorporate external costs into market prices of goods and
services
-green taxes and phasing out harmful substances could encourage
sustainability
Ecological Economics:
-sees the human economy as within the environment
-economy receives resources and services from the environment – look to nature for solutions
-without natural resources  no economics  no humans
Ecosystems and Nutrient Cycling:

Ecology:
-the distribution and abundance of organisms
-the interactions among organisms (biotic interactions)
-the interactions between organisms and their non-living environments (abiotic interactions)
Organisms and their Habitats form Complex Systems:

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-involves any species (different kinds of organisms) interacting within their species and with other species
-involves interactions with the physical and chemical surroundings
-Species: a group of plants or animals that have a high degree of similarity and can generally only interbreed
among themselves
-Habitat: the physical environment in which individuals of a particular species can be found
-Niche: the role a species plays in its community, including how it gets its energy and nutrients, its habitat
requirements, and what other species and parts of the ecosystem it interacts with
*-every species plays a role
Ecosystem:
-all organisms and nonliving entities that occur and interact in a particular area at the same time
includes abiotic and biotic components
energy flows/matter cycles among these components
-biological entities are highly intertwined with chemical and physical entities
-categorizing environmental systems helps make Earth’s dazzling complexity comprehensible
-Earth consists of structural spheres
-boundaries overlap, so the systems interact
-Dynamic Equilibrium: system processes move in opposing directions at equivalent rates, balancing their
effects
-Homeostasis: a system maintains constant or stable internal conditions
-Emergent Properties: system characteristics not evident in components alone
*-the whole is a sum of its parts
*-emergent properties become evident as we move from one level to the next higher level
-Feedback Loop: a system’s output serves as input to that same ecosystem
-Negative Feedback Loop: output that results from a system moving in one direction acts as input that moves
the system in the other direction
-Positive Feedback Loop: instead of stabilizing a system, it drives it further toward one extreme or another
Need Ecosystem entities Approach to Environmental Problems:
-environmental entities are complex systems that interact with each other
-to solve environmental problems, all appropriate systems must be considered
Major Aquatic Types:
-account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
1.) Freshwater (lakes, rivers)
-salt concentration of less than 1%

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-linked to terrestrial biomes through which they pass

2.) Saltwater (oceans, estuaries)
-salt concentrations ~3%
-cover about 75% of Earth’s surface
-have an enormous impact on the biosphere
-aquatic systems are shaped by:
-water temperature, salinity, and dissolved nutrients
-wave action, currents, depth
-substrate type, and animal and plant life
Aquatic Ecosystems have Biome-like Patterns:
-aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth
Terrestrial Biomes:
-are major types of ecological associations that occupy broad geographic regions of land
-involve assemblages of similar communities, recognized by the dominant plant type and vegetation structure
-show varying climate
-widely separated regions share climate similarities
-12 major biomes based on major physical/climatic factors and the predominant vegetation in region
-defined by climate (climate affects distribution of organisms) – shown in climograph
Function of Ecosystems:
-earth is a closed system for matter but an open system for energy
-energy from the sun flows in one direction
energy from sun enters ecosystems where it is processed and transformed and leaves as heat
-matter is recycled within ecosystems
results in outputs (heat, water flow, waste products)
Law of Tolerance:
-every organism has an optimal range for survival and growth for each
environmental condition
-above and below this range, survival, growth, and physiological
functioning is increasingly reduced until survival is no longer possible

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Law of Minimum:
-for every population there will be a limiting resource which determines the carrying capacity of the habitat
Nutrient Availability can Limit Productivity:
-nutrients: elements and compounds required for survival that
are consumed by organisms
-macronutrients: nutrients required in relative large amounts
(N,P,K)
-micronutrients: nutrients needed in smaller amounts
-stimulate production of cyanobacteria, algae, and plants
-N and P are important for plant and algal growth (can limit or promote growth)
-P can cause a cyanobacteria bloom
Excessive Nutrients Devastate Aquatic Systems:
-dead zones of water result from nutrient pollution from farms, cities, and industry
-pollution and human impact have devastated fisheries and altered aquatic ecosystems
-scientists are investigating innovative and economical ways to reduce nutrient runoff
Nutrients Circulate through Ecosystems:
-physical matter is circulated continually in an ecosystem
-nutrient (biogeochemical) cycle: the movement of nutrients through ecosystems
-pools (reservoirs): where nutrients reside for varying amounts of time
-flux: movement of nutrients among pools, which change over time and are influenced by human activities
-sources: pools that release more nutrients than they accept
-sinks: pools that accept more nutrients than
they release

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Human Affect the Carbon Cycle:

-burning fossil fuels move carbon from the ground to the air
-cutting forests and burning fields moves carbon from organisms to the air
-today’s atmospheric carbon dioxide reservoir is the largest in the last 650,000 years = driving force behind
climate change
Humans Affect the Phosphorus Cycle:
-mining rocks for fertilizer moves phosphorus from
the soil to water systems
wastewater discharge also releases P
-runoff containing P causes eutrophication of aquatic
systems
Humans Affect the Nitrogen Cycle:
-Nitrogen fixation: N2 is combined with H by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria to form ammonium
-Nitrifying bacteria: convert ammonium ions into
nitrate ions then into nitrate ions – used by plants
-Denitrifying bacteria: convert nitrates in soil or
water to N2, releasing it back into the air
-Haber-Bosch process: synthetic production of
fertilizers by combining N and H to synthesize
ammonia
-dramatically changed the N cycle

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-humans are fixing as much N as nature does

-increased emissions of N-containing greenhouse gases
-acidified water and soils
-changed estuaries and costal ecosystems and fisheries
-eutrophication: process of nutrient over-enrichment that leads to blooms of algae increased production of
organic matter, and ecosystem degradation
Population Ecology:
-population: a group of individuals of a species that
live in a particular area and share resources
-population dynamics are affected by following
characteristics of a population:
1.) Population Size: number of individual organisms
present at a given time
-numbers can increase, decrease, cycle, or remain the same
-minimum viable population: smallest number of individuals that would still allow a population to persist or
grow ensuring long-term survival
2.) Population Density: number of individuals within a population per unit space
-high densities; easier to find mates, but increases competition and vulnerability to predation
-low densities; harder to find mates, but individuals enjoy plentiful resources and space
3.) Population Distribution: spatial arrangement of individual organisms within an area
-Clumped (common): based on resources or habitats (ex: ocean)
-Random: resources found throughout habitat so not much
-Uniform: individuals compete for space and resources
4.) Population Demographics: respond to changes in sex ratio, age structure, survivorship
-Sex Ratio: proportion of males to females
-Age Structure: relative numbers of organisms of each age cohort within a population
-Survivorship: patterns of survival at different lifestages
crude estimation of birth/death rates
Type I: more deaths at older ages
Type II: equal number of deaths at all ages
Type III: more deaths at young ages
Growth Rate Formula:
Growth Rate= (crude birth rate + immigration rate) – (crude death

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How Do Populations Grow?

1.) Exponential Growth:
-steady growth rates cause exponential growth
increases at fixed rate
gives J-shaped curve
-assumes unlimited resources
-cannot be sustained indefinitely
-occurs in nature under ideal conditions
Limiting factors slow growth rate down
-include all the physical, chemical, and biological factors that slow growth rate
-population growth levels off at a carrying capacity
-carrying capacity: maximum population size of a given species that an environment can sustain
-initial exponential growth reaching carrying capacity is shown by a logistic growth curve
2.) Logistic Growth:
-growth rate slows as carrying capacity is approached
-carrying capacity: the maximum population that an
environment can sustain
-gives S-shaped curve
-resources are limited
Relationship between Population Change and Density:
-in density-independent populations birth and death rate do not change with population density
-in density-dependant populations birth rates fall and death rates rise with population density
1.) Density-Independent Populations:
-factors affect populations regardless of density
Weather phenomena: drought, floods, tornados, etc.
Natural Catastrophes: earthquakes, fires, volcanoes, etc.
Random Events: extraterrestrial, terrestrial
2.) Density-Dependant Populations:
-controlled by factors that regulate population growth through negative feedback
-affected by many mechanisms:
competition for resources
territoriality

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predation
health
toxic waste accumulation
intrinsic factors – species specific
Biotic Potential: the ability of an organism to produce offspring
1.) K-selected Species:
-controlled by the carrying capacity of habitat
-animals with long gestation periods and few offspring
-have a low biotic potential stabilize at or near carrying capacity
-good competitors
2.) R-selected Species:
-controlled by the reproductive ability of species
-animals which reproduce quickly
-have a high biotic potential
-little parental care
Population Changes affect Communities:
As population in one species declines, other species
appear
-human development now displaces other species
and threatens biodiversity
Challenges to Protecting Biodiversity:
-social and economic factors affect species and
communities
nature is viewed as an obstacle to development
nature is viewed as only a source of resources
human population growth pressures biodiversity
-natural parks and protected areas help preserve biodiversity
Community Ecology:
-Community: a group of species living in the same place at the same time
-species interact with each other
-interactions determine the structure, function, and species composition of the community
-Community Ecologists: biologists interested in how:
species coexist and relate to one another

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communities change, and why patterns exist

Invasive Species:
-a species that spreads widely and rapidly becoming dominant in a community and changing the community’s
normal functioning
-many invasive species are non-native, introduced from other areas – have no natural controls in invaded area
Energy and Feeding Relationships:
-one of the most important species interactions is who eats whom
-matter and energy move through the community
-trophic levels: rank in the feeding hierarchy
producers
consumers
detritivores and decomposers
-food chain: relationship of how energy is moved through trophic levels (linear)
-food web: a more realistic visual map of all feeding relationships in a community (complex)
Energy, Biomass, and Numbers Decrease:
-most energy organisms use is lost as waste heat through respirations
less and less energy is available in each successive trophic level
each level contains only 10% of the energy of the trophic level below it
-there are far fewer organisms at the highest trophic levels, with less energy available
*-a human vegetarian’s ecological footprint is smaller than a meat-eater’s footprint
-Keystone Species: have a strong or wide-reaching impact far out of proportion to its abundance
removal of a keystone species has substantial ripple effects
Community Succession:
-succession: predictable series of changes in a community following a disturbance
-primary succession: disturbance eliminates all vegetation and/or soil life
glaciers, drying lakes, volcanic lava
-pioneer species: the first species to arrive in a primary succession area (ex: lichens)
usually r-selected species
-secondary succession: a disturbance that dramatically alters, but does not destroy, all local organisms
remaining organisms form “building blocks” for next population species
-climax community: community resulting from
successful succession

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remains stable until another disturbance

usually k-selected species
Biodiversity:
-biodiversity: the variety of all life on Earth
-levels of biodiversity:
genetic diversity
species diversity
ecosystem diversity
-biologists have described about 1.8 million species
-there may be as many as 100 million species
-endemic species: species that are found in only one region of the world naturally and are at risk of going
extinct
-endangered: species that are in danger of becoming extinct throughout its range
-threatened species: species that are considered likely to become endangered in foreseeable future
Concern about Biodiversity Loss:
-biodiversity is crucial natural resource
-loss of species means the loss of genes and genetic diversity
-enormous genetic diversity of organisms on Earth has potential for great human benefit
-many pharmaceuticals contain substances originally derived from plants
-of top 150 drugs in U.S, 118 based on natural sources: 74% on plants, 18% on fungi, 5% on bacteria, and 3%
on one vertebrate (snake venom)
-80% human population depends on traditional medicine; 85% of traditional medicine involves use of plant
extracts
*-predict 25% of tropical plants extinct in 30 years
*-14% of vascular plants already endangered
Biodiversity and Human Welfare:
-human biophilia
recognize value of biodiversity for its own sake
-species diversity brings humans many practical benefits
-instrumental value: species valued by usefulness to humans
-intrinsic value: species have value in themselves
Factors that Threaten Species Survival:
-throughout biosphere, human activities are altering ecosystem processes on which all species depend

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-rates of species extinction difficult to determine under natural conditions

-current rate of species extinction is high, largely due to ecosystem degradation by humans
-humans are threatening Earth’s biodiversity
-most species loss can be traced to 4 major threats:
1.) Habitat Destruction:
-human alteration of habitat is the single greatest threat to biodiversity throughout the biosphere
-massive destruction of habitat brought about by many types of human activity
-many natural landscapes have been broken up
-in almost all cases, habitat fragmentation and destruction leads to loss of biodiversity
2.) Introduced/Invasive Species:
-species that humans move from the species’ native locations to new geographic regions
-gain foothold in new habitat; usually disrupt their adopted community
3.) Overexploitation:
-refers to human harvesting of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding ability of populations of those species
to rebound
4.) Disruption of Interaction Networks:
-extermination of keystone species by humans
-can lead to major changes in community structure
How to Conserve Biodiversity:
-conservation biologists apply understanding of ecological dynamics
-focus on establishing protected areas in “hot spots” of biodiversity
-biodiversity hot spot: relatively small areas with high concentration of endemic species and a large number
of endangered species and threatened species
-biodiversity hot spots are obviously good choices for nature reserves – but identifying them is not always easy
Nature Reserves:
-nature reserves are biodiversity islands
in a sea of habitat degraded to varying degrees by human activity
-one argument for extensive reserves:
is that large, far-ranging animals with low-density populations require extensive habitats
Zoned Reserves:
-recognizes that conservation efforts often involve working in landscapes that are largely human-dominated
-are often established as “conservation areas”

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Evolution and Extinction:

Biological Evolution:
-involves changes in the genetic make-up of populations of species over time
-provides a mechanism to explain how organisms adapt to their environment and change over time
-is important to the understanding of the history of life
-evolution is critical for understanding antibiotic/pesticide resistance, agricultural/forestry issues, food
production, medicines, etc.
-mutations: accidental changes in DNA that may be passed on to the next generation
-sexual reproduction: mixes genetic information of 2 parents – increases variation in population
-coevolution: species evolving together by responding to changes in other species
*-aim to maximize adaptive variations = traits that promote survival and reproductive success

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Natural Selection:
-differential success in survival and reproduction of
individuals
-results in certain genetic traits being passed to the next
generation in greater proportions
-over time, characteristics of population change
-natural selection is evident in every adaption
of every organism
-evident in bacteria and fruit flies in
laboratories
-artificial selection: evident in selective
breeding of animals and plants
Natural Selection is not Goal-Oriented:
-process by which traits that enhance survival
and reproduction are passed on to the future
generations more frequently than those that
do not enhance survival and reproduction
-is an “editing” mechanism
-not a “creative force”
-it can only act on existing genetic variation in population
-it cannot create new or favorable traits
*-Biodiversity is determined by: speciation and extinction
Speciation: an evolutionary process by which new species come along into being
-a single species can generate multiple species
-has given Earth its current species
-occurs through natural selection
-individuals that have certain advantageous traits will survive better, and pass these traits to offspring
-this can change the characteristics of a population over time
Allopatric Speciation: species formation due to physical separation of populations
1.) single interbreeding population

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2.) population divided by a barrier; subpopulations isolated

3.) populations evolve independently and their traits diverge
4.) populations reunited when barrier removed, but are now different enough that they do not interbreed
Sympatric Speciation:
-species form from populations that become reproductively isolated within the same area
-feed in different areas
-mate in different seasons
-mutations cause incompatibility
1.) lake is formed by melting glacier
2.) lake is colonized by fish
3.) some individuals exhibit genetic changes leading to different feeding behaviours – breed separately
4.) leads to independent evolution of traits and speciation
Extinction:
-the disappearance of an entire species from Earth
-occurs when a species cannot adapt quickly enough to a changing environment
*-average time for a species on Earth is ~1-10 million years
*-species currently on Earth = the number formed by speciation minus the number removed by extinction
Earth has Several Mass Extinctions:
-background extinction rate: extinction usually occurs one species at a time
-mass extinction events: 5 events in Earth’s history that killed off massive numbers of species at once
-Earth has had 5 mass extinctions in the last 600 million years
5th Mass Extinction:
-caused by asteroid impact
-impact led to disappearance of dinosaurs
-impact also led to rise of the mammals
6th Mass Extinction:
-humans are causing this
resource depletion
resource development
human population growth
genetic modification of organisms

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Soil Resources:
Soil is a Complex Ecosystem:
-soil consists of mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water
-dead and living microorganisms and decaying material
-bacteria, algae, insects, earthworms, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles
*-since soil is composed of living and non-living matter, it is considered an ecosystem
Best Soils found in Grasslands:
-most important agricultural areas in the world were originally grasslands
Northern mixed grass prairie
tall grass prairie
pampas
steppes
savannah
-ecosystem services provided:
wildlife habitat
agricultural areas for crops
livestock grazing
biomass for biofuels
Soil Formation is slow and complex:
-weathering produces soil
-biological activity induces deposition, decomposition, and accumulation of organic matter
-humus: dark, spongy, crumbly mass of organic material formed by partial decomposition
Characterizing Soil:
-Soil Color: indicates its fertility and composition
-Soil Texture: determined by size of soil particles
-Soil Structure: a measure of soil’s “clumpiness”
-Soil pH: influences soil’s ability to support plant growth
-Soil ion exchange capacity:
Cations: held by clay
Anions: tend to was out
Soil Degradation: damage/loss of soils from poor management

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-productive soils are renewable but not if abused at rates that are faster than the renewal rate – leads to soil
degradation
-results from deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, erosion, and desertification
Soil Erosion is a Global Problem:
-native prairie grasses held erosion-prone soils in place
in North America: widespread cultivation of wheat, and grazing of many thousands of cattle
brought a cycle of poverty and overly intensive agricultural practices
-today humans are the primary cause of erosion – occurring at unnaturally high rates
-in Africa, erosion over the next 40 years could reduce crop yields by half – future of agriculture in crisis
-rainforests have high primary productivity, but nutrients are in plants, not in soils
rain leaches minerals and nutrients deeper into soil, reducing their accessibility to roots
swidden agricultural: cultivation of a plot for a few years and then letting it re-grow into forest
-temperate grasslands have lower rainfall and less nutrient leaching
Desertification:
-a loss of more than 10% productivity due to erosion, soil compaction, forest removal, overgrazing,
salinization, climate change, depletion of water sources
-affects 1/3 of Earth’s land area
-most prone areas are arid and semiarid lands
Prevention of Soil Damage:
Conserve Soils:
-Crop Rotation: alternating crops from year to year
-Contour Farming: plowing fields perpendicular to the slope
-Terracing: level platforms are cut into steep hillsides
-Intercropping: planting different types of crops in alternating bands or other mixed arrangements
-Reduced Tillage: furrows are cut in the soil, a seed is dropped in and furrow is closed
no-till farming disturbs the soil even less
-Sustainable:
less damage to soil
maintains soil integrity
more natural approach
Restore Plant Coverage:
-reduces soil erosion

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-eroding banks along creeks and roadsides are stabilized by planting plants to anchor soil
-tree-planting programs
slow erosion
but do not create ecologically functional forests, because monocultures are planted
Prevent Salinization:
-irrigation boosted productivity but has caused salinization problems
irrigation: artificially providing water to support agriculture
waterlogging: over-irrigated soils – water suffocates roots
salinization: buildup of salts in surface soil layers
-easier and cheaper to prevent salinization than fix it
do not plant water-guzzling crops in sensitive areas
choose appropriate crops for area
irrigate with low-salt water
Improve Fertilization:
-fertilizers boost yields but cause contamination problems
-fertilizer: substances that contain essential nutrients
-inorganic fertilizers: mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements
-organic fertilizers: the remains or wastes of organisms
manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation
compost: produced when decomposers break down organic matter
-problem: overuse of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
-use of synthetic inorganic fertilizers has skyrocketed
-over-applying fertilizer can ruin the soil and severely pollute water and air
-runoff causes eutrophication in nearby water systems
-nitrates leach through soil and contaminate groundwater
-nitrates can also evaporate into the air
-Problem: over-application of fertilizers has led to land, water and air contamination
Reduce Overgrazing for Livestock Farming:
-overgrazing: too many animals eat too much of the plant cover
impedes plant re-growth

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-a leading cause of soil degradation

-government subsides provide few incentives to protect rangeland
*-70% of the world’s rageland is classifies as degraded
Reduce Overgrazing:
-effects of overgrazing can be striking
-non-native invasive species invade
less palatable to livestock
out compete native vegetation
-learn from nature:
wild herbivores graze for short periods, move on – allowing recovery
domestic livestock allowed to graze too long leading to vegetation damage followed by soil damage
Agriculture:
-the practice of raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption
-land used it ~38% of Earth’s surface
-all usable land is in use – search for more land – often poorer quality land for agriculture
-cropland: land used to raise plants for human use
-rangeland or pasture: land used for grazing livestock
Agriculture Arose 10.000 years ago:
-agriculture invented independently by different cultures
-the earliest plant and animal domestication is from the “Fertile Crescent” of the Middle East
wheat, barley, rye, corn, peas, lentils, onions, goats, sheep
Traditional Agriculture fed More People:
-biologically powered agriculture, using human and animal muscle power
-Subsistence Agriculture: families produce only enough food for themselves
-Intensive Agriculture: produces excess food to sell

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uses animals, irrigation and natural fertilizers

does not use fossil fuels
Industrialized Agriculture is a Recent Phenomenon:
Monocultures for Crops:
-using large-scale mechanization and fossil fuels to boost yields
-uses pesticides, irrigation, and chemical fertilizers
-uses machinery and fossil fuels
-monocultures: uniform planting of a single crop – not natural
“Green Revolution”:
-use of new technology, crop varieties and farming practices
increased yields
created new problems and worsened old ones
Feedlot Agriculture for Livestock:
-feedlots (factory farms): also called Concentrated Animals Feeding Operations (CAFO’s)
-huge warehouses or pens designed to deliver energy-rich food to animals living at extremely high densities
-benefits:
greater production of food
unavoidable in countries with high levels of meat consumption
take livestock off land and reduce their impact
-drawbacks:
contributions to water/air pollution
poor waste containment causes outbreaks in disease
heavy uses of antibiotics to control disease
-as wealth and commerce increase, so does consumption of meat, milk, and eggs
-eating animal products has significant impacts
Green Revolution:
-Extensification: bringing more land into production
-Intensification: better productivity per unit of land
-dramatically increased per-acre yields
-spread to developing world in the 1940’s with wheat, rice, corn

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-depended on large amounts of

synthetic fertilizers
chemical pesticides
irrigation
heavy equipment
-from 1900-2000, cultivated area increases 33%, while energy inputs increased 80 times!
-positive effects on natural resources
prevented some deforestation
preserved biodiversity
-negative effects on natural resources:
pollution (fertilizers)
erosion
salinization
desertification
Dealing with Pests:
-pest: any organism that damages valuable crops
-weed: any plant that competes with crops
-pesticides: poisons that target pest organisms
-insecticides: target insects
-herbicides: target plants
-fungicides: target fungi
-91% of pesticide sales – agricultural purposes
-85% of pesticides sold in Canada – herbicides
Pests Evolve Resistance:
-some individuals are genetically immune to a pesticide
they survive and pass these genes to their offspring
-pesticides stop being effective
evolutionary arms race: chemists increase chemical toxicity to compete with resistant pests
Beneficial Insects Needed to Pollinate Crops:
-not all insects are pests

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-some are absolutely vital

-pollination: male plant sex cells fertilize female sex cells
-animal pollinators include:
hummingbirds
bats
insects
Biotechnology is Impacting Our Lives:
-Biotechnology: the application of biological science to create products derived from organisms
-Transgenic Organism: an organism that contains DNA from another species
-Transgenes: genes that have moved between organisms
-biotechnology has created medicines, cleaned up pollution, and produced food products
Genetically Modified Organisms:
-Genetic Engineering: laboratory manipulation of genetic material
-GMO’s: organisms that have been genetically engineered
-Recombinant DNA: DNA created from multiple organisms
Biotechnology is Changing our World:

-GM foods are now big business
-most GM crops are herbicide resistant

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farmers apply herbicides to kill weeds, and crops survive

most U.S soybeans, corn, cotton, canola, are genetically modified
*-Globally, more than 10 million farmers grow GM foods on 102 million ha of farmland, producing $6.15
billion worth of crops
Supporters Maintain that GM Crops are Safe:
-supporters make the following points about GM crops:
pose no ill health effects
benefit environment by using less herbicides
herbicide-resistant crops encourage no-till farming
reduce carbon emissions by needing fewer fuel-burning tractors and by holding carbon in soil by no-
till farming
-cites argue that precautionary principle should be used
*-Precautionary Principle: do not do any new action until it is understood
Genetic Engineering:
Benefits:
-increased nutritional content
-increased agricultural efficiency
-rapid growth
-disease/pest resistance
Negatives:
-risks are not yet defined/understood so many concerns about
dangerous to human health?
escaping transgenes could pollute ecosystems
pests could evolve resistance
could ruin the integrity of native ancestral races
interbreed with closely related wild plants
outcompete non-GM crop plants – become “invasive”
Genetic Engineering vs. Traditional Breeding:
Similar:
-both alter gene pools for preferred characteristics
-both apply to plants and animals

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Different:
-traditional breeding uses genes form the same species
-selective breeding deals with whole organisms, not just genes
-in traditional breeding, genes come together on their own
*Traditional breeding changes organisms through selection, while genetic engineering is more like the process
of mutation
Ethical Issues in the GM Industry:
-people do not like “tinkering” with “natural” foods
-with increasing use, people are forced to use GM products, or to go to special effort to avoid them
-multinational corporations threaten the small farmer
-research is funded by corporations that will profit if GM foods are approved for use
-crops that benefit small, poor farmers are not widely commercialized
*The GM industry is driven by market considerations of companies selling proprietary products
Sustainable Agriculture:
-industrial agriculture may seem necessary
-less-intensive agricultural methods may be better in the long run
-sustainable agriculture: does not deplete soil, pollute water, or decrease genetic diversity
-low-input agriculture: uses smaller amounts of pesticide, fertilizers, growth hormones, water, and fossil fuel
energy than industrial agriculture
-organic agriculture: uses no synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides
relies on biological approaches (composting/biocontrol)
Marine Resources and Fisheries:

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-oceans influence global climate, team with biodiversity, facilitate transportation/commerce, provide
resources for us
-cover 71% of Earth’s surface
-contain 97% of Earth’s surface water
-oceans influence atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere
Ocean Water Flows Horizontally in Currents:

Currents: ocean is composed of vast riverlike flows driven by density differences, heating, cooling, gravity, and
wind
-transport heat, nutrients, pollution and organisms
-affect climate
Open Ocean Biodiversity:
-microscopic phytoplankton constitute base of
marine food chain in pelagic zone
-organisms feed zooplankton
-predators at higher trophic levels include larger
fish, sea turtles, sharks, and fish-eating birds
-animals adapt to extreme water pressure and the absence of light
-hydrothermal vents support tubeworms, shrimp, and other chemosynthetic species
Oceans Provide Transportation Routes:
-humans have interacted with oceans for thousands of years
moving people and products over vast distances
accelerated global reach of cultures
-has substantial impact on the environment
moves resources around the world
ballast water transplants organisms
Extraction of Energy from Oceans:
-crude oil and natural gas
oil spills damage fisheries
-methane hydrate: a potential energy source
ice-like solid methane embedded in water crystals

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vast supply, but research needed

-renewable energy sources
-minerals (sand, gravel, sulfur, calcium carbonate, and silica)
-rich deposits of Cu, Zn, Au, Ag
-manganese nodules are scattered along the ocean’s floor
are too difficult to currently mine
Food from the Oceans:
-humans depend on fisheries worldwide for proteins
-fishing is a major industry
-demand for food and industrialization of fisheries has significantly increased pressures on fish and seafood
populations worldwide
Marine Pollution Threatens Resources:
-even into mid-20th century, costal U.S. cities dumped trash and untreated sewage along their shores
-oil, plastic, chemicals, excess nutrients make their way from land into oceans
-raw sewage and trash from cruise ships
-abandoned fishing gear from fishing boats
Oil Pollution:
-major oil spills make headlines and cause serious environmental problems
-most pollution comes from small sources:
boat leakage/runoff from land
naturally occurring leaks from the seabed
-oil spills coat and poison wildlife
-governments have implemented more stringent regulations
-oil spills have decreased with greater oil industry compliance
Nets and Plastic Debris Endangers Marine Life:
-plastic items dumped into the sea harm or kill wildlife
-plastic is non-biodegradable
drifts for decades
washes up on beaches
wildlife eat it or get entangled and die

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-marine debris affects people

equipment damage
Toxic Pollutants Contaminate Seafood:
-mercury contamination
from coal combustion and other sources
bioaccumulates and biomagnifies
dangerous to young children and pregnant or nursing mothers
avoid eating swordfish, shark, and albacore
eat seafood low in mercury
-avoid seafood from areas where health advisories issued
Algal Blooms:
-harmful algal blooms (HAB): nutrients increase populations of algae that produce toxins
-red tide: algal species produce reddish pigments that discolor water
illness and death to wildlife and humans
economic losses to fishing industries and beach tourism
-reduce runoff and prevent consumption of affected organisms
CO2 Increase Causes Climate Change:
-as Earth’s surface absorbs solar radiation, surface increases in temperature and emits infrared radiation
-greenhouse gases: atmospheric gases that absorb infrared radiation to varying degrees
water vapor, ozone, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons
-global climate change: describes trends and variations in Earth’s
climate
-global warming: an increase in Earth’s average temperature
Earth’s climate has varied naturally through time
rapid climatic changes taking place now are due to
human activity: fossil fuels, combustion, and deforestation
-ocean acidification:
trends in atmospheric concentrations of CO2 show that
concentrations have increased from 315ppm to 383ppm over the
past 50 years
evidence that CO2 levels in the ocean have increased in
recent decades leading to a decrease in pH=ocean acidification

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-ocean acidification has led to

decreased calcification in shelled
organisms like protists and shellfish
-ocean acidification linked to coral
bleaching and damage to coral reefs
worldwide
-deprives corals of necessary
carbonate ions for their structure
Coral Reefs are Declining:
-coral bleaching: occurs when symbiotic algae leave coral
coral lose their color and die, leaving white patches
from climate change, pollution, or unknown natural causes
-in addition to acidification – other stresses on coral reefs include:
nutrient pollution causes algal growth, which covers corals
divers damage reefs by using cyanide to capture fish
overfishing costal development and pollution damage coral reefs
Fisheries and Aquaculture:

Marine Fisheries:
-about 68% of global marine fisheries are still sustainably fished
-about 31% is overfished
-number of overfished fisheries has increased 3-fold since 1970’s
-major concern if these trends continue in future
Overfishing:
-modern industrialized fishing practices are placing unprecedented pressure on marine resources
-predicted that populations of all ocean species we fish for today will collapse by the year 2048
Several Factors Mask Declines:
-industrialized fishing has depleted stocks, global catch has remained stable for the past 20 years
-fishing fleets travel longer distances to reach less-fished portions of the ocean
-fleets spend more time fishing and have been setting out more nets and lines, increasing effort to catch the
same number of fish
-improved technologies: faster ships, sonar mapping, satellite navigation, thermal sensing, aerial spotting

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-data supplied to international monitoring agencies may be false

Modern Fishing has become Industrialized:
-Factory Fishing: highly industrialized, huge vessels use powerful technologies to capture fish in huge volumes
even process and freeze their catches while at sea
-Driftnets for schools of herring, sardines, mackerel, sharks
-longline fishing for tuna and swordfish
-Trawling for pelagic fish and groundfish
Fishing Practices Kill Non-target Animals:
-By-catch: the accidental capture of animals
driftnetting drowns dolphins, turtles, and seals/fish di from exposure
longline fishing kills turtles, sharks, and albatrosses
bottom-trawling destroys communities
-Grand Banks cod have been fished for centuries
-catches more than doubled with immense industrial trawlers
record-high catches lasted only 10 years
Collapse of the Cod Fisheries:
-no fish has more impact on human civilization than the Atlantic cod
-eastern Canadians and U.S. fishermen have fished for cod for centuries
-large ships and technology have destroyed the cod fishery
-even protected stocks are not recovering
prey may now be competing with, and eating, young cod
Cod are Groundfish:
-live or feed along the bottom
halibut, Pollock, flounder
-cod eat small fish and invertebrates
-grow to 60-70cm long and can live 20 years
-24 stocks (population) of cod
-Exclusive Economic Zone: legal right to waters 200 nautical miles from shore
Fishing Down the Food Chain:
-figures on total global catch do not relate the species, age, and size of fish harvested

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-as fishing increases, size and age of fish caught decline

10 year old cod, once common, are now rare
-as species become too rare to fish, fleets target other species
shifting from large, desirable species to smaller, less desirable ones
entails catching species at lower trophic levels
State of Aquaculture:
Aquaculture: farmed fisheries
-makes up for loss of capture through fisheries
-growing industry to supply seafood – replacing traditional fisheries
-raising aquatic organisms for food in a controlled environment
aquatic species raised in open-water pens or land based enclosures
-with world fish populations plummeting better technology and increased demand has increased fish farming
-currently:
30% of the world’s fish production
Canada is 4th largest producer of farmed salmon in the world
includes freshwater fish and shellfish
-benefits:
improves food security
reduces pressure on wild stocks
10-1000 times more energy-
efficient
-drawbacks:
increased disease causes more
antibiotic use
high-density fishery causes more
waste
New Trends in Aquaculture:
-genetically modified fish have been developed and approves for fish farming
offer promise or more protein produced faster
but also concerns over potential to become invasive and outcompete native (wild) salmon
Consumer Choices Influence Fishing Practices:

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-buy eco-labeled seafood

dolphin-safe tuna
Marine Stewardship Council approved
-consumers do not know how their seafood was caught
non-profit organizations have devised guides for consumers
best choices: farmed catfish and caviar, sardines Canadian snow crab, Pacific halibut
avoid: Atlantic cod and halibut, wild caviar, sharks, farmed salmon, farmed shrimp, King crab
Protecting Fisheries:
-recognized need for better fisheries management
based on maximum sustained yield
despite management, stocks have plummeted
ecosystem-based management
-Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): established along coastlines of developed countries – allow controlled
fishing
Freshwater Resources:
-all life on Earth requires water
-water seems abundant but drinkable water is in short supply
-freshwater: relatively pure, with few dissolved salts
-only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh
-most freshwater in glaciers/ice caps
Wetlands are Valuable:
-provide ecological services:
slow runoff
reduce flooding
recharge aquifers
filter pollutants
-people have drained wetlands, mostly for agriculture
Water is Distributed Unevenly in Space/Time:
-different regions have different amounts of groundwater, surface water and precipitation
-many areas with high population density are water-poor – often face shortages

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-monsoon seasons bring concentrated storms

half a region’s annual rain may fall in a few hours
Climate Change will cause Water Shortages:
-climate change will affect hydrological cycle:
altered precipitation patterns
early seasonal runoff
more evapotranspiration
intensified droughts
melting glaciers
flooding
-increasing probability of even less water for more people
Water Usage:
-impressive engineering projects have harnessed freshwaters
60% of world’s largest 227 rivers have been impacted
many major rivers cross national boarders
*-consumption of water in most of world unsustainable
depleting many sources of surface water/groundwater
-freshwater depletion leads to shortages leading to conflict
water is key to hostilities in Middle East
-types of water use:
1.) non-consumptive: does not remove, or only temporarily removes, water from an aquifer or surface water
2.) consumptive use: water is removed from aquifer or surface water body, and is not returned
Engineering Water Projects – Dams:
-used to control/change water flow for human uses
-benefits:
power generation
emission reduction
crop irrigation
drinking water
flood control

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shipping
new recreational opportunities
-drawbacks:
habitat alteration
fisheries decline
population displacement
sediment capture
disruption of flooding patterns
risk of failure
lost recreational opportunities
Water Supplies Agriculture, Industrial ad Residential Needs:
-proportions of these 3 types of use vary dramatically among nations
arid countries use water for agriculture
developed countries use water for industry
1.) Agriculture Water Use – Crop Irrigation:
-only 45% of water is absorbed by crops via “flood and furrow” irrigation
-over-irrigation leads to waterlogging, salinization, and lost farming income
-most national governments subsidize irrigation
-water mining: withdrawing water faster than it can be replenished
-wetlands drained
-today, 70% more water is withdrawn for irrigation for agriculture than in 1960
amount of irrigated land has doubled
 crop yields have increases but not doubled
-not only is livestock production very demanding of land resources; livestock production consumes large
amounts of water
-makes meat production unsustainable in the long term
2.) Industrial Water Use:
-manufacturing industries in Canada discharged 4.7 billion cubic meters of water in 2007
-38% was not treated before being released
-most was discharged to surface freshwater bodies (79%) and to public and municipal sewers (10%)

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3.) Domestic Water Use:

-many developed nations like Canada need to put more emphasis on water conservation
-could be paired with energy conservation
*-World Health Organization estimates 1/3 people worldwide lack sufficient access to clean water
Impacts of Water Use and Abuse:
1.) Groundwater Depletion:
-groundwater is easily depleted
aquifers recharge slowly
1/3 of world’s population relies on groundwater
-as aquifers become depleted:
water tables drop
salt water intrudes in costal areas
sinkholes form
wetlands dry up
-sinkholes: areas where ground gives way unexpectedly
some cities are slowly sinking (Mexico, Venice)
2.) Diversions Deplete Surface Water:
Ex: Colorado River – Agriculture/Urbanization
what water is left after all the diversions on the Colorado River compromises just a trickle into the
Gulf of Mexico
on some days, water does not reach the Gulf at all
diversion has dramatically altered Colorado River’s ecology
3.) Irrigation depletes Surface Waters and Aquifers:
Ex: The Aral Sea
-inland seas: large lakes that hold so much water, their biota is adapted to open water
-once the 4th largest lake
-lost over 80% of its volume in 45 years of diversion
-consequences:
lost fishing jobs
pesticide-laden dust from the lake bed id blown into the air

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cotton cannot bring back the region’s economy
Water Pollution:
-pollution: release of matter or energy into environment that causes undesirable impacts on health and well-
being of humans or other organisms
-point source water pollution: discrete locations of pollution
-non-point source water pollution: pollution from multiple cumulative inputs over a large area
1.) Nutrient Pollution:
-nutrient pollution from fertilizers, farms, sewage, lawns, golf courses – leads to eutrophication
-natural process – slow process
-human activity dramatically increases rates at which it occurs
-solutions:
P free detergents
planting vegetation to increase nutrient
uptake
treat wastewater
reduce fertilizer application
2.) Pathogens and Waterborne Disease:
-enters water supply via inadequately
treated human waste and animal waste
-causes more human health problems than any other type of water pollution
-solutions:
treat sewage
disinfect drinking water
public education on hygiene
government enforcement of regulations
3.) Toxic Chemicals:
-from natural and synthetic sources
pesticides, petroleum products, synthetic chemicals
arsenic, lead, mercury, acid rain, acid drainage from mines
-effects include:

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poisoning animals and plants

altering aquatic ecosystems
affecting human health
-solutions:
modify industrial processes
modify our purchasing decisions
legislating/ enforcing stringent regulations of industry
4.) Sediment:
-sediment can impair aquatic ecosystems
clear-cutting, mining, poor cultivation practices
-effects:
dramatically changes aquatic habitats
fish may not survive
-solutions:
better management of farms and forests
avoid large-scale disturbance of vegetation
5.) Thermal Pollution:
-warmer water holds less oxygen:
dissolved oxygen decreases as temperature increases
industrial cooling heats water
removing streamside cover also raises water temperature
-water that is too cold causes problems
water at bottom of reservoirs is colder
when water is released, downstream water temperatures drop suddenly and may kill aquatic organisms
-solutions: modify industrial processes
Groundwater Pollution is a Serious Problem:
-groundwater is increasingly contaminated, but is hidden from view
difficult to monitor
out of sight, out of mind
retains contaminants for decades and longer

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takes longer for contaminants to breakdown in groundwater because of the lower dissolved oxygen levels
Sources of Groundwater Pollution:
-some toxic chemicals occur naturally (Al, Flouride, Sulfates)
-pollution from humans causes:
wastes leach through soils
pathogens enter through improperly designed wells
hazardous wastes are pumped into the ground
underground storage septic tanks may leak
-agricultural/industrial pollution
Better to Prevent Pollution:
-better to prevent groundwater contamination than correct it
-other options are not as good:
removing just one herbicide from groundwater costs $400 million
pumping, treating, re-injecting water takes too long
restricting pollutants above aquifers would shift pollution elsewhere
-consumers can purchase environmentally friendly products
become involved in local “river watch” projects
Increasing Water Supply:
-can be transported through pipes/aqueducts
-can be forcibly appropriated from weak communities
-can use new sources of water
Lowering Demand:
-politically difficult in the short term
-offers better economic returns
-causes less ecological and social damage
Desalinization Processes Increases Supply:
-desalinization: removal of salt from seawater or other water of marginal quality
-distilling: hastens evaporation and condenses vapour
-reverse osmosis: forces water through membranes to filter out salts
-desalinization facilitates operate mostly in arid Middle East

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-expensive, requires fossil fuels, produces concentrated salty water
Solutions to Water Use Problems:

1.) Reducing Agricultural Demand for Water:
-ways to decrease agricultural demand
lining irrigation canals
low pressure spray irrigation that spray water downward
drip irrigation systems that target individual plants
match crops to land and climate
selective breeding and genetic modification to raise crops that require less water
2.) Reducing Residential Demand for Water Use:
-install low-flow faucets, showerheads, washing machines, and toilets
-use automatic dishwashers instead of washing dishes by hand
-water lawns at night, when evaporation is minimal
-eat less meat
-xeriscaping: landscaping using plants adapted to arid conditions
3.) Reducing Industrial Demand for Water:
-shift to processes that use less water
wastewater recycling
excess surface water runoff for recharging aquifers
patching leaky pipes
auditing industries
promoting conservation/education
Water Management for a Changing Climate:
-encourage greater water infiltration into soils
reduce flooding
reduce run-off
prevent water pollution of surface waters
capture water for lawns and reduce irrigation needs

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reduce stormwater losses

Monitoring Water Treatment:
-technology has improved our pollution control
-Health Canada publishes standards for drinking water contaminants
local governments and water suppliers of drinking water
-Federal Provincial Territorial Committee on drinking water
-before water reaches the user it is chemically treated, filtered, and disinfected
Treating Water and Waste Water:
-drinking water: -subject to stringent guidelines
-involves filtering and disinfecting
-wastewater: has been used by people in some way
-septic systems: method of waste water disposal in rural areas
underground septic tanks separate solids and oils from waste water
water drains into a field, here microbes decompose organic matter
solid waste needs to be periodically pumped/ landfilled
Municipal Sewer Systems:
-in populated areas, sewer systems carry wastewater
-primary treatment: physical removal of contaminants in settling tanks
-secondary treatment: bacterial degradation of organic pollutants
-tertiary treatment: chemical removal of contaminants
Artificial Wetlands:
-natural and artificial wetlands can cleanse wastewater
after primary treatment at a conventional facility, water is pumped into the wetland
microbes decompose the remaining pollutants
cleansed water is released into waterways or percolated underground
-constructed wetlands serve as havens for wildlife and areas for human recreation
Air Pollution:
Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere:
-thin layer of gases that surrounds Earth
-absorbs radiation and moderates climate

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-transports and recycles water and nutrients

-human activity is changing the amounts of some gases
Outdoor Air Pollution:

-air pollution can come from mobile/stationary sources
-point sources: specific spots where large quantities of pollutants are discharged
-non-point sources: more diffuse, consisting of many small sources
-primary pollutants: directly harmful and can react to form harmful substances
-secondary pollutants: form when primary pollutants interact or react with constituents or components of
atmosphere
-dust storms: millions of tons of dust are carried long distances by winds
due to unsustainable farming/grazing that cause erosion/desertification
-volcanoes release large quantities of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide and other gases into atmosphere
-natural fires pollute atmosphere with soot and gases
caused by human activities
Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution in Modern World:
-includes many pollutants from industrialized activities and use of fossil fuels
-judged to pose especially great threats to human health
-smog: unhealthy mixtures of air pollutants over human areas
-industrial (gray air) smog: industries burn coal or oil
reduced by government regulations in developed countries
industrialized countries still face significant health risks
-photochemical smog: produced by a series of light-driven reactions of primary pollutants and normal
atmospheric compounds
1.) sulfur dioxide (SO2):
-colorless gas with a strong odor
-coal emissions from electricity generation and industry
-can form acid precipitation
2.) nitrogen dioxide (NO2):
-NO2 is very reactive, foul smelling reddish brown gas
-NOx (nitrogen oxides) nitrogen and oxygen react at high temperatures

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-vehicle engines, industrial combustion, electrical utilities – smog/acid precipitation

3.) ammonia (NH3):
-from agriculture
4.) particulate matter (PM):
-solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere
-primary pollutants: dust and soot
-secondary pollutants: sulfates and nitrates
-damages respiratory tissue when inhaled
-most is wind blown dust
5.) lead (Pb):
-particulate pollutant added to gas and used in industrial metal smelting
-bioaccumulates and causes nervous system malfunction
-banned in gasoline in developed, but not in developing countries
6.) carbon monoxide (CO):
-colorless, odourless gas
-produced primarily by incomplete combustion of fuel
-risk to humans/animals
7.) tropospheric (ground-level) ozone (O3):
-colorless gas with strong ador
-secondary pollutant
-results from interactions of sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides, and volatile carbons
-major component of smog
-poses a health risk as a result of its instability
8.) volatile organic compounds (VOC or VOX):
-most diverse group of air pollutants
-found outside from vehicle exhaust
Industrializing Nations Experience More Pollution:
-outdoor pollution is increasing
-factories and power plants do not control emissions
-citizens burn traditional fuels (wood and charcoal)

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-China has world’s worst air pollution

80% of Chinese cities have emissions above safety standards
Asian brown cloud = a 2 mile thick layer of pollution that reduces sunlight, affects climate. Decreases
productivity, kills thousands annually
Solutions to Outdoor Air Pollution:
-extensive monitoring and government regulation
-total emissions of 6 monitored pollutants have declined
despite increased population, energy consumption, miles travelled, and gross domestic product
The “Hole” in the Ozone Layer:
-ozone hole: levels over Antarctica declined by 40-60%
depletion also in the Arctic and globally
causes skin cancer, harms crops, decreases ocean productivity
Montreal Protocol – a “Success” Story:
-in 1987 – 180 nations agreed to cut CFC production in half
today, production and use of ozone-depleting chemicals has decreased 95%
ozone layer is beginning to recover
-challenges – CFCs will remain in the stratosphere for a long time
Synthetic Chemicals deplete Ozone Layer:
-ozone layer:
ozone in lower stratosphere
12 ppm concentrations effectively block incoming damaging ultraviolet radiation
-CFCs:
chemicals that attack ozone
1 million metric tons/year
releases Cl that split ozone
-atmospheric deposition: wet/dry deposition on land
-acidic deposition: deposition of acid, or acid-forming pollutants, from atmosphere onto Earth’s surface
-acid rain: precipitation of acid
Sources of Acid Deposition:
-burning fossil fuels release SO2 and NOx

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-compounds react with water forming sulfuric acid and nitric acids
Effects of Acid Deposition:

-accelerated leaching of nutrients from topsoil
-soil chemistry is changed (N and S accumulated)
-metal ions are converted into soluble forms that pollute water
-widespread tree mortality(maples)
-affects surface water and kills fish
-damages agricultural crops
-erodes stone buildings, corrodes cars, erases writing on tombstones
pH of Precipitation:
-many acidified regions downwind of major pollution sources
-new technologies have helped
-SO2 emissions are lower although NOx emissions remain high
-effects are worse then predicted
-although pH of precipitation has increased
-affected soils and waters remain acidic
-affected ecosystems have not yet shown signs of recovery
Indoor Air Pollution:
-indoor air contains higher concentrations of pollutants than outdoor air
-in developed countries:
most time spent indoors
exposed to synthetic materials
building ventilation systems/windows sealed for energy efficiency
-in developing countries:
due to burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop wastes with little ventilation
soot and CO
causes pneumonia, bronchitis, allergies, cataracts, asthma, heart disease, cancer and deah
1.) Tobacco Smoke:
-most dangerous indoor pollutants in the developed world

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-second-hand smoke from cigarettes is especially dangerous
2.) Radon Gas:

-radioactive gas, which can seep into buildings, results from natural decay of rock, from soils or water draining
natural radioactive sources
3.) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs or VOXs):
-most diverse group of air pollutants
-found indoors (greater problem)
-released by everything from plastics and oils to perfumes and paints
-most VOCs are released in very small amounts
-unclear health implications due to low concentrations
-include pesticides, which are found indoors more often than outdoors due to seepage
-formaldehyde, which leaks from pressed wood and insulation, irritates mucous membranes and induces skin
allergies
4.) Living Organisms “Pollute” Indoor Environments:
-tiny living organisms also pollute
-includes dust mites and animals dander worsen asthma
-fungi, mold, and mildew
occur in dark, moist conditions
cause severe allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments
-Sick Building Syndrome: a sickness produced by indoor pollution with general and nonspecific symptoms
solved by using low-toxicity building materials and good ventilation
Reduce Indoor Air Pollution:
-in developed countries:
use low-toxicity material
monitor air quality
keep rooms clean
limit exposure to chemicals
-in developing countries:
dry wood before burning
cook outside

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use less-polluting fuels (natural gas)
Use of Coal and Fossil Fuels:

Major Energy Sources:
-include hydroelectricity, nuclear, renewables and fossil fuels
-fossil fuels: highly combustible substances formed from remains of dead organisms
-main source of energy are fossil fuels because of high-energy content which makes them efficient to burn,
ship, and store
-fossil fuels have driven industrial revolution
-productivity of developed world based on accessible and cheap reserves of fossil fuels
-increasing concerns with dependence on fossil fuels due to limited reserves, environmental impacts
Fossil Fuels:
-fossil fuels used today were formed from tissues of organisms that lived 100-500 million years ago
-organic material is broken down in an anaerobic environment
bottoms of deep lakes, swamps, and shallow seas
-organic matter is eventually converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal
-types of fossil fuels:
1.) coal
2.) oil
3.) natural gas
4.) others
Formation of Coal:
World’s most abundant fossil fuel – long history of use
-organic matter compressed under very high pressure to form dense, solid carbon structures
very little decomposition occurred prior to fossilization
How is Coal Mined?
-coal mining is similar to most other mining activities for metals and minerals
-coal is found concentrated in coal “seams” found in an ore, the rock in which valuable materials have been
concentrated over time
-mining activities involve several steps:
1.) Exploration:

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-geologists and miners need to locate concentrated sources through exploration activities
2.) Mining:
-systematic removal of rock, soil, or other material to extract coal
-mining focuses on highest concentrations of coal in surface or underground “coal seams”
-subsurface mining: underground deposits reached by digging networks of tunnels deep underground
-strip mining: heavy machinery removes huge amounts of earth to expose and extract the coal resource
3.) Post-mining processing:
-coal must be transported to sites of uses
Impacts of Coal Mining:
Mining and Processing Minerals has Human Health Costs:
-coal mining methods are water and energy intensive
-coal mining in particular have serious human health impacts
Mining and Processing Coal has Environmental Costs:
-numerous environmental impacts from coal mining:
1.) Strip mining/open-pit mining:
-layers of soil and rock are removed to expose the resource
-overlying soil and rock is removed by heavy machinery
-used for coal, oil sands, sand, gravel
-destroys natural communities over large areas and triggers erosion
-used with evenly distributes deposits
terraced so men and machines can move about
-causes habitat loss, aesthetic degradation, acid damage
abandoned pits fill with toxic water
2.) Subsurface mining:
-commonly used with coal
-deepest mines extend nearly 4km underground
-most dangerous form of mining
dynamite blasts, collapsed tunnels, toxic fumes, and coal dust
-subsurface mines can affect people years after they close

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acid drainage, polluted groundwater, sinkholes damage roads and homes
3.) Waste rock:

-waste rock and non-valuable minerals removed before extraction
4.) Tailings:
-ore left over after coal has been extracted
-pollutes soil and water
-may contain heavy metals or acids
-water evaporates from tailings ponds, which may leach pollutants into the environment
5.) Acid mine drainage:
-sulfide minerals form sulfuric acid and flow into waterways
-as the sulfuric acid runs off, it leaches metals from the rocks which are toxic
-toxic liquid is called leachate
6.) Mountaintop mining:
-entire mountaintops are blasted off and the waste is dumped into valleys
-for coal in the Appalachian Mountains if the eastern U.S
-economically efficient
-degrades and destroys vast areas
-pollutes streams, deforests areas, erosion, mudslides, and flash floods
7.) Air pollution:
-people living in communities near the sites experience social/and health impacts
mine blasting cracks foundations and walls
floods and rock slides affect properties
overloaded coal trucks speed down rural roads
coal dust/contaminated water causes illness
-sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals
-sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt water or freshwater
-when high-sulfur coal is burned, it releases sulfate air pollutants, which contribute to smog and acidic
deposition
mercury can bioaccumulate

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-ways to reduce pollution must be found
Restoring Mining Sites can be very Challenging:

-governments in developed countries require companies to restore surface-mined sites
-in Canada, companies are required to post bonds to cover reclaimed costs before mine development is
approved
some countries have no regulations
-reclamation: aims to bring a site to a condition similar to its pre-mining condition
remove structures, replace overburden, fill in shafts, and replant vegetation
-even on restored sites, impacts may be severe and long-lasting
-complex communities are simplified
forests, wetlands, etc. are replaced by grasses
-essential symbiosis are eliminates and often not restored
-water can be reclaimed
remove heavy metals
pH is monitored
Fossil Fuels:
Formation of Oil and Natural Gas:
-oil formed – oil and gas move upward in porous rock until stopped by dense cap rock that prevents further
movement
-oil is a liquid fossil fuel made of numerous hydrocarbons
-natural gas is a gaseous fuel composed primarily of methane
Oil:
-people have used solid forms of oil for centuries
-the “Age of Oil” with extraction and widespread use began in the 1850s
for bottled and sold as a heating aid, but is carcinogenic
this “rock oil” could be used lamps and as a lubricant
-first oil well drilled in Titusville, Pennsylvania in 1859
*-actual first commercial oil well drilled in Oil Springs Ontario 1858!
Oil Extraction:
-crude oil: found in droplets in porous rock that can be extracted by drilling oil wells

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-Phases:
1.) Primary: oil escapes by pressure (5%-15%)

2.) Secondary: oil forced out by pressure from water injection (20%-40%)
3.) Tertiary: oil forced out by pressure from steam or CO2 injection (60% oil remaining)
Oil Processing:
-oil contains many impurities so
refining processes are required
-today, developed countries consume
most of the world’s oil and
consumption is still increasing
Oil Supply is Limited:

-peak oil: point in time when oil reaches its highest production levels
-production declines once reserves are depleted halfway
-world will face shortages when peak oil is reached especially if demand continues to increase
Natural Gas:
-fastest growing fossil fuel in use today (provides 25%)
-world supplies are projected to last about 60 more years
-types:
1.) Natural gas: consists of CH4 and volatile hydrocarbons
2.) Biogenic gas: created at shallow depths by anaerobic bacterial decomposition of organic matter
3.) Thermogenic gas: results from compression and heat deep underground
4.) Kerogen: organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin to break
source material for natural gas and crude oil
Natural Gas Extraction:
-first gas fields required an opening and the gas moved upward
-most remaining fields require pumping by horsehead pumps
-most accessible reserves have been depleted

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gas has accessed by sophisticated techniques such as hydraulic fracturing (fracking), which pumps
high-pressure salt water into rocks to crack them
-Canada is the world’s 3rd largest producer of natural gas
-drilling occurs on land and in seafloor continental shelves
technology had to come up with ways to withstand wind, waves, and currents
platforms are either string fixed platforms or floating platforms
25% of our natural gas comes from offshore drilling
hurricanes ca devastate drilling platforms, and prices rise accordingly
Alternative Fossil Fuels Attracting more Attention:
-methane hydrate (methane ice): molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water ice molecules (occurs in
arctic locations and under the seafloor) – not economical yet
-oil shale: sedimentary rock filled with kerogen that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum – not
economical yet
-oil sands (tar sands): sand deposits with 1%-20% bitumen (a thick form of petroleum rich in C, poor in H
degraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits
removed by strip mining
-shale gas: natural gas held in shale rock (use fracking)
MacKenzie Valley Natural Gas Pipeline:
-proposal to develop 3 major natural gas fields
-delayed 10 years because of opposition
-many who opposed pipeline became supporters
-potential impacts include: fragmentation of habitat, damage to breeding areas, deforestation, increase GHG
emissions
-natural gas from region may go straight into production of oil from Alberta’s tar sands
Shale Gas Extraction and Processing:
-involves fracking
-increasing concerns over environmental impacts
Non-Conventional Fossil Fuels have Downsides:
-their net energy values are low because they are expensive to extract and
process
have low energy returned on energy invested ratios (EROEI)
EROEI about 3:1 compared to the 5:1 ratio on crude oil

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-extraction process – devastates the landscape and pollutes waterways

-combustion pollutes the atmosphere just as much as crude oil, coal, and gas
Impacts of Fossil Fuels on the Environment:
-wildlife disruption
-oil spill
-habitat loss
-habitat fragmentation
-explosions
-air pollution
Solutions:
-energy conservation can be accompanied in 2 ways:
-individuals can make conscious choices to reduce energy consumption in everyday life and drastically
increase conservation
-society can make energy-consuming devices more efficient
-improvements in home design can reduce energy requirements
-appliances have been re-engineered to increase energy efficiency
-consumers need to vote with their wallets by buying energy-efficient products
Already have Technology Needed:
-to increase fuel efficiency
-efficiency of power plants
-co-generation: excess heat produced during electrical generation is used to heat vehicles or energy released
when braking used the charge battery produce other types of power
Energy Alternatives – Conventional:

-80% of our energy comes from oil, coal, and natural gas
-3 fuels power 2/3 of the world’s electricity generation
-given fossil fuel’s substantial drawbacks, drives need to shift to using less easily depleted environmentally
gentler fuels
Conventional Alternatives:
-3 alternative energy sources are currently the most developed and most widely used:
1.) nuclear energy
2.) hydroelectric power

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3.) energy from biomass

-these are all “conventional alternatives” to fossil fuels
exert less environmental impact
have benefits and drawbacks
viewed as intermediates along continuum of renewability
Nuclear Energy:
-energy released when an atom is split (fission) or combines with another to form a new atom (fusion)
-public safety concerns and costs of addressing them to have constrained the development and spread of
nuclear power in the U.S, Sweden, and many other nations
Nuclear Fuel Cycle: the process when naturally occurring uranium is mined from underground deposits
Nuclear Reactors: facilities within nuclear power plants
-most spent fuel is disposed of as radioactive waste
Nuclear Power Delivers

Benefits of power over fossil fuels:
-helps avoid emitting 600 million metric tons of C each year
-creates less environmental damage/waste than coal mining
-plants are safer than coal-fired plants
Drawbacks of nuclear power:
-uranium mining has impacts
-nuclear waste is radioactive
-if an accident occurs at a power plant – the consequences are potentially catastrophic
-ex: the Chernobyl Accident: 1986 explosion at the Chernobyl plant in Ukraine caused the most severe nuclear
power plant accident

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Waste Disposal Remains a Problem:

-long half-lives of radioisotopes cause continued radiation emission for thousands of years
-radioactive waste must be placed in unusually stable and secure locations where radioactivity will not leak
-nuclear waste from power generation held in temporary storage at nuclear power plants around the world
-spent fuel rods in pools of cooling water to minimize radiation leakage
Hydroelectric Power:
-hydroelectric power: uses kinetic energy of moving water to turn turbines and generate electricity
-storage technique: impoundments harness energy by storing water in reservoirs behind dams
water passing through dam turns turbines
-run-of-river approaches generates energy without greatly disrupting flow of river water
Hydropower is Clean and Renewable:
-hydropower has 2 clear advantages over fossil fuels for producing electricity:
1.) renewable – as long as precipitation levels support turbine operation
2.) clean – no CO2 is emitted
-hydropower is efficient
has EROI of 10:1
highest of modern-day energy source
-accounts for 2.2% of world’s energy supply
Hydropower Has Negative Impacts:
Damming Rivers:
-destroys habitats
-disrupts natural flooding cycles
-results in thermal/cold water pollution of downstream water
-block passage of fish – fragment of rivers/reducing diversity
-have other social/economic impacts on local communities
Biomass Energy:
-biomass energy has potential for addressing energy needs
-biomass: organic material that makes up living organisms
-biomass energy obtained from many types of plant matter

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wood from trees, charcoal from burned wood, and matter from agricultural crops, as well as
combustible animal waste products
-traditional biomass sources are widely used in developing world
-fuelwood, charcoal, and manure account for 35% of energy use
-fuelwood and other biomass sources constitute 80% of all renewable energy used worldwide
New Biomass Strategies are being Developed in Industrialized Countries:
-combustion of heating:
1.) biofuels: biomass sources converted into fuels to power vehicles (direct source)
2.) biopower: produced when biomass sources are burned in power plants, generating heat and electricity
(indirect source)
Biofuels Power Automobiles:

-ethanol: produced as a biofuel by fermenting carbohydrate-rich crops
ethanol widely added to U.S gasoline to reduce emissions

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any vehicle will run on a 10% ethanol mix

-flexible fuel vehicles: run on 85% ethanol
very few gas stations offer fuel
-researchers refining techniques to produce ethanol from cellulose, so ethanol could be made from low-value
crops, instead of high-value crops
Biodiesel Produced from Vegetable Oil:

-biodiesel: biofuel for diesel engines produced from vegetable oils
-producers use soybean oil
animal fats, used grease, cooking oil can also be used
vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel, but the engine needs to be modified
biodiesel cuts down on emissions; its fuel economy is almost as good and costs slightly more than
gasoline
Benefits of Biomass Energy:
-essentially carbon neutral, releasing no net carbon into atmosphere
only if biomass sources are not over-harvested
capturing landfill gases reduces methane emissions
-economic benefits include:
supporting rural communities
reducing dependence on fossil fuels
reduces air pollutants
Drawbacks of Biomass Energy:
-health hazards
-overharvesting
-biofuels vs. food production
-energy demanding
A Promising Biofuel Option:
-algae are fast-growing, marine, photosynthetic and do not compete with food crops
-problem of scale-up and experience
Alternative Energy – New Renewables:

-obtain only 0.5% from new renewable energy sources

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-in Canada, most renewable energy comes from hydropower

-“new” renewables are alternative energy sources
-referred to as “new” because they are:
not yet in wide-spread use
are still in development
likely to play a larger role in future
New Renewables are Growing Fast:
-renewable sources are growing at much faster rates than conventional sources
wind power is fastest growing (48%) than solar power (28%)
since these sources began at low levels, it will take time to build them up
New Energy Sources Will Create Jobs:
-new technologies require more labor per unit of energy output
more jobs will be generated than remaining with a fossil fuel economy
manufacturing, installing, and servicing renewable energy is more labor-intensive then for fossil fuel
-rapid growth will continue as:
population and consumption grow, energy demand increases fossil fuel supplies decline, and people
demand a cleaner environment
“New” Renewable Alternatives:
-these will replace fossil fuels:
exert much less environmental impact than other sources
have benefits and drawbacks
are being viewed as final goal for renewability
1.) Solar Energy:
-sun provides energy for almost all biological activity on Earth
-great potential in solar energy
-solar energy has been used for hundreds of years
-passive solar energy: most common solar technology
buildings designed to maximize direct absorption of sunlight in winter and to keep cool in summer
-active solar energy collection: uses technology to focus, move, or store energy
-solar panels used far from electrical grid to help boil water and power rural hospitals

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-solar power need not be expensive or in regions that are always sunny
-solar energy use should increase
as prices fall, technologies improve and governments enact economic incentives
Benefits:
-sun will burn for billions more years
-solar technologies are quiet, safe, clean, and require little maintenance
-allow decentralized control of power
-net metering: owners can sell excess electricity to grid
-solar power does not emit greenhouse gases and air pollution
-new jobs are being created
Drawbacks:
-up-front costs are high
government subsidies keep fossil fuels and nuclear energy cheaper
-location (location/ variation in sunlight)
2.) Geothermal Energy:
-renewable energy that does not originate from sun
is generated from deep within the Earth from radioactive decay
-geothermal power plants use heated water and steam for direct heating and electricity generation
-if a geothermal plant uses heated water faster than groundwater is recharged, the plant will run out of water
-geothermal activity can shift naturally
-areas producing hot groundwater may not always do so
Benefits:
-reduces emissions
-emits very small amounts of gases
Drawbacks:
-may not be sustainable
-water is laced with salts and minerals that corrode equipment and pollute the air
-limited to areas where the energy can be trapped
3.) Wind Energy:
-wind turbines: devices that harness power from wind

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-windmills have been used for 800 years to pump water

-first windmill to generate electricity was built in the late 1800s
-after the 1973 oil embargo, governments funded research and development
-today, wind power produces electricity for the same price as conventional sources
Wind Farms:
-turbines erected in groups of up to hundreds of turbines
-turbines harness wind as efficiently as possible
different turbines turn at different speeds
slight increases in wind velocity yield significant power output
Offshore Sites can be Promising:
-wind speeds are 20% greater over water than over land
-less air turbulence over water than land
-costs to erect and maintain turbines in water are higher, but the stronger, less turbulent winds produce more
power and make offshore wind more profitable
-currently, turbines are limited to shallow water
Benefits:
-produces no emissions once installed
-is more efficient than conventional power sources
-turbines also use less water than conventional power plants
-farmers and ranchers can lease their land
-advancing technology is driving down cost of wind farms
Drawbacks:
-have no control over when wind will occur
-good wind sources are not always near population centers
-generate considerable opposition by local residents
-pose a threat to birds and bats – can be killed by blades
-negatively impact aquatic animals sensitive to vibrations
4.) Wave and Tidal Energy:
-devising ways to use kinetic energy from natural motions of ocean water to generate electrical power

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-tidal energy: rising/falling of ocean tides twice each day throughout world moves large amounts of water
-wave energy can be developed at more sites than tidal energy
motion od wind-driven waves is converted from mechanical energy into electricity
designs exist but few fully tested (some designs are for offshore facilities)
wave energy is greater at deep ocean sites, but transmitting electricity to shore is very expensive

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Lecture notes, lecture all

Environmental Science (University of Ontario Institute of Technology)

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1.) Population Growth:

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Avoiding Mistakes of the Past:

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reached 7 billion on Oct. 31st 2011

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Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age):

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-many populations are getting older – different needs

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Ecosystem Goods and Services not considered:

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Ecosystems and Nutrient Cycling:

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-linked to terrestrial biomes through which they pass

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Human Affect the Carbon Cycle:

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-humans are fixing as much N as nature does

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How Do Populations Grow?

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communities change, and why patterns exist

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remains stable until another disturbance

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-rates of species extinction difficult to determine under natural conditions

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Evolution and Extinction:

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2.) population divided by a barrier; subpopulations isolated

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-a leading cause of soil degradation

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uses animals, irrigation and natural fertilizers

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-depended on large amounts of

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-some are absolutely vital

Biotechnology is Changing our World:

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farmers apply herbicides to kill weeds, and crops survive

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Marine Resources and Fisheries:

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Ocean Water Flows Horizontally in Currents:

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vast supply, but research needed