Fluid Pressure

by Ron Kurtus (revised 8 May 2017)

Fluid pressure is a measurement of the force per unit area on a

object in the fluid or on the surface of a closed container. This
pressure can be caused by gravity, acceleration, or by forces
outside a closed container.

Since a fluid has no definite shape, its pressure applies in all

directions. Fluid pressure can also be amplified through hydraulic
mechanisms and changes in the velocity of the fluid.

Questions you may have include:

 How does gravity cause fluid pressure?

 How does air and water pressure apply in all directions?
 What are other applications of fluid pressure?

Fluid pressure from gravity or

acceleration
The weight of a fluid can exert a pressure on anything
underneath it. Also, the relative movement of a liquid or gas can
apply a pressure.

Pressure

Pressure is defined as force divided by the area on which the

force is pushing. (See the lesson on Pressure for details.) You
can write this as an equation, if you wanted to make some
calculations:

P = F/A

where

 P = pressure
 F = force
 A = area
 F/A = F divided by A
Pressure due to gravity

Since the weight of an object or material is equal to the force it

excerts due to gravity,

An object can exert downward pressure due to its weight and the
force of gravity. The pressure you exert on the floor is your
weight divided by the area of the soles of your shoes. If the force
is due to the weight (W) of the object, the equation is then: P =
W/A

Water pressure

The water pressure at the bottom of a lake is equal to the weight

of the column of water above divided by the area of that column.

Pressure at depth is Weight / Area

Column on top of head

If you were standing on the bottom of a swimming pool

(assuming you would not start floating), there would be a
column of water the diameter of your head all the way up to the
water surface, pushing down on you. If you took that column of
water and weighed it, and then divided that weight by the area
of the top of your head, you would get the value for the water
pressure on your head.
The reason it does not affect you is that your internal body
pressure increases to neutralize most of the water pressure. But
at greater depths, the water pressure can become so great that
it can harm the diver.

Demonstration with can

A demonstration of how water pressure increases with the depth

of the water can be done with a large tin can. Punch nail holes in
a vertical line up the side of the can every inch or several
centimeters. Then fill the can with water. The water may just
dribble out the top holes, but the increased pressure with depth
causes the water to squirt out with more pressure at the bottom
holes.

Air pressure

Likewise, the air pressure on the top of your head is the weight
of the column of air (which is several miles high) divided by the
area of the top of your head. The average air pressure on your
head is 14.7 pounds per square inch! That is a lot of weight you
are holding up.

Air pressure in weather

When weather report indicates high pressure, that means the

column of air reaches up higher than it does for a low pressure
reader. A barometer measures the air pressure or the weight of
the column of air.

Air pressure is due to the weight of all the air going several miles
up above you. It is approximately 16 pounds per square inch in
all directions on your body. Fortunately, our bodies have internal
pressure that equalizes the air pressure.

Balloons

The air pressure inside a balloon pushes outward in all directions.

When the pressure increases, the size of the balloon increases,
until it finally bursts. The internal air pressure is much greater
than the external air pressure.
Different altitudes

The normal air pressure in Denver, Colorado is less than in This

is because the higher altitude of Denver means its column of air
is not as high as in Milwaukee.

Since many snacks are sealed in pressurized bags, a bag sealed

in Milwaukee requires higher internal pressure than one made in
Denver. Thus a Milwaukee bag of snacks will expand when
brought to the lower air pressure of Denver and could even
explode.

Direction of fluid pressure

Now, what is different about pressure caused by a liquid, or gas
is that not only is there pressure pushing down at a given point,
but there is also the same pressure pushing up and to the sides.

All directions

The pressure is the same in all directions in a fluid at a given

point. This is true because of the characteristic of liquids and
gases to take the shape of their container.

Water pressure is the same in all directions

What this also means that any hollow container submersed in a
liquid has pressure on every square inch of its surface, top and
bottom.

Swimming under water

When you swim under water, the pressure of the water gets
greater on your body, the deeper you get. Now, the question is:
"Why aren't you crushed by all this weight?"

The reason is that your body compensates by creating an

internal pressure that is equal to the air or water pressure. You
are somewhat like a balloon filled with fluids under pressure.
Now, when you go very deep under water, the water pressure
may get greater than your body can compensate for, and you
get uncomfortable.

Other pressure effects

Other effects of fluid pressure are motion, heating and chemical
effects, as well as applications in the field of hydraulics and in
aircraft.

Wind and current

The movement of a fluid, such as with wind or the current of a

river can apply a pressure to an object in its way proportional to
the surface area perpendicular to the direction of motion.

Streamlining the object reduces this pressure.

Heating and chemical effects

When you heat a fluid, it usually expands. If you heat a fluid that
is in an enclosed container, the expansion will result in greater
internal pressure. For example, heating a balloon will cause it to
expand.

Likewise, chemical reactions that give off gases will increase the
pressure inside the container. For example, shaking a
carbonated drink bottle releases more gas and will result in
greater internal pressure. This can be experienced when you
open the bottle and the drink squirts all over.
 Hydraulics

When a fluid—especially a liquid—is in a partially closed

container, a force applied in one area can result in a greater
force in another area. This effect is used in hydraulics to create a
mechanical advantage by having the force applied to a small
piston resulting in a greater force applied to large piston.

Aircraft

The scientist Bernoulli discovered that the air pressure in a tube

goes down when the velocity of the air in the tube increases.
This discovery became known as Bernoulli's Principle.

The greatest application of this principle is used in airplanes. The

wing of an airplane is usually curved on top and flat on the
bottom. When the air moves over the curved top portion of the
wing, it speeds up because of the shape. This lowers the
pressure with respect to the bottom part of the wing. Lower
pressure on the top results in the lift required to keep the
airplane aloft.

Summary
Fluid pressure from gravity is the weight of the fluid above
divided by the area it is pushing on. Fluid pressure applies in all
directions. Internal pressure of an object equals the external
fluid pressure, otherwise the object could be crushed. Wind and
heating can also create pressure.

Pascal's principle
PHYSICS
WRITTEN BY: 
 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Pascal’s principle, also called Pascal’s law, in fluid (gas or

liquid) mechanics, statement that, in a fluid at rest in a closed
container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted without
loss to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
The principle was first enunciated by the French scientist Blaise
Pascal.
 Illustration of Pascal's principle at work in a hydraulic press. According to
Pascal's principle, the original pressure (P1) exerted on the small piston (A1) will
produce an equal pressure (P2) on the large piston (A2). However, because A2 has
10 times the area of A1, it will produce a force (F2) that is 10 times greater than
the original force (F1). Through Pascal's principle, a relatively small force exerted
on a hydraulic press can be magnified to the point where it will lift a
car.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Pressure is equal to the force divided by the area on which

it acts. According to Pascal’s principle, in a hydraulic system a
pressure exerted on a piston produces an equal increase in
pressure on another piston in the system. If the second piston has
an area 10 times that of the first, the force on the second piston is
10 times greater, though the pressure is the same as that on the
first piston. This effect is exemplified by the hydraulic press, based
on Pascal’s principle, which is used in such applications as
hydraulic brakes.

Pascal also discovered that the pressure at a point in a fluid

at rest is the same in all directions; the pressure would be the
same on all planes passing through a specific point. This fact is
also known as Pascal’s principle, or Pascal’s law.

Archimedes’ Law

Forces acting on a body submerged in a fluid

Archimedes' principle states that:

"If a solid body floats or is submerged in a liquid - the liquid exerts an upward
thrust force - a buoyant force - on the body equal to the gravitational force on
the liquid displaced by the body."

The buoyant force can be expressed as

FB  =  W

    = V γ

    = V ρ g                                     (1)

where

FB = buoyant force acting on submerged or floating body (N, lbf)

W = weight (gravity force) of displaced liquid (N, lbf)

V = volume of body below surface of liquid (m3, ft3)

γ = ρ g = specific weight of fluid (weight per unit volume) (N/m3, lbf/ft3)

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.174 ft/s2)

Example - Density of a Body that floats in Water
A floating body is 95% submerged in water with density 1000 kg/m3.

For a floating body the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the water displaced
by the body.

FB  =  W

or

Vb ρb g = Vw ρw g

where

Vb = volume body (m3)

ρb = density of body (kg/m3)

Vw  = volume of water (m3)

ρw  = density of water (kg/m3)

The equation can be transformed to

ρb = Vw ρw / Vb 

Since 95% of the body is submerged

0.95 Vb = Vw

and the density of the body can be calculated as

ρb = 0.95 Vb (1000 kg/m3) / Vb

    = 950 kg/m3

Example - Buoyant force acting on a Brick submerged in Water

A standard brick with actual size 3 5/8 x 2 1/4 x 8 (inches) is submerged in water
with density 1.940 slugs/ft3. The volume of the brick can be calculated

Vbrick = (3 5/8 in) (2 1/4 in) (8 in)

         = 65.25 in3

The buoyant force acting on the brick is equal to the weight of the water

displaced by the brick and can be calculated as

FB  =  ((65.25 in3) / (1728 in/ft3)) (1.940 slugs/ft3) (32.174 ft/s2)  

    = 2.36 lbf

The weight or the gravity force acting on the brick - common red brick has
specific gravity 1.75 - can be calculated to

WB = (2.36 lbf) 1.75

     = 4.12 lbf

The resulting force acting on the brick can be calculated as

W(WB - FB) = (4.12 lbf) - (2.36 lbf)

   = 1.76 lbf

Applications of Hydrostatics

Pressure measurement with hydrostatics

 Mercury Barometer - This is a device used to measure the local

atmospheric pressure, pa.

As seen in the sketch, it is formed by inverting a glass tube filled

with mercury into a mercury bath. At the top of the mercury
column in the tube (point 3 in the sketch), the pressure is nearly a
total vacuum. The pressure at point 1 is atmospheric, and this
 pressure holds the mercury column at some height h, as
measured by a ruler. The hydrostatics equation can be used to
solve for atmospheric pressure in terms of the known values of h,
g, and the density of mercury:

Some typical numbers can be heard in weather reports. For

example, the weatherman may say "…the barometer reads 29
inches of mercury." This means that h = 29. inches of mercury
column in the barometer. By the way, h is called the "head,"
which is simply pressure expressed as an equivalent column
height of fluid. Using the above equation, one can calculate
atmospheric pressure in more standard pressure units, such as
kPa:

 U-tube Manometer - This device consists of a glass tube bent

into the shape of a "U", and is used to measure some unknown
pressure. For example, consider the sketch below, where a U-
tube manometer is used to measure pressure PA in some kind of
tank or machine.
Again, the equation for hydrostatics is used to calculate the
unknown pressure. Consider the right side and the left side of the
manometer separately:

Since both points labeled 1 in the figure are at the same elevation
in the same fluid, they are at equivalent pressures. Also, point 2 is
exposed to atmospheric pressure, thus p2 = pa. The two equations
above can be equated and solved for pA:

Finally, note that in many cases (such as with air pressure being
measured by a mercury manometer), the density of manometer
fluid 2 is much greater than that of fluid 1. In such cases, the last
term on the right is sometimes neglected. It is good to keep all
terms, however, for more accuracy.
Some "rules" to remember about U-tube manometry
o Manometer height difference does not depend on tube
diameter (except, of course, if the diameter is very small,
 and surface tension effects are significant).

o Manometer height difference does not depend on tube

length (provided, of course, that the length is enough to
handle the height difference).

o Manometer height difference does not depend on tube

shape (except, of course, if the tube is of very small
diameter, and surface tension effects are significant).
 Recall that the shape of a container does not matter in
hydrostatics. This implies that a U-tube manometer does
not have to be in a perfect U shape. There is a way to take
advantage of this, namely one can construct an inclined
manometer, as shown here. Although the column height
difference between the two sides does not change, an
inclined manometer has better resolution than does a
standard vertical manometer because of the inclined right
side. Specifically, for a given ruler resolution, one "tick"
mark on the ruler corresponds to a finer gradation of
pressure for the inclined case.
o Manometer height difference does depend on the fluid
used in the manometer.

For the same pressure difference, a dense manometer

liquid will have a smaller difference in column height than
will a light manometer liquid. This too can be used
 advantageously. If a small pressure difference is being
measured, it is better to use a light fluid, since
the resolution and accuracy are improved. Specifically, for
a given ruler resolution, one "tick" mark on the ruler
corresponds to a finer gradation of pressure for the light
fluid case. Why not always use a very light liquid in a
manometer then? Well, for measurement of large
pressure differences, the manometer may have to be too
high to be practical. In such cases, a very dense liquid, such
as mercury, should be used. Furthermore, the manometer
liquid must be more dense than the fluid in which the
pressure is being measured, for obvious reasons.

Liquids are often classified according to their specific

gravity, defined as the ratio of the liquid density to that of
water. Liquids lighter than water, such as oil, have a
specific gravity less than one, while liquids heavier than
water, such as mercury, have S.G. greater than one. For
mercury,

Isobars

 "Iso" means "same" and "bar" means "pressure", so an isobar is

a surface of constant pressure.
 In hydrostatics, isobars are horizontal surfaces, since pressure
does not change horizontally through the same fluid.

 Recall that a free surface exposed to atmospheric pressure

always has a pressure equal to the local atmospheric pressure.
Thus, a free surface is always an isobar.
 Isobars can be examined mathematically, using the hydrostatics
equation and the definition of gradient. Recall, the Navier-Stokes
equation reduces to the following for hydrostatics:

Also, from the definition of the gradient, the gradient of some

scalar is a vector whose direction is perpendicular to surfaces in
which the scalar is constant.
 Furthermore, the direction of the gradient is in the direction of
maximum increase of the scalar. Thus, the hydrostatics equation
implies that the gradient of scalar p (pressure) is a vector
perpendicular to surfaces of constant pressure (isobars). These
isobars, then, are thus perpendicular to the gravity vector as
sketched.

Surface tension

Surface tension is a phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid,

where the liquid is in contact with a gas, acts as a thin elastic sheet.
This term is typically used only when the liquid surface is in contact
with gas (such as the air). If the surface is between two liquids (such
as water and oil), it is called "interface tension."

Causes of Surface Tension

Various intermolecular forces, such as Van der Waals forces, draw

the liquid particles together. Along the surface, the particles are
pulled toward the rest of the liquid, as shown in the picture to the
right.

Surface tension (denoted with the Greek variable gamma) is defined

as the ratio of the surface force F to the length d along which the
force acts:
gamma = F / d
Units of Surface Tension
Surface tension is measured in SI units of N/m (newton per meter),
although the more common unit is the cgs unit dyn/cm (dyne per
centimeter).
In order to consider the thermodynamics of the situation, it is
sometimes useful to consider it in terms of work per unit area. The SI
unit, in that case, is the J/m2 (joules per meter squared). The cgs unit
is erg/cm2.

These forces bind the surface particles together. Though this binding
is weak - it's pretty easy to break the surface of a liquid after all - it
does manifest in many ways.

Examples of Surface Tension

Drops of water. When using a water dropper, the water does not
flow in a continuous stream, but rather in a series of drops. The
shape of the drops is caused by the surface tension of the water. The
only reason the drop of water isn't completely spherical is that the
force of gravity pulling down on it. In the absence of gravity, the drop
would minimize the surface area in order to minimize tension, which
would result in a perfectly spherical shape.
Insects walking on water. Several insects are able to walk on
water, such as the water strider. Their legs are formed to distribute
their weight, causing the surface of the liquid to become depressed,
minimizing the potential energy to create a balance of forces so that
the strider can move across the surface of the water without breaking
through the surface. This is similar in concept to wearing snowshoes
to walk across deep snowdrifts without your feet sinking.
Needle (or paper clip) floating on water. Even though the
density of these objects is greater than water, the surface tension
along the depression is enough to counteract the force of gravity
pulling down on the metal object. Click on the picture to the right,
then click "Next," to view a force diagram of this situation or try out
the Floating Needle trick for yourself.
Anatomy of a Soap Bubble

When you blow a soap bubble, you are creating a pressurized bubble
of air which is contained within a thin, elastic surface of liquid. Most
liquids cannot maintain a stable surface tension to create a bubble,
which is why soap is generally used in the process ... it stabilizes the
surface tension through something called the Marangoni effect.
When the bubble is blown, the surface film tends to contract. This
causes the pressure inside the bubble to increase. The size of the
bubble stabilizes at a size where the gas inside the bubble won't
contract any further, at least without popping the bubble.

In fact, there are two liquid-gas interfaces on a soap bubble - the one
on the inside of the bubble and the one on the outside of the bubble.
In between the two surfaces is a thin film of liquid.

The spherical shape of a soap bubble is caused by the minimization

of the surface area - for a given volume, a sphere is always the form
which has the least surface area.

Pressure Inside a Soap Bubble

To consider the pressure inside the soap bubble, we consider the
radius R of the bubble and also the surface tension, gamma, of the
liquid (soap in this case - about 25 dyn/cm).

We begin by assuming no external pressure (which is, of course, not

true, but we'll take care of that in a bit). You then consider a cross-
section through the center of the bubble.

Along this cross section, ignoring the very slight difference in inner
and outer radius, we know the circumference will be 2pi R. Each
inner and outer surface will have a pressure of gamma along the
entire length, so the total. The total force from the surface tension
(from both the inner and outer film) is, therefore, 2gamma (2pi R).
Inside the bubble, however, we have a pressure p which is acting over
the entire cross-section pi R2, resulting in a total force of p(pi R2).

Since the bubble is stable, the sum of these forces must be zero so we
get:

2 gamma (2 pi R) = p( pi R  )
2

or
p = 4 gamma / R

Obviously, this was a simplified analysis where the pressure outside

the bubble was 0, but this is easily expanded to obtain
the difference between the interior pressure p and the exterior
pressure pe:
p - pe = 4 gamma / R
Pressure in a Liquid Drop
Analyzing a drop of liquid, as opposed to a soap bubble, is simpler.
Instead of two surfaces, there is only the exterior surface to consider,
so a factor of 2 drops out of the earlier equation (remember where we
doubled the surface tension to account for two surfaces?) to yield:
p - pe = 2 gamma / R

Contact Angle
Surface tension occurs during a gas-liquid interface, but if that
interface comes in contact with a solid surface - such as the walls of a
container - the interface usually curves up or down near that surface.
Such a concave or convex surface shape is known as a meniscus
The contact angle, theta, is determined as shown in the picture to the
right.

The contact angle can be used to determine a relationship between

the liquid-solid surface tension and the liquid-gas surface tension, as
follows:

gamma ls = - gamma lg cos theta

where

 gammals is the liquid-solid surface tension

 gammalg is the liquid-gas surface tension
 theta is the contact angle

One thing to consider in this equation is that in cases where the

meniscus is convex (i.e. the contact angle is greater than 90 degrees),
the cosine component of this equation will be negative which means
that the liquid-solid surface tension will be positive.

If, on the other hand, the meniscus is concave (i.e. dips down, so the
contact angle is less than 90 degrees), then the cos theta term is
positive, in which case the relationship would result in
a negative liquid-solid surface tension!

What this means, essentially, is that the liquid is adhering to the

walls of the container and is working to maximize the area in contact
with solid surface, so as to minimize the overall potential energy.
Capillarity

Another effect related to water in vertical tubes is the property of

capillarity, in which the surface of liquid becomes elevated or
depressed within the tube in relation to the surrounding liquid. This,
too, is related to the contact angle observed.

If you have a liquid in a container, and place a narrow tube

(or capillary) of radius r into the container, the vertical
displacement y that will take place within the capillary is given by the
following equation:
y = (2 gamma lg cos theta) / ( dgr)

where

 y is the vertical displacement (up if positive, down if negative)

 gammalg is the liquid-gas surface tension
 theta is the contact angle
 d is the density of the liquid
 g is the acceleration of gravity
 r is the radius of the capillary

NOTE: Once again, if theta is greater than 90 degrees (a convex

meniscus), resulting in a negative liquid-solid surface tension, the
liquid level will go down compared to the surrounding level, as
opposed to rising in relation to it.
Capillarity manifests in many ways in the everyday world. Paper
towels absorb through capillarity. When burning a candle, the
melted wax rises up the wick due to capillarity. In biology, though
blood is pumped throughout the body, it is this process which
distributes blood in the smallest blood vessels which are called,
appropriately, capillaries.
Quarters in a Full Glass of Water
Needed materials:

 10 to 12 Quarters
 glass full of water

Slowly, and with a steady hand, bring the quarters one at a time to
the center of the glass. Place the narrow edge of the quarter in the
water and let go. (This minimizes disruption to the surface, and
avoids forming unnecessary waves that can cause overflow.)
As you continue with more quarters, you will be astonished how
convex the water becomes on top of the glass without overflowing!

Possible Variant: Perform this experiment with identical glasses, but

use different types of coins in each glass. Use the results of how many
can go in to determine a ratio of the volumes of different coins.
Floating Needle
Needed materials:

 fork (variant 1)
 piece of tissue paper (variant 2)
 sewing needle
 glass full of water

Variant 1 Trick

Place the needle on the fork, gently lowering it into the glass of
water. Carefully pull the fork out, and it is possible to leave the
needle floating on the surface of the water.

This trick requires a real steady hand and some practice, because you
must remove the fork in such a way that portions of the needle do
not get wet ... or the needle will sink. You can rub the needle between
your fingers beforehand to "oil" it increase your success chances.
Variant 2 Trick

Place the sewing needle on a small piece of tissue paper (large

enough to hold the needle). The needle is placed on the tissue paper.
The tissue paper will become soaked with water and sink to the
bottom of the glass, leaving the needle floating on the surface.

Put Out Candle with a Soap Bubble

by the surface tension

Needed materials:

 lit candle (NOTE: Do not play with matches without parental

approval and supervision!)
 funnel
 detergent or soap-bubble solution

Place your thumb over the small end of the funnel. Carefully bring it
toward the candle. Remove your thumb, and the surface tension of
the soap bubble will cause it to contract, forcing air out through the
funnel. The air forced out by the bubble should be enough to put out
the candle.

For a somewhat related experiment, see the Rocket Balloon.

Motorized Paper Fish

Needed materials:

 piece of paper
 scissors
 vegetable oil or liquid dishwasher detergent
 a large bowl or loaf cake pan full of water

this example

Once you have your Paper Fish pattern cut out, place it on the water
container so it floats on the surface. Put a drop of the oil or detergent
in the hole in the middle of the fish.

The detergent or oil will cause the surface tension in that hole to
drop. This will cause the fish to propel forward, leaving a trail of the
oil as it moves across the water, not stopping until the oil has
lowered the surface tension of the entire bowl.

The table below demonstrates values of surface tension obtained for

different liquids at various temperatures.

Experimental Surface Tension Values

Liquid in contact Temperature Surface Tension (mN/m, or

with air (degrees C) dyn/cm)
Benzene 20 28.9
Carbon tetrachloride 20 26.8
Ethanol 20 22.3
Glycerin 20 63.1
Mercury 20 465.0
Olive oil 20 32.0
Soap solution 20 25.0
Water 0 75.6
Water 20 72.8
Water 60 66.2
Water 100 58.9
Oxygen -193 15.7
Neon -247 5.15
Helium -269 0.12

Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Meniscus Formation
Capillarity is the reason why a liquid forms meniscus at the wall of a vessel
(see Fig. 21.3). In the following section, we will derive the equations that describe
the curvature of the surface in close proximity of the wall. As we will see, there is
one (surprisingly) easy way of deriving the curvature, which, however, yields
(surprisingly) incorrect results. The second approach we will take allows deriving
the curvature implicitly. This approach yields correct results.

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Fig. 21.3. Meniscus formation at the wall of a vessel.

21.3.1 Derivation Using the Surface Curvature
The first approach we will take is based on the curvature of the surface because of
the Young-Laplace pressure drop across the curved interface. The shape of the
meniscus is due to the balance of forces from gravitation and the Young-Laplace
pressure drop at the curved surface. For a fluid segment dx, the force balance is
(Eq. 21.9)pgravity=pYoung-
Laplaced(mg)dA=γR(x)ρgdVdA=γd2z(x)dx2ρgz(x)=γd2z(x)dx2ρgγz
(x)=d2z(x)dx2
where we used Eq. 3.103 to approximate the curvature. Noted that this equation is
valid only if the changes in curvature d2zdx2=ddx(dzdx) are small because
the function is a linearization of Eq. 3.102. As we will see, this approximation is
incorrect, especially in close proximity to the wall where the meniscus is strongly
curved. However, using the full equation of the surface curvature results in a
differential equation that can only be solved numerically.
Eq. 21.9 is an ordinary second order differential equation with constant
coefficients (see section 8.2.3), which is solved by a function of type
(Eq. 21.10)z(x)=c1eρgγx+c2e−ρgγx

The details of this solution can be found in section 8.2.3.6. We see that the surface
smooths out the farther we move away from the vessel wall; therefore z (x) → 0
for x → ∞, in which case we find that c1 = 0. The second integration constant is
found for the boundary condition at x = 0
where dzdx=−1tan(Θ0) because dxdz=−tan(Θ0) at x = 0. Therefore we
find
dx(x=0)dx=−c2ρgγ=−1tan(Θ0)c2=1tan(Θ0)ρgγ

which leads to the final solution

(Eq. 21.11)z(x)=1tan(Θ0)ρgγe−ρgγx

(Eq. 21.12)z(x)=Letan(Θ0)e−xLc

The meniscus therefore decays exponentially. In Eq. 21.12 we used the capillary
length (see Eq. 21.5), which is characteristic length scale for the decay.
As already stated, this result is a crude approximation because the meniscus near
the wall is strongly curved, which is in contradiction to our initial assumption of a
not-strongly curved meniscus. This becomes especially obvious for liquid that
wets the vessel wall well. For Θ0→π2 (perfect wetting) Eq. 21.12 will converge
to infinity, which is (obviously) incorrect.
21.3.2 Derivation Without Linearization
In order to find the correct solution, we need to apply the surface curvature
without linearizing it. As already stated, this results in a nonlinear ordinary
differential equation that is extremely difficult to solve analytically.
However, there are a couple of ways of solving this problem. Looking at Fig.
21.3, we first note the following relations
(Eq. 21.13)dx=cosφds
(Eq. 21.14)dz=−sinφds

(Eq. 21.15)ds=dφR→1R=dφds

Using Eq. 21.15, we can rewrite Eq. 21.9 to

ρgγz=dφds1Lc2z=dφds

this time applying the nonlinearized form dφds to express the surface curvature.
We now take the derivative with respect to s and apply Eq. 21.14
(Eq. 21.16)1Lc2dzdsz=d2φds21Lc2sinφ=d2φds2

We now apply a small trick in order to convert the double integral d2φds2 to a

single integral (see section 3.3.2) by exploiting the fact that
d2φds2dφds=dds(12dφ2ds)

which we can employ after multiplying Eq. 21.16 by dφds

(Eq.
21.17)1Lc2sinφdφds=d2φds2dφds1Lc2sinφdφds=dds(12dφ2ds)1L
c2sinφdφ=d(12dφ2ds)

Eq. 21.17 can be integrated to result in

(Eq. 21.18)−1Lc2cosφ+c1=12dφ2ds

The integration constant is determined by the fact that for ϕ → 0: dφds=0, in

which case c1 = Lc, which results in
2Lc2(1−cosφ)=dφ2ds±2Lc21−cosφ2=dφds

Here we can exploit the fact that ±1−cosφ2=sinφ2 (see Eq. 3.35), which

results in
(Eq. 21.19)2Lcsinφ2=dφds

Eq. 21.19z contains the implicit solution to the contour of the meniscus. It is
expressed as a function of the angle φ and the path variable s. As we will see, it is
analytically possible but very tedious to derive the function z (x) from Eq. 21.19.
It is significantly easier to derive two functions from it, i.e., x (φ) and z (φ). Using
these two equations, it is possible to calculate the contour implicitly by
finding x and y as functions of the angle φ. The value range for φ is given by the
initial contact angle φ0=π2−Θ0 and φ → 0 for x → ∞.
Deriving x (φ). We will start by deriving x (φ). For this we replace ds in Eq.
21.19 using Eq. 21.13, resulting in
2Lcdx=cosφsinφ2dφ

which can be integrated to result in

(Eq. 21.20)2Lcx+c2=4cosφ2+2ln(1sinφ2−1tanφ2)

The integral is not straightforward, and it is best to locate it in a suitable integral

table or by using, e.g., Maple. The integration constant c2 can be found
for x = 0: φ = φ0, in which case we find
c2=4cosφ02+2ln(1sinφ02−1tanφ02)

This allows us to rewrite Eq. 21.19 as

(Eq.
21.21)2Lcx=4cosφ2+2ln(1sinφ2−1tanφ2)−(4cosφ02+2ln(1sinφ02−
1tanφ02))1Lcx=2cosφ2+ln(1sinφ2−1tanφ2)−(2cosφ02+ln(1sinφ0
2−1tanφ02))x=Lc(2cosφ2+ln(1sinφ2−1tanφ2)−(2cosφ02+ln(1sin
φ02−1tanφ02)))

Eq. 21.21 allows us to find the values for x for a given angle φ.

Deriving z (φ). We now turn to finding the function z (φ), which can be derived
by replacing ds in Eq. 21.19 using Eq. 21.14, resulting in
2Lcdz=sinφsinφ2dφ

which can be integrated as

(Eq. 21.22)2Lcz=4sinφ2x=2Lcsinφ2

Again, the integral sinφsinφ2dφ is best located in an integration table or by

using an algebra tool. Eq. 21.22 is the sought equation. We now have two
equations to calculate the values x (φ) and z (φ) and thereby implicitly find the
meniscus contour.
21.3.3 Meniscus Contours
One important aspect that we can already see when looking at Eq. 21.21 and Eq.
21.22 is that they are both scaled to the capillary length Lc. Therefore the derived
equations are correct for all liquids, irrespective of their physical properties
because for each liquid, the capillary length is a constant. Therefore it is not
necessary to calculate the meniscus shape for different liquids. If the wetting
contact angle Θ0 at the wall is known, the profile can be derived from Eq.
21.21 and Eq. 21.22.
Fig. 21.4 shows the calculated profiles for the meniscus at different wetting angles
at the wall, starting from Θ0 = 0° (perfectly wetting) as the topmost profile all the
way to Θ0 = 180° (perfectly non-wetting) as the bottommost profile in increments
of 20°. Please note that Eq. 21.21 is discontinuous for Θ0 = 90°, which is why this
profile is not shown. However, for Θ0 = 90°, there is no meniscus formation, and
the surface remains flat. Fig. 21.4a shows the calculated meniscus shapes for
water at STP conditions. As stated, the profiles will look identical for all liquids as
long as Θ0 is known. Fig. 21.4b shows this general meniscus shape normalized to
the capillary length, the latter of course being different for different liquids.

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Fig. 21.4. Calculated meniscus shape for water at STP conditions and for a normalized meniscus shape.
The calculated profiles are for Θ0 = 0° (perfectly wetting, topmost profile) in increments of 20° up to
Θ0 = 180° (perfectly non-wetting, bottommost profile). For Θ 0 = 90° , the profile is flat (not shown).

Meniscus (liquid)
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A: The bottom of a concave meniscus.
B: The top of a convex meniscus.

A concave meniscus occurs when the particles of the liquid are more strongly
attracted to the container (adhesion) than to each other (cohesion), causing the liquid
to climb the walls of the container. This occurs between water and glass. Water-
based fluids like sap, honey, and milk also have a concave meniscus in glass or
other wettable containers.
Conversely, a convex meniscus occurs when the particles in the liquid have a
stronger attraction to each other than to the material of the container. [1] Convex
menisci occur, for example, between mercury and glass in barometers[1] and
thermometers.

Capillary action[edit]
Menisci are a manifestation of capillary action, by which surface adhesion pulls a
liquid up to form a concave meniscus or internal cohesion pulls the liquid down to
form a convex meniscus. This phenomenon is important in transpirational pull in
plants. When a tube of a narrow bore, often called a capillary tube, is dipped into a
liquid and the liquid wets the tube (with zero contact angle), the liquid surface inside
the tube forms a concave meniscus, which is a virtually spherical surface having the
same radius, r, as the inside of the tube. The tube experiences a downward force of
magnitude 2πrσ, where σ is the surface tension of the liquid. [3]