Contents:

Introduction.........................................................................................................4

Chapter 1 Historical gradation of phrasal verbs, types of phrasal verbs and

their semantic structure……………………………………………………….9

1.1. History of phrasal verbs............................................................................10

1.2. Types of phrasal verbs and the phrasal verbs development………….14

1.3. The role and classification of phrasal verbs in the English language….34

1.4. Semantic nuances of phrasal verbs in Modern English………………38

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 40

Chapter 2 Peculiarities of phrasal verbs in translating into Russian…….. 42

2.1. Ways of translating English phrasal verbs………………………….. 44

2.2. The difficulties of translating English phrasal verbs into

Russian language……………………………………………………… 54

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………….60

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..61

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………..64

4
 Introduction

English has already become international and global language. As we can see,
phrasal verbs are widely spread in English literature. Phrasal verbs are specific
kind of verb. The term derives from "phrase" which in traditional linguistic
theory refers to the minimum unit of syntax. They differ from normal verbs in
that they are constituted by two or three elements instead of just one. Usually,
phrasal verbs are combinations of ordinary verbs like put, take, come, and go
and particles like in, out, on, and off. They are a very important part of everyday
English. Translating phrasal verbs one can have difficulties because of
difference in the meaning given in a dictionary and contextual meaning. That’s
why we use all sources to gain urgent information. In order to analyze phrasal
verbs and their possible equivalents in original text, we should discuss some
difficulties the translator faces during his work (especially translating idiomatic
expressions) and explain what may cause the difficulties. This is done with the
purpose to help the translator avoid many mistakes in his work. Then we talk
about the basic ways of translation of phrasal verbs. We examine
recommendations for translation of phrasal verbs the knowledge of foreign
languages let to read original books, but not everybody can understand full
meaning if does not know phrasal verbs which are very popular in English
language. The research paper is devoted to the basic issues of difficulties of
translation English phrasal verbs into Russian. This master thesis is devoted to a
very current theme about the place of phrasal verbs in the English language.

The novelty of the diploma paper result from the necessity of deep investigation
of phrasal verbs, which is explained by its vivid and great influence on people,
to achieve their aims by different translation techniques of phrasal verbs are
activated. It is topical for developing new and modern translation techniques in
order to impact on mass consciousness and deep study of phrasal verbs.

5
The aim of this research is to illustrate and find out the translation peculiarities
of English phrasal verbs into the Russian language and investigate possible
equivalents in native language.

The objectives of this research are:

•to review historical development of phrasal verbs in order to retrace their

modification;

•to show how knowing English phrasal verbs characteristics help to solve the
problems of their translation;

•analyze the way English phrasal verbs are translated into Russian

The topicality of the work is determined by the urgent need for direct
translation phrasal verbs from English language into Russian language without a
mediator language.

Theoretical importance of this work is that it contributes to the common

linguistic basis of translation process, that is shows which peculiarities of
linguistic systems and regularities of the language operation constitute the basis
of the translating process, making this process possible and determining its
character and borders.

Practical value lies in the fact that the present research work can be used by
other students and teachers who are interested in such grammatical sentences for
the following purposes:

- to improve their knowledge of the grammar structure of the English Language

- to understand the structure of the phrasal verbs

- to distinguish the types of phrasal verbs

- to get deeper knowledge about such phenomena in the English grammar as

Phrasal verbs.

6
The materials of this research can be used while teaching the theory and practice
of translation, comparative typology of the English and Russian languages; it
can serve as a source of materials for course and diploma papers.

In order to study the subject of the diploma work we used the following
methods.

- bibliographical method

- method of investigation

- method of description

- method of analysis

Working hypothesis: due to semantic, lexical and grammatical difficulties it is

impossible to find the full equivalent of the English phrasal verbs in the Russian
language, so some translation transformations should be worked out. General
statements for defense: English phrasal verbs are translated into the Russian
language as simple and compound verb name the actions. The paper is based on
the analysis of extensive empirical materials from different resources such as
dictionaries, theoretical books.

The structure of the diploma paper consists of the introduction, chapter1,

chapter 2, the conclusion and bibliography.

The first chapter will focus on classification of phrasal verbs in the English
language, examine the development of phrasal verbs through the evolution of
the English language, give an account of semantic peculiarities of phrasal verbs
in modern English The second chapter, in fact, is the main part of the paper. We
analyze some phrasal verbs examples found in the text involved. We discuss
some difficulties the translator faces during his work (especially translating
idiomatic expressions) and explain what may cause the difficulties. Then we talk
about the basic ways of translation of phrasal verbs. We examine

7
recommendations for translation of phrasal verbs. Particular attention is given to
such issues as the competence of the translator and the help of dictionaries.
Dictionaries represent a huge and valuable source of information and help to the
translator. They play an important role in successful translation. They make the
work of translators easier. In this work, we’ve analyzed several dictionaries as
well as their basic features and their significance; the conclusion is the summary
of the paper. The bibliography concludes the paper. In the bibliography, the
sources of information and actual material are listed.

8
 CHAPTER 1 Historical gradation of the phrasal verbs, types of phrasal
verbs and their semantic structure

Phrasal verbs have been present for much of the history of the English language;
they are easily traceable back to early Middle English [McArthur.,1992, p. 773].
There are similar constructions in other Germanic languages, such as Dutch, but
such constructions are less common in other language families and can therefore
be considered typologically unusual [Neeleman & Weerman, 1993]. Like the
phenomenon of preposition-stranding, phrasal verbs appear to occur only in the
Germanic languages [Newmeyer., 2005, p. 113].Van Dongen (1919) traces the
elements of the English phrasal verb back as far as Old English, in which
adverbs (i.e., the particles) occurred by default as post-positions, but could also
occur in other positions in the sentence .He then follows the verbs to Middle
English, where “the adverb is more and more attracted by the verb and takes its
place before the noun-object” , establishing the existence of phrasal verbs in
works such as Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthurand in the Wycliffe Bible. Another
author, Elenbass, argues that, in Old English, the particles which would later
become part of the phrasal verbs functioned as resultative predicates, and did so
to an extent in Middle English as well. English phrasal verbs have varied in
productivity over the centuries, but the number and usage of phrasal verbs has
been increasing since the nineteenth century and especially during the last fifty
years. This development has been most notable in American English McArthur
notes that Samuel Johnson was the first to describe phrasal verbs in 1755,
calling them a “composition,” but Walker (1655), a century earlier, considered
some particles as words which could be included as “part of the signification of
the foregoing verb», illustrating that the verb-particle combination was at times
semantically unified [McArthur.,1992,p.775]. Currently, 15phrasal verbs are
used primarily in speech and in informal writing, but they do occur, with
growing frequency, in more formal writing as well .Many phrasal verbs occur
within semantic frames which are typically considered idiomatic. While often,

9
certainly initially, analyzed as additional variations in the meaning of the root
verb, the combination of the verb and the particle can result in a meaning
drastically different from that of the root verb. Machonis calls these more
idiomatic phrasal verbs “frozen verbs,” relegating them to the realm of the
lexicon.“Compositional” verbs, on the other hand, are seen as a verb plus a
particle which adds aspect to the verb, while retaining the core meaning of the
original verb .For example, Machonis identifies the aspect added by the particle
up as completion, intensity, direction, or a combination of those three. Machonis
argues that because certain phrasal verbs are “frozen” they are different from
“compositional” verbs; however, once a phrasal verb is in usage, its
compositionality changes and the meaning moves, sometimes quite swiftly,
towards the metaphoric, rather than the literal. A compositional verb can
eventually become a ‘frozen’verb, or it can remain productive[Machonis., 2009,
p. 253]. Jackendoff comments on this: “Some combinations of verb + particle
are productive, some are semi productive, and some are purely idiosyncratic”.
However, Jackendoff does not elaborate on whether or not productivity in a
phrasal verb depends on its being what Machonis calls “compositional.” While
the historical development of phrasal verbs is important to understanding the
phenomenon, the end result is, of course, how the phrasal verbs are used at this
point in time. Their current usage is better explained if we address their
semantics[Ray S. Jackendoff.,1983,p.283].

1.1. History of phrasal verbs.

Although the phrasal verb has been present in English for many centuries,
it has only recently been described in detail. Citations in the OED date from
Middle English: for example, turn about 1300; gone down 1388. The incidence
of phrasal verbs exploded in Early Modern English. Shakespeare himself
applied the form widely throughout the plays. They are common in Shakespeare:
‘So long, that nineteen Zodiacs hue gone round’ (Measure for Measure, 1603).
Such verbs have often been used to translate Latin verbs (to puttee downer …
10
Calare, deepener: Catholicon Anglicism, 1483 and to define verbs of Latin
origin in English [abrogate… take away: Cawdrey, 1604]. The 18c
lexicographer Samuel Johnson was among the first to consider such formations
seriously.

There is another kind of composition more frequent in our language than

perhaps in any other, from which arises to foreigners the greatest difficulty. We
modify the signification of many words by a particle subjoined; as to come off,
to escape by a fetch; to fall on, to attack; to fall off, to apostatize; to break off, to
stop abruptly …[ Preface, Dictionary of the English Language, 1755].

Hiltunen cites a study by Castillo, in which 5744 phrasal verbs have been
identified within the body of the plays. [Hiltunen Risto,1975]. Nevalainen(423)
also notes Spasov’s study, which analyzed 46 plays from the Renaissance to
Present-Day English, finding that phrasal verbs remained “below ten per cent of
the total of all verbs from his four Early Modern English sub periods, but does
exceed the five per cent level from about 1600 onwards.” [Nevalainen T., 1995]
Hiltunen explains that phrasal verbs were used extensively in Early Modern
English dramatic texts because of their variable shades of meaning and
productive capacity “ to be expanded to form new idioms” [Hiltunen, Risto,
1975].Akimoto notes also that “phrasal verbs occur more frequently in letters
and dramas than in essays or academic writing” in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries .This confirms that phrasal verbs occupied a lower social position in
Early Modern English than, perhaps, single Latinate verbs that could fill their
semantic fields, which gives rise, incidentally, to a syntactic test for phrasal
verbs. However, phrasal verbs continued to become entrenched. Stage-three
compound nouns arose, such as “breakdown” and “comeback”. The stress on the
particle in the verbal form (we say, “I have to break down these boxes) moved
from the particle to the verbal component when the compound acted as a noun.
Phrasal verbs in Early Modern English also could be formed with a noun +
particle, such as “to louse up”. It was also in this period that pronominal objects
11
were firmly established before particles (“She put it on” not She put on it) as a
standard practice, while nominal objects retained movement before and after the
particle (She put the dress on / She put on the dress).A phrasal verb, in Present-
Day English, is a verb that takes a complementary particle, in other words, an
adverb resembling a preposition necessary to complete sentence. A common
example is the verb “to fix up”: “He fixed up the car.” The word “up” here is a
particle, not a preposition, because “up” can move: “He fixed the car up.” These
movements of the particle “up” quickly distinguishes it from the preposition
“up”.Because the forms of the particle and the preposition are themselves
identical, it is easy to confuse phrasal verbs with a very similar-looking type of
verb: the prepositional verb. A prepositional verb takes a complementary
prepositional phrase. Movement verbs are readily identifiable examples. ”.
[ Akimoto, Minoji,1989]

For example, the verb “to go” is intransitive, and without the benefit of context,
it cannot operate in a complete sentence only accompanied by a subject. One
cannot say, “I went,” and expect to satisfy a listener without including a
prepositional phrase of place, such as “I went to the store.” Prepositional verbs
are immediately distinguishable from phrasal verbs in terms of movement, as
prepositions cannot move after their objects. It is not possible to say, “I went the
store to,” and so “went” is a prepositional verb. There are, in fact, several
syntactic tests to distinguish phrasal from prepositional verbs, and these will be
discussed in detail in the final section. It is also necessary to understand that the
term “verb phrase” refers not to phrasal verbs, but more generally to a sentence
verb, its complements, and matters of tense, aspect, mood, voice and so on.

As for the ancestors of phrasal verbs in Old English, the English language of
this period generally did not possess phrasal verbs as they are found in Present-
Day English. They did exist, although they were rare. Much more common in
Old English was the inseparable-prefix verb, a form in which the particle was
attached to the beginning of the verb. These Old English prefixed verbs are
12
directly comparable to current phrasal forms. For example, in Present-Day
English, there is the mono transitive verb “to burn” and then the phrasal mono
transitive “to burn up.” Old English had “barman” (to burn) and “forborne” (to
burn up). The prefix “for-” remained affixed to the verb and could not move as
modern particles can. Such Old English compound verbs were also highly
idiomatic, in that the meaning of the compound form did not necessarily reflect
the meaning of the root. Denison provides “Brendan” as an example because it
meant “to dispossess”, while its root verb, “radian”, meant “to advise». The
phenomenon still survives today in the participle “forlorn”, as well as the verb
“understand an”, which does not in Present-Day English mean “to stand
underneath (something)”, but idiomatically “to comprehend”.[Denison,
David.,1985].Akimoto suggests that Old English prefixes often remained before
the verb because Old English had strong object-before-verb (OV) tendencies,
whereas Present-Day English is largely a Verb Object language, which has made
it possible for particles to travel to post-verbal positions. Some Old English
verbs did function as modern phrasal verbs do. Denison points out that
Koopmans finds and analyses examples of Old English phrasal verbs with post-
verbal particles. In the Chronicles of England, the speaker says, “ac he teaches
for his Aldan wrenches’” (but he drew forth his old tricks). Hence, there was in
Old English the rare incidence of phrasal verbs with post-verbal particles.
However, Denison notes about such examples that the meaning of post-verbal
particles in this period was still often very directional, in close relationship with
a prepositional meaning. Therefore, applications of the particle “up” in Old
English conveyed sense of direction upward, as in “to grow up (ward)”, rather
than the completive sense, as in “to break up (completely The formation of
prefixed verbs in Old English was no longer productive in English, and the loss
of productivity was already evident in Old English, in which certain authors
added a post-verbal particle to prefixed verbs, possibly because the prefix was
losing meaning .Stress patterns also likely account for a shift, as prefixes in Old
English compound verbs were unstressed, while post-verbal particles carried
13
stress, making them stronger and thus preserving their lexical value. [Denison,
David.,1985].Middle English was also subject to the powerful forces of French
and Anglo-Norman, as well to some influence from Old Norse. Several authors
on the subject claim that Old Norse, which already had a fairly robust incidence
of phrasal verbs, must have incited the production of English phrasal verbs with
post-verbal particles, although the degree to which Old Norse is responsible for
this is unclear [ Smith, Jeremy., 1996]. The rapid borrowing of French verbs into
Middle English likely slowed the development of phrasal verbs because of
competition in semantic fields, as French brought in Romance verbs that could
fill the semantic fields of the Old English prefixed verbs. For example, the
French borrowing “destroy” could accommodate the meaning of Old English
«forereach” (break up).

French forms also likely hindered phrasal verbs because of lexical register.
French was the language of status in England after the Norman Conquest, and
phrasal verbs, while common by the fourteenth century were considered
informal [Millward, C. M. 1996]. Nonetheless, phrasal verbs regained strong
productivity by the fifteenth. Tanabe notes the occurrence of 162 phrasal verbs
in The Pastor Letters, despite the formal quality of those letters, and the
incidence of “to give up” in the Peterborough Chronicle[Tanabe, Harumi.,1999].
Middle English underwent a shift in syntax from many instances of SOV to
SVO as it lost many synthetic inflections (and consequently possible word
orders) from Old English, becoming a much more analytic, or word-order based
language.

1.2 Types of phrasal verbs and the phrasal verbs development

A phrasal verb is a type of verb in English that operates more like a phrase than
a word. Tom McArthur in the Oxford Companion to the English Language notes
that these verbs are also referred to by many other names such verb phrase,
discontinuous verb, compound verb, verb-adverb combination, verb-particle
construction (VPC), AmE two-part word/verb and three-part word/verb. David
14
Crystal in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language calls this
linguistic phenomenon a "multi-word verb" that is best described as a lexeme, a
unit of meaning that may be greater than a single word. Phrasal verbs may be
intransitive: The party broke up when we turned in, or transitive: She put the
heckler down, She put down the heckler. In the case of an object (noun)
receiving the action of the verb, the object may come before or after the particle.
If the object is a pronoun, it comes between the verb and particle: She put him
down, not * She put down him. Some grammarians, such as Martha Koln in
“Understanding English Grammar, take the view that phrasal verbs define only
those combinations that form an idiom, a phrase whose meaning cannot be
predicted from the meaning of its parts. This is the holistic or semantic view,
which focuses mainly on the meaning of the verb combination.

For example, Koln would say that go up in this sentence is not an example of a
phrasal verb:

The balloon went up into the sky because the sentence can be rephrased as up
the balloon went into the sky.

Koln would designate up as an adverb modifying went. Koln also applies the
test of meaning to phrasal verbs as in these examples: give in can be replaced by
surrender; pull through, by recover, and come by, by acquire, and break up, by
end. Each phrasal verb could be replaced by a single verb with the same general
meaning. [Martha Kölln.,l982, p.352 ].

However, McArthur in his treatment of the phrasal verb states that

phrasal verbs cover both the literal and figurative/idiomatic usage. Grammarians
who take this position classify phrasal verbs based on their use in sentence
patterns (syntactical properties) and as new word formations (morphological
properties), as well as by the overall meaning of these verb combinations
(semantic properties).

15
The examples below illustrate the same phrasal verb having both a literal and
figurative meaning.

She put down the book. (Literal)

The army put down the rebellion. (figurative/idiomatic)

In addition to a single literal and/or figurative meaning, some phrasal verbs

can have a multitude of different meanings depending on the context.

For example, here are some of the many ways in which the phrasal verb pick up
is currently used:

Pick up that book. (to take up by hand)

Please, pick up your room. (to tidy up)

The airport van picked up its passengers. (to take on)

I picked up this ring on sale. (to acquire casually)

He picks up foreign languages fairly easily. (to acquire knowledge or learning)

He picked up his package at the post office. (to claim)

She picked up some milk on her way home. (To buy)

Her boss picked up the tab for lunch. (to pay a bill)

He picked up a virus on his trip. (to come down with a disease)

The home team picked up eight yards on the play. (to gain)

He picked up a date at the singles bar. (to make casual acquaintance)

The police picked up the bank robber. (to take into custody)

The dog picked up the scent of the kidnapper. (to come upon and follow)

Retail sales always pick up around the holidays. (to improve)

16
She just picked up and left town. (to pack one’s belongings) [McArthur English
phrasal verbs 1998]

To get a feel for how students studying English as a second language have
to struggle with the idiomatic aspect of phrasal verbs. A native speaker of
English should have no difficult.

Prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs. Many English verbs consist of two
parts: a base verb (like bring, take, and come) and another small word (like up,
down, off, away). The small word is either a preposition or an adverb particle.

In some cases, the meaning of a two-part verb is simply a combination of the

meanings of the two words. Examples are come in, run away, walk across, and
stoning some cases, the first word keeps its meaning, but the second has a
special intensifying sense. It means something like completely or thoroughly.
Examples: break up, tire out.

In other cases, the new two-part verb has quite a different meaning from
the two separate parts: give up means surrender, and blow up means explode.

Prepositional verbs. We say that a verb is prepositional when the particle is not
an adverb but preposition.

Prepositional verbs can be distinguished from the phrasal verbs for the
following reasons:

1. The accent is on the verb, not on the particle. I'll 'LOOK after the children.

2. If the object (substantive) is substituted by a pronoun, it must be placed after

the particle. I'll look after THEM.

3. It is grammatically acceptable to include an adverb between the verb and the

particle. I'll look CAREFULLY after the children.

4. The particle can be placed before a relative pronoun.

17
These are the children AFTER WHOM I looked. [ Biber, D., Conrad, S., &
Leech, G.,2002].

Phrasal verbs can be summarized as follows:

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an

adverb, or a verb with both an adverb and a preposition, any of which are part of
the syntax of the sentence, and so is a complete semantic unit. Sentences,
however, may contain direct and indirect objects in addition to the phrasal verb.
Phrasal verbs are particularly frequent in the English language. A phrasal verb
often has a meaning which is different from the original verb.

1. A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a

meaning different from the original verb.
Example:
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME
2. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be
followed by an object.
Example:
He suddenly showed up. "SHOW UP" CANNOT TAKE AN OBJECT
3. Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an
object.
Example:
I made up the story. "STORY" IS THE OBJECT OF "MAKE UP"

4. Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between
the verb and the preposition. Phrasal verbs are marked by placing a between the
verb and the preposition / adverb.

Example:
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car.
She looked the phone number up.
18
5. Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the
preposition. Phrasal verbs are marked by placing a + after the preposition /
adverb.
Example:
I ran into an old friend yesterday.
They are looking into the problem.
6. Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places. Such phrasal
verbs are marked with both
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.
7. Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both places, you must put
the object between the verb and the preposition if the object is a pronoun.
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book
I looked up the number in the phone book.
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT [Phrasal Verbs and
collocations”2000].
The Grammar of Phrasal verbs Grammarians have adopted two main
positions with regard to the nature and use of phrasal verbs:
1. That the literal uses of a form like go up is not a phrasal verb as such,
but verb operating with a particle:
The balloon went up into the air.
The term phrasal verb should properly be reserved for figurative and idiomatic
uses:
The balloon went up (= the crisis finally happened).
Here, it is the holistic and semantic aspect of go up which is considered to
identify the type, not syntax or morphology.

19
 2. That the term covers both the literal and figurative/idiomatic uses and
therefore includes syntax, morphology, and semantics: that is, both senses of go
up, as above. This is the position adopted in the following review, which begins
with a consideration of the grammatical aspects of phrasal verbs under three
headings: transitivity and word order; particles functioning as adverbs and/or
prepositions; and the position of adverbs.[ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum,
Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartnik. 1985].
Syntactic differences. A syntactic difference is that the particle of a phrasal verb
can often stand either before or after the noun, whereas it can only stand after
personal pronouns as it can be stated above.
Transitivity and word order. Phrasal verbs may be intransitive (When they went
away, she got up and went out) or transitive (She put the book down, and then
picked it up again). If the verb is transitive, the object can go before or after the
particle without affecting meaning:
She put the book down, she put down the book.
If, however, the object is a pronoun, it comes between verb and particle:
She put it down, not she put down it.
However, young children and occasionally adults for emphasis have been
known to place the pronoun last: Put down IT!

Adverbial and prepositional particles-a sentence containing a verb followed

by a prepositional phrase can usually (but not always) is shortened so as to turn
preposition into adverb:
f.e.He carried the box up the stairs. He carried the box up. (Stairs- understood)
If a further prepositional phrase is added, two particles (the first adverbial, the
second prepositional) may occur in sequence:
f.e He carried the box up to his room.
The syntactic relationships in such sentences can be shown by bracketing:
f.e.(He carried the chair up) (to his room).

20
Usage may appear inconsistent with regard to compound forms: into; out of; Br
E on to, Am E onto; off of, non-standard in Br E, often standard in Am E.
However, in terms of phrasal verbs, such usage is straight forward: the sentences
She took the books into the room,
She took the books out of the room,
She lifted the books on to/onto the table, and She lifted the books off (of) the
table all reduce to She took the books in/out and She lifted the books on/off.
The particle out is followed in England by of in such sentences as
They looked out of the window, but in Am E, Can E, Sco E the form is generally
They looked out the window.

The position of adverbs. Adverbs often appears alongside the particles of

phrasal verbs. With intransitive usages, the adverb can take any of the positions
in:
He happily ran away,
He ran happily away,
He ran away happily, the last probably commonest.
With transitive usages, the adverb goes either before the verb or after the object
or particle, whichever is last:
She eagerly picked the letter up,
She picked up the letter eagerly,
She picked the letter up eagerly,
She picked it up eagerly,
no usage predominating, but in most contexts there are no such forms as,
She picked the letter/it eagerly up.
(Notes such relatively are rare possibilities as- He pushed the letters clumsily
through).

Adverbial particles. The particles commonly used are: aback, about, ahead,
along, apart, aside, around, away, back, beyond, down, forth, in, off, on, out,
21
over, past, round, through, up . The commonest are down, in, off, on, out, up. Br
E favors about (running about), Am E (a) round (running around). A verb-
particle combination may have: any of the meanings of the verb plus any of the
meanings of the particle, and any meanings that emerge jointly in particular
contexts, including a distinct figurative and often holistic meaning.
For example:
1.The phrasal verb get up may be intransitive (They got up) or transitive(Get
them up), may mean ‘move from lower to higher’ (He got the child up on to the
wall), ‘move from far to near’ (One of the other runners got up to him and
passed him), ‘gather, accumulate’ (The engine got up steam), ‘organize, make’
(He can get up the plot of a new film in no time at all), and something like ‘put
on special clothes’ (They got themselves up as pirates).
2. The particle up can mean upward direction (The smoke rose up), approaching
direction (He swam up to the boat), completion in the sense that nothing is left
(They used up all the oil), completion in the sense that something is done as
fully as possible (They tidied the room up), and emphasis (Hurry up!). It may
also have several nuances, as with Drink up! Both completive and emphatic.

The use of phrasal verbs. Such verbs are often informal, emotive, and slangy,
and may contrast with Latinate verbs, as in They used up/consumed all the fuel;
they gathered together/assembled/congregated in the hall; the soldiers moved
forward/advanced. Putting off a meeting parallels postponing it; driving back
enemy forces repels them; putting out a fire extinguishers it; bringing back the
death penalty restores it. However, such pairing often depends on context and
collocation. In some cases, one phrasal verb may match several Latinate verbs:
bring back = restore (the death penalty),

return (money to someone),

retrieve (a shot bird or animal from where it has fallen).

In other cases, one Latinate verb may match several phrasal verbs:

22
demolish matching knock down,

tear down,

blow up as variants in destructive style.

It is sometimes possible to match the elements of phrasal verbs and Latinate

verbs:

climb up with a-up/scend,

climb down with de-down/scend. [Longman phrasal verbs dictionary.2000]

Literal and figurative usages. The verb bring in is used literally in the
milkman brought in the milk,
figuratively in the prime minister brought in a new policy.
Only in the second sense can bring in be matched with introduce (itself
originally metaphorical in Latin):
not the milkman introduced the milk, unless a joke is intended.
Jokes and cartoons are often based on a deliberate confusion of phrasal-verb
meanings: as when someone says,
‘Put the kettle on’ (taken to mean heat some water in a kettle for tea), then notes
with appreciation, ‘Mmm, it suits you’ (crossing over to putting on clothes and
leaving the listener to imagine someone wearing a kettle).
An artist might build a cartoon round the literal/figurative contrast in Where did
you pick up that idea?, with someone searching through garbage for inspiration,
and the headline Oil Will Run Out Soon might be supported by a picture of
barrels with legs leaving a room.[ Sroka, Kazimierz A.,1972]

Derived phrasal verbs. In addition to the traditional combination of verb of

movement plus directional particle, phrasal verbs are commonly created from
adjectives, nouns, and Latinate verbs:

23
 1. From adjectives. Basically, with -en verbs: brighten/brighten up, flatten
down/out, freshen up, harden off, loosen off/up, slacken off/up, smarten up,
softenup, tighten up, toughen up. Where verbs in -en cannot be formed (that is,
from adjectives ending in n, ng, m, l, r, th, or a spoken vowel), the particle is
added directly: calm down to become/make calm, cool off become/make cool,
even out to become/make even, tidy up to make tidy.
2. From nouns. By telescoping an expression containing a phrasal verb
and a special noun: hammer out encapsulating beat out with a hammer; channel
off telescoping carry or run off by means of a channel; brick up meaning close
up with bricks. Many phrasal verbs emerge in this way: bed down, board up,
book out, button up, dish out, fog up, gang up, hose down, iron out, jack up, mist
up, saddle up, sponge down, wall in
3. From Latinate verbs. Particles are added, usually as completive and
intensives, to two- and three-syllable verbs of Latin origin: contract out, divide
off/up, level off, measure off/out, select out, separate off/out. Such usages are
sometimes described as barbarous and pleonastic, but such criticism does not
affect their widespread use. .[ Concise Oxford Companion to the English
language, 1998].

Nouns from phrasal verbs

Two kinds of noun are formed from such verbs:

1. The major pattern. In speech, the level stress of break down changes to
the compound stress of breakdown. In writing and print, nouns like this are
either solid (breakdown) or hyphenated (round-up). The solid form is common
when a usage is well established and is favored in Am E. Hyphenation is
common for newer usages and is favored in Br E, in which a solid form may
seem confusing or odd, especially when vowels come together: cave-in as cave-
in, make up as makeup. Typical nouns are: blackout, breakout, breakup, build-
up, getaway, get-together, hold-up, mix-up, sit-in, take-off, and white-out.

24
 2. The minor pattern. By a process of inversion: when a disease breaks out,
there is an outbreak of that disease. Again, compound stress occurs: outbreak. In
writing and print, the presentation is usually solid. Typical nouns are: input,
onrush, outflow, output, overflow, overspill, throughput, upkeep, upsurge, and
uptake. The contrasting patterns sometimes prompt different forms with
different meanings: a breakout usually of people, an outbreak usually of disease
and trouble; a layout in design and decoration, an outlay of money and goods; a
lookout posted to observe, an outlook usually relating to weather, attitude, and
prospects. Most phrasal nouns relate to situations. The few which relate to things
and people tend to be dialectal, idiomatic, and slangy: Br E lay about someone
who lays/lies idly about; Am E dropout someone who drops out of society or
education; write-off a car so badly damaged that it is written off the books of an
insurance company; blow-up a photograph blown up like a balloon. As with the
verb forms, phrasal nouns can run parallel with Latinate nouns that tend to be
elevated, technical, and formal where the phrasal nouns are colloquial, informal,
and slangy: break- up/disintegration, checkup/examination,
letdown/disappointment, let-up/relaxation, sellout/betrayal, shake-
up/reorganization.[ Ed.Roger Lass, Gen Ed. Richard Hogg,1992]

Compounds and attributives. Phrasal nouns can occur in compound and

attributive formations:
1.With the phrasal noun first: blackout regulations, breakdown service, check-up
period, getaway car, input time, overflow pipe, round-up time.
2.With the phrasal noun second: aero plane take-off/airplane takeoff, traffic
holdup, cholera outbreak, enemy build-up, population overspill, student sit-in
3.With the phrasal noun between other nouns: cattle round-up time, truck
break-down service, population overspill problem.

Phrasal-verb idioms. Idiomatic usages are usually colloquial and informal,

more or less obvious figurative extensions of ordinary uses. Expressions used to
25
gloss them are often more formal, less direct, and less emotive, as with: bring
down or defeat (a government), bring in or introduce (a new law), bring off or
clinch (a deal), bring on or encourage and train (a student), bring out or publish
(a book), bring up or raise (a child); be carried away or overwhelmed (by one's
emotions), carry off or win (a prize), carry on or continue (one's work), carry out
or perform (one's duty),carry through or sustain (a project, to the end); a
machine coming apart or disintegrating, a deal coming off or succeeding, work
coming on or improving, soldiers coming through or surviving, something
coming up or happening; cutting back or economizing (on expenses), cutting
down or reducing (one's expenses),cutting in on or interrupting (a conversation),
cutting people off or isolating them, cutting something out or excising or
eliminating it; getting down or alighting (from a train), getting all the
information in or collecting it, getting on or succeeding (in life), getting off or
disembarking, or being allowed to go free, after an offence, getting out of or
escaping from (a prison), and getting out or producing and publishing (a
magazine), getting up or increasing (pressure), and getting up or rising from
one's bed in the morning. Similar lists can be made for such other everyday
verbs as be, do, go, keep, make, pass, pull, put, run, set, take, turn.[ Bolinger,
D.,1971].

Idioms which are formed from phrasal verbs, such as let the cat out of the bag.
These idioms are printed in heavy type. Idioms have a meaning which is
different from the meaning of the single words, and usually have a fixed word
order.

Courtney then cites among many other examples in the dictionary such
phrases as "to add insult to injury", "to add fuel to the flames", "to leave
someone in the lurch", "to scare someone out of their wits", etc.

"To get over an examination" is not the correct application of the phrasal
verb "to get over." The author wants to imply, "to finish," the phrasal verb in

26
this case is "to get over with." To get over the examination means put it in your
emotional past. [Rosemary Courtney., 1983]

Phrasal verbs and prepositions. There is a continuum between the phrasal verb
as described above and verbs followed by phrases in which the preposition may
or may not be part of the phrase. A phrasal verb can be formed elliptically from
a verb plus prepositional phrase (like He took the box up from He took the box
up the stairs). A transitive usage may not be separable (like pick up the
book/pick the book up), but may have distinct meanings depending on where the
particle is placed (get round someone, get someone round). Particles may not be
clearly either adverbial or prepositional, as with off in Br E get off the bus
(compare widespread Am E get off of the bus).Some prepositions may be
attached to verbs preceding them, usually for figurative reasons: where the
sentence .He came across the street is analyzable as (He came)(across the street),
the sentence He came across an old friend makes more sense as a phrasal form:
(He came across) (an old friend), come across glossed as meet by chance. Some
grammarians and lexicologists call a usage like come across a prepositional
verb, because the particle is not adverbial but prepositional.[ Celce-Murcia, M.
& Larsen-Freeman, D,1999].Such a terminology, if extended, should turn
phrasal verbs proper into ‘adverbial verbs’, but has not yet done so. Other
commentators call the usage a fused or non-separable phrasal verb, because the
preposition has been ‘stolen’ from its own phrase and fused with the preceding
verb in an idiom. Others still neither consider some particles so equivocal that
they are neither adverb as such nor prepositions as such, but ‘adpreps’. Usages
include: act for represent, bargain for expect, call for demand, come by obtain,
get at imply, go for attack. The issue is further complicated by occasions when
the fusion occurs between a phrasal verb proper and a following preposition, as
with look down on hold in contempt, check up on investigate, go along with
accept, face up to confront, look back on recall, look forward to have good
expectations of, look up to admire, meet up with encounter.
27
Stress. In normal speech, if no special emphasis is employed, the adverbial
particle in a phrasal verb proper is stressed: to pick up a book/pick a book up.
The preposition in a two-part fused (prepositional) verb is not usually so
stressed:

They didn’t bargain for that.

In a three-part fusion, the stresses combine the patterns:

to look UP to someone, look down on someone.

Productivity. Phrasal verbs have always been common, but have increased in
number since the mid-19c and even more so since the mid-20c, especially in Am
E. As a result, a number of dictionaries of phrasal verbs have been published
since 1974and increasingly dictionaries for both native and foreign users have
given phrasal verbs main-entry or high secondary status. They are increasingly
the subject of special attention in courses for foreign learners of English, and it
was in this area that the category came of age as a distinct aspect of grammar,
word-formation, and usage.

The term ‘phrasal verb’ was first used by Logan Pearsall Smith, in “Words
and Idioms”, in which he states that the OED Editor Henry Bradley suggested
the term to him.

Alternative terms for phrasal verb are ‘compound verb’,’ verb-adverb

combination’, ‘verb-particle construction (VPC)’ AmE ‘two-part word/verb’ and
‘three-part word/verb’ (depending on the number of particles), and multi-word
verb (MWV).

'Preposition' and 'adverb' as used in a phrasal verb are also called 'particle' in
that they do not alter their form through inflections (are therefore uninflected,
they do not accept affixes, etc.).[Fraser Bruce., 1986].

28
Phrasal verbs in informal speech. Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in
everyday speech as opposed to the more formal Latinate verbs, such as “to get
together” rather than “to congregate”, “to put off” rather than “to postpone”, or
“to get out” rather than “to exit”.

Literal usage. Many verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a

preposition, and readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in
a literal sense with a preposition:

"He walked across the square."

Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be understood when used
literally:

“She opened the shutters and looked outside.”

“When he heard the crash, he looked up.”

An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the subject to the verb.

Idiomatic usage. It is, however, the figurative or idiomatic application in

everyday speech which makes phrasal verbs so important:

“I hope you will get over your operation quickly."

"Work hard, and get your examination over with."

The literal meaning of “to get over”, in the sense of “to climb over
something to get to the other side”, no longer applies to explain the subject’s
enduring an operation or the stress of an examination which they have to
overcome. It is when the combined meaning of verb plus adverb, or verb plus
preposition is totally different from each its component parts, that the semantic
content of the phrasal verb cannot be predicted by its constituent parts and so
becomes much more difficult for a student learning English to recognize.

29
 Other idiomatic usages of phrasal verbs show a verb + direct object +
preposition/adverb + indirect object construction:

Idioms which are formed from phrasal verbs, such as let the cat out of the bag.
These idioms are printed in heavy type. Idioms have a meaning which is
different from the meaning of the single words, and usually have a fixed word
order. [Rosemary Courtney., 1983]

Phrasal verb patterns. A phrasal verb contains either a preposition or an

adverb (or both), and may also combine with one or more nouns or pronouns.

Particle verbs. Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called
"particle verbs", and are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages.
There are two main patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle
verb does not have an object:

“When I entered the room he looked up.”

A transitive particle verb has a nominal object in addition to the adverb. If the
object is an ordinary noun, it can usually appear on either side of the adverb,
although very long noun phrases tend to come after the adverb:

Switch off the light.

Switch the light off.

Switch off the lights in the hallway next to the bedroom the president is
sleeping in.

With some transitive particle verbs, however, the noun object must come after
the adverb. Such examples are said to involve "inseparable" phrasal verbs:

The gas gave off fumes. (not The gas gave fumes off.)

Still other transitive particle verbs require the object to precede the adverb:

They let the man through. (not They let through the man.)
30
 With all transitive particle verbs, if the object is a pronoun, it must normally
precede the adverb:

Switch it off. (not Switch off it.)

The smell put them off. (not put off them)

They let him through. (not they let through him)

Prepositional verbs. Prepositional verbs are phrasal verbs that contain a

preposition, which is always followed by its nominal object. They are different
from inseparable transitive particle verbs, because the object still follows the
preposition if it is a pronoun:

On Fridays, we look after our grandchildren.

We look after them. (not look them after)

The verb can have its own object, which usually precedes the preposition:

She helped the boy to an extra portion of potatoes. With pronouns: She
helped him to some.

Prepositional verbs with two prepositions are possible:

We talked to the minister about the crisis.

Phrasal-prepositional verbs can contain an adverb and a preposition at the

same time. Again, the verb itself can have a direct object:

No direct object: The driver got off to a flying start.

Direct object: Onlookers put the accident down to the driver’s loss of
concentrate.

Phrasal verbs and modifying adverbs

31
 When modifying adverbs are used alongside particle adverbs intransitively
(as particle adverbs usually are), the adverbs can appear in any
verb/particle/adverb positions:

•“He unhappily looked round.”

•“He looked unhappily round.”

•“He looked round unhappily.”

The particle adverb here is "round" and the modifying adverb is

"unhappily"("Round" is a particle because it is not inflected — does not take
affixes and alter its form. "Unhappily" is a modifying adverb because it modifies
the verb "look").

With a transitive particle verb, the adverb goes either before the verb or after
the object or particle, whichever is last:

•“He cheerfully picked the book up.”

•“He picked up the book cheerfully.”(not picked cheerfully up the book)

•“He picked the book up cheerfully.”

Prepositional verbs are different from transitive particle verbs, because they
allow adverbs to appear between the verb and the preposition:

•“He cheerfully looked after the children.

•“He looked after the children cheerfully.

•“He looked cheerfully after the children.

Phrasal verbs combined with special verb forms and clauses

Rosemary Courtney also includes special verb forms and clauses in phrasal
verb constructions.

32
 Phrasal verbs combined with -clauses and that-clauses Sentences which
include verb + particle + object(s) + wh-clauses

•“The teacher tried to dictate to his class what is the right thing to do”

= transitive verb + preposition (dictate to) + direct object (his class) + wh-

clause (what is the right thing to do)

•“My friends called for me when the time came”

= transitive verb + preposition (called for) + pronoun (me) + wh-clause

(when the time came).

•“Watch out that you don’t hit your head on the low beam”

= intransitive verb + adverb (watch out) + that-clause (that you don’t hit your
head on the low beam).

Phrasal verbs combined with verb-ing forms

•“You can’t prevent me from seeing her”

= transitive verb + pronoun (prevent me) + preposition (from) + verb-ing

form (seeing) + pronoun (her). [Rosemary Courtney., 1983]

These types of phrasal verbs are characteristic only to English and they cannot
be found in Russian language.

Thus, many verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a preposition,

and readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in a literal
sense with a preposition. Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be
understood when used literally.

An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the verb to the object.

33
Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called " particle verbs", and
are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages. There are two main
patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle verb does not have
an object:

A transitive particle verb has a nominal object in addition to the adverb. If the
object is an ordinary noun, it can usually appear on either side of the adverb,
although very long noun phrases tend to come after the adverb.

1.3 The role and classification of phrasal verbs in the English language

It generally recognized that the role of English phrasal verbs has increased
dramatically in recent years. This is reflected in the spate of dictionaries and
practice books devoted to them which have appeared in Britain for foreign
students. Not only have these verbs become more numerous (and their number is
constantly increasing) but they are used more and more widely, not only in
colloquial English but also, for example, in academic writing, in official reports,
in fiction, and the mass media. Some of them are pushing more traditional, one-
word, verbs into second place. It is therefore essential that students of English
should not only understand them when reading or listening to English but also
use them themselves, in spite of the difficulties involved. The main difficulties
are as follows: the sheer number and variety of phrasal verbs, the idiomatic
nature of many meanings, the mobility of the particle, and variations of in stress.

Phrasal verbs are a specific kind of verb. The term derives from "phrase "which
in traditional linguistic theory refers to the minimum unit of syntax. They differ
from normal verbs in that they are constituted by two or three elements instead
of just one.

34
 Usually, phrasal verbs are combinations of ordinary verbs like put, take,
come, and go and particles like in, out, on, and off. They are a very important
part of everyday English.

The importance of mechanics is the reason for the emphasis on the

prepositions required when some phrasal verbs are used transitively and for the
inclusion of reviews of points of grammar not specific to phrasal verbs.
Prepositions are the glue that holds English together, but many learners falter
when using newly learned verbs because they do not know that a preposition is
also required, or if they do, which one. This aspect of English is not given the
attention it deserves because it is difficult to teach — there are no rules that
govern when a preposition, or which preposition, is required, as the only one
rule that really means is just to remember.

Phrasal verbs can be said to possess some degree of idiomaticity in the

assembly of the verb plus preposition (cry over something), or verb plus
separable particle (run up the flag, run the flag up), verb plus inseparable
particle (run up a debt), or the double assembly of verb plus particle and
preposition (face up to problems).Crucial in the differentiation of phrasal verbs
is the special “constructional” contribution of the original preposition or particle
to the whole. Hence any study of phrasal verbs must also come to grips with the
semantics of prepositions and particles.

The main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of reality in

the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary" verbs
do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This ability to
describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is determined
by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with these
elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic
multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no
consistent structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an
additional aspective meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit merges
35
with the particle down into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or introduce a
lexical modification to its fundamental semantics. In most cases adverbial
elements denote the general spatial direction of the action or express its
qualitative or quantitative characteristics, like beginning (set out), duration (bum
along), completion (think out), intensity (hurry up), and so on.

Nowadays there are many both explanatory and bilingual dictionaries of

phrasal verbs, for example, Cambridge, Collins Cobuild; Oxford, Longman;
Macmillan dictionaries.

Phrasal verbs show different characteristics which will be analyzed below.

1. Very often a phrasal verb has the same meaning as a basic verb. In that case,
we prefer to use the phrasal instead of the basic verb to express something
informally.

Basic verb: to compensate - phrasal verb: to make up formally:

He tried to compensate for the damage.

Informally: He tried to make up for the damage.

2.A phrasal verb can be transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb is followed

by object, but an intransitive verb is not followed by an object.

Transitive verb: to make up - She made up the gossip. (Object: the gossip)

Intransitive verb: to turn up - They turned up very late. (No object)

3.Phrasal verbs can be divided into several groups, due to the features they
possess. They may be either separable or no separable. Unfortunately, there is
no rule that can help to look at a phrasal verb and always know whether it is
separable or no separable.

36
Separable phrasal verbs. Separable phrasal verbs can be separated by their
object. When the object is a noun, it is usually entirely optional whether the
object is placed between the verb and the particle or placed after the particle.

For instance: get smb. down – to gradually make someone feel unhappy and
tired. All these waiting and delay is really getting her down.

put on – to put a piece of clothes on your body.

I put my dress on.

I put on my dress.

Both variants are correct as when a pronoun is used instead of a noun, the
pronoun must be placed between the verb and the particle: Phrasal verbs in
informal speech Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in everyday speech as
opposed to the more formal Latinate verbs, such as “to get together” rather than
“to congregate”, “to put off” rather than “to postpone”, or “to get out” rather
than “to exit”.

Literal usage many verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a

preposition, and readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in
a literal sense with a preposition:

"He walked across the square."

Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be understood when used
literally:

"She opened the shutters and looked outside."

"When he heard the crash, he looked up."

An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the verb to the object.

37
English phrasal verbs are classified into several statements: idiomaticity in the
assembly of the verb plus preposition, or verb plus separable particle (run up the
flag, run the flag up), verb plus inseparable particle (run up adebt), or the double
assembly of verb plus particle and preposition (face up to problems).

Separable phrasal verbs. Separable phrasal verbs can be separated by their

object. Phrasal verb patterns A phrasal verb contains either a preposition or an
adverb (or both), and may also combine with one or more nouns or pronouns.

Particle verbs: Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called
"particle verbs", and are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages.
There are two main patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle
verb does not have an object.

Phrasal verbs play an important role both in spoken and written English at all
levels, and everyone who wants to master the language should try not only just
to learn them by heart but also to understand the situation they are to be used in.
[Darwin, C. & Gray, L,1999]

1.4. Semantic nuances of phrasal verbs in Modern English

By “phrasal verb” we mean a combination of an “ordinary” (one-word)

verb(e.g. come, give, put) and an adverbial or prepositional particle (e.g. in, off,
up), or sometimes both, which constitutes a single semantic and syntactic unit.
Examples are come in, (=enter) and give up (=stop doing), where the particle is
adverbial; come across (=find by chance) and look after (=take care of), where
the particle is prepositional and put up with (=tolerate), where the first is
adverbial and the second is prepositional. Most writers confine the use of
“phrasal verb” to the first type (with an adverbial particle).using the terms
“prepositional verb” for combinations with a prepositional particle and “phrasal-
prepositional verb” for those with two particles. However, in view of the

38
obvious similarities, it seems justified in a practical book such as this to follow
the example of some English writers and lexicographers and for convenience
use “phrasal verb” in an extended sense to cover not only phrasal verbs proper
but also prepositional and phrasal- prepositional verbs. This does not imply that
the distinctions between the three types of combination are unimportant, but
simply indicates that they have enough in common to be treated together in
certain general statements. The use of the word “particle” to include not only
those of adverbial but also of prepositional character is a parallel simplification
considered to be justified for practical purposes in view of the absence of a
universally accepted term for the second (and third) element of these
combinations. Besides, there is a certain overlap between the two types; some of
these words, for example on, off, up and down, can be used either as adverbial
or prepositional particles (prepositions). Our extended use of “particle”, like that
of “phrasal verb”, is intended to reflect the similarity between the two types but
not to minimize their differences, which receive detailed treatment .[Celce-
Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. 1999]

It is common knowledge that in order to provide an adequate translation, the

translator must be able to sense nuances in the semantics of both the source-
language and target-language texts. English phrasal verbs (e.g. give up, break in,
fall out) are of great interest to us in this respect because they possess quite a
number of semantic, grammatical and stylistic peculiarities, sometimes making
their accurate translation into Russian difficult. Of course, in dealing with the
translation of such lexical units into his or her native language, the translator can
consult the appropriate bilingual dictionary, but what about the profound
comprehension of why this or that phrasal verb is translated only this and not
any other way?

To get a good idea of English phrasal verbs' semantic nuances, let us first look
at their conceptual features. In theory, phrasal verbs are generally considered to
be idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle.
39
 The exact status of the latter is still being debated, scholars being divided on
whether it is an adverb, prepositional adverb, postpositional prefix, special part
of speech, etc. However, here we are interested only in the features of adverbial
particles.[Swan, M.,1995]

In general, the main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of

reality in the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary
«verbs do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This
ability to describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is
determined by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with
these elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and
systematic multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has
no consistent structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart
an additional inspective meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit
merges with the particle down into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or
introduce a lexical modification to its fundamental semantics. In most cases
adverbial elements denote the general spatial direction of the action or express
its qualitative or quantitative characteristics, like beginning set out), duration
(bum along), completion (think out), intensity (hurry up), and so on. Strictly
speaking, proper translation of English phrasal verbs to a high degree depends
on the context in which they are used, which suggests the appropriate
interpretation of the described action. Having stated the specific characteristics
of the action denoted by a certain phrasal verb, one can seek a counterpart
prefix, which is the closest in rendering the same idea and meets the lexical and
grammatical requirements of translation into the target language[ Watson-Jones,
P. 2001].

Conclusion

In First chapter we have reached the main aim, which we had researched in the
work: we distinctively explored the theme that we had analyzed and marked all,
and gave the general characteristics to phrasal verbs.
40
To reach our aim we have defined the functions of phrasal verbs; analyzed the
existing categorizations and types of the phrasal verbs; made the analytical
review of English phrasal verbs. The practical part of the investigation which
includes very interesting information for students, self-studied can be
recommended for widening vocabulary and development of speech and
knowledge of English language.

The phrasal verbs are very useful in the society. We face to them on the
newspapers, advertisements, street posters, magazines, periodicals, television,
radio all of them are the mass media and of course at everyday communication.

The phrasal verbs are very wide theme to investigate; it has many types and
tendencies for today.

It is not an exaggeration when we say that the items about phrasal verbs are one
of the main and important items of theoretical study and practical mastering of
the English language.

Phrasal verbs take a considerable place in vocabulary verbs of Modern English

language and are generally used in idiomatic phrases. Their functioning is
heterogeneous with a view to their great variety. The development and
supplementation of phrasal verbs system proceeds in two directions: new verbs
inclusion and semantic development.

In our paper we have analyzed phrasal verbs, taken from the informal speech.
As a result, we can make the following conclusion:

Phrasal verbs are frequently used. Their usage becomes usual phenomena in
English grammar as well as mass media.

As a rule usage of phrasal verbs in stylistic is not heterogeneous.

Having classified phrasal verbs, taken from the informal speech with a view to
their meaning we made a conclusion that the verbs with postposition “on” and

41
“up” predominate as a large quantity of verbs with these postpositions are
polysemantic.

Having the list of Phrasal verbs we can make the conclusion that postposition
plays the main role in the semantic meaning of the verb. And those phrasal verbs
usage in the informal speech allows us to express our thoughts and make our
speech more dynamic and diverse.

So, this diploma paper can be used for studying and teaching this phenomenon
in the course English grammar and for learning their meaning more deeply.

We come to conclusion that we need to use phrasal verbs to develop the

grammar, its peculiarities, and to widen vocabulary.

Chapter 2 Peculiarities of phrasal verbs in translating into Russian

Translation is a very ancient kind of human activity. As soon as groups of

people with different languages were born in human history, bilinguals
appeared and they helped to communicate between collectives of different
languages. With the development of the written language, written translators
join oral ones. They translated different texts of official, religious and
business character. Translation had the main social function at first. It made
possible inter-linguistic communication of people. The spreading of the
written translation opened to people the wide access to cultural achievements
of other nations; it made possible interaction and inter-enrichment of
literature and culture. The knowledge of foreign languages let to read original
books, but not everybody can earn at least one foreign language.
Translation is the transformation of the message of the source language to the
message of the translating language. The exact translation is impossible
because of a great number of languages differences in the grammar and the
number of words, besides, the distinction of the cultures can influence the

42
way of translating and its results. Translation is the art of revelation. It makes
the unknown known. The translator has the fever and craft to recognize,
recreate and reveal the works of the other artist. Translation is an art between
tongues. The translation is the multifaceted phenomenon and some aspects of
it can be the subjects of the research of different sciences. In the frames of
the science of translation psychological, literature critical, ethnographical and
other points of translation as well as the history of translation in one or other
country are being studied. According to the subject of research we use the
knowledge of the psychology of translation, the theory of art and literary
translation, ethnographical science of translation, historical science of
translation and so on. The main place in the modern translation belongs to
linguistic translation, which studies the translation as linguistic phenomenon.
The different kinds of translation complement each other and strive to
detailed description of the activity of the translation.

The theory of translation puts forward the following tasks:

1. To open and describe the common linguistic basis of translation, that is

to show which peculiarities of linguistic systems and regularities of the
language operation are the basis of the translating process, make this process
possible and determine its character and borders;

2. To determine the translation as the subject of the linguistic research, to

show its difference from the other kinds of linguistic mediation;

3. To work out the basis of classification of kinds of the translating

activity;

4. To open the essence of the translating equivalence as the basis of the

communicative identity of the original texts and the translation;

43
5. To work out the common principles and the peculiarities of
construction of the peculiar and special translation theories for the different
combinations of languages;

6. To work out the common principles of the scientific description of the

translation process as actions of a translator of transforming the original text
to the translating text;

7. To open the influence on the translating process of pragmatic and

social linguistic factors;

8. To determine the idea “the translating norm” and to work out the
principles.

2.1 Ways of translating English phrasal verbs

Obviously, such ways of translating English phrasal verbs must influence the
process of their translation into the Russian language, which has a highly
developed system of verbal prefixes. In addition to their function that is
analogous to that of English prefixes, Russian verbal prefixes resemble English
adverbial particles in their semantic functions, also indicating various qualities
of actions and states. Like adverbial particles in English, Russian prefixes are
lexically strong.

For example, the Russian prefix "раз-" denotes

1) division into parts (раскрошить);

2) distribution, direction of action in different directions (разъехаться);

3) action in reverse (разминировать);

4) termination of action or state (разлюбить);

44
5) intensification of action (расплясаться) [The Oxford Russian Dictionary].
Thus, in translation from English into Russian, the meaning of the English
adverbial component of the phrasal verb is mostly conveyed by using the
Russian prefix that reflects the character of the described action or state most
accurately. To a greater degree, this refers rather to nuances of semantics than
grammar.

When dealing with translation of English phrasal verbs or pre-analysis of their

adverbial elements' meaning, one should always keep in mind their astounding
polysemy, which sometimes borders on homonymy. Compare the following:
take in (to receive sb in one's home with welcome, as a guest)

and take in (to deceive sb)[Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.,2000].

It holds true for Russian prefixes as well, the same ones rendering different
shades of meaning in different uses .That is why it seems almost impossible to
create a consistent rigid system of lexical correspondences between English
adverbial particles and Russian prefixes, without encountering numerous
debatable problems.

Strictly speaking, proper translation of English phrasal verbs to a high degree

depends on the context in which they are used, which suggests the appropriate
interpretation of the described action. Having stated the specific characteristics
of the action denoted by a certain phrasal verb, one can seek a Russian
counterpart prefix, which is the closest in rendering the same idea and meets the
lexical and grammatical requirements of translation into the target language.

For example, the sentence;

"The attack had gone across the field, been held up by machine-gun fire from
sunken road, encountered no resistance in the town, and reached the bank of the
river" [E. Hemingway, A Way You'll Never Be] should be translated as:

45
 «Атака развертывалась на лугу и была приостановлена пулеметным
огнем с дорожной выемки, не встретила отпора в городе и закончилась
на берегу реки».

According to the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, in the above context

the phrasal verb hold up has the following meaning:

to delay (sth or sb). The Russian prefix "при-" adequately renders the idea that
the attack was delayed just for a while.

For example, the sentences:

"There was a little fire there. Nancy built it up, when it was already hot inside"
[W. Faulkner, That Evening Sun]. have the following translation:

«В очаге еще были горячие угли, она их раздула, и пламя вспыхнуло".

The adverbial particle up in the phrasal verb build up imparts the idea of
increasing the size of the fire and shows the intensification of the action.
According to the definition given in the Oxford Russian Dictionary, the most
appropriate Russian prefix should be "раз-", indicating the intensification of
action.

For the sentence "Three or four times while I was going through their
envelopes, I was tempted to get up and make a formal protest to M.Yoshoto" [J.
D. Salinger, De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period] the best translation would be"

И когда я просматривал их работы, меня не раз так и подмывало

вскочить и обратиться с официальным протестом к мосье Йошото",

as there is a proper semantic correspondence between the adverbial element

through in the phrasal verb going through and the Russian prefix "про-" in the
verb "просматривал", both denoting exhaustive action.

English phrasal verbs can be highly idiomatic, their meanings being

unpredictable from the sum of their constituents' meanings (e.g. take in (to
46
deceive), lay down (to build), let on (to tell a secret). In such cases, where the
context or professional experiences fail to reveal the sense of a phrasal verb, a
good explanatory or bilingual dictionary can be of great help to the translator.

The most common English phrasal verbs with translation into Russian

№ Глаголы Значение в переводе на русский язык:

1 back away отступать, пятиться

2 back off 1) отступить; 2) притормозить

3 be back вернуться, возвращаться

4 be off 1) уходить, уезжать; 2) быть свободным, неработающим

5 be out отсутствовать, не быть дома, на месте

6 be over окончиться, завершиться

7 be up 1) проснуться; 2) быть бодрствующим; 3) подниматься

8 be up to 1) собираться, намереваться что-л. сделать; 2)зависеть от

9 blow out 1) разбиться вдребезги; 2) гаснуть; 3) взорвать; 4)погасить

10 blow up 1) взорваться; выйти из себя; 2) взрывать

11 break down полностью расстроиться; сломать(ся)

12 break in 1) вмешиваться в разговор; 2) врываться, вламываться

13 break into 1) вламываться; 2) озариться; разразиться; броситься

14 break off 1) прервать(ся); 2) отделить(ся)

15 break out 1) вырваться; 2) вспыхивать; 3) разразиться

16 break up 1) прекращать; 2) расставаться; расходиться

17 burst out 1) воскликнуть; 2) разразиться (смехом и т.п.); 3)вырваться 

18 call back 1) перезвонить; 2) позвать назад

19 calm down успокаивать(ся)

20 carry on продолжать заниматься чем-л.

47
21 carry out выполнять, осуществлять (план, приказ, обещание ит.п.)

22 catch up догнать, настичь, наверстать

23 check in (за)регистрироваться

24 check out 1) проверять, выяснять; 2) выписаться из

25 clean up чистить(ся), убирать(ся), приводить в порядок

26 come across натолкнуться на, случайно встретить

27 come along 1) идти вместе, сопровождать; 2) приходить,появляться

28 come back возвращаться

29 come by 1) заходить, приходить; 2) доставать, получать

30 come down спускаться, опускаться; падать

31 come forward выходить вперед, выдвигаться

32 come from происходить из, от (по причине), взяться

33 come in 1) входить; 2) приходить, прибывать

34 come off отделяться, отрываться, покидать, сходить, слезать

35 come on 1) давай!, пошли!; 2) кончай!, брось!; 3) проходить,приходить

36 come out 1)выходить; 2) появляться, возникать; 3) получаться

37 come over приходить, подходить, заезжать

38 come up 1) появляться, возникать; 2) подниматься, приближаться

39 count on рассчитывать на что-л., кого-л.

40 cut off 1) отрезать, отсекать; 2) прерывать

41 cut out 1) вырезать; 2) прекращать(ся); 3) пресекать

42 end up кончить, закончить, попасть, оказаться

43 falldown падать, упасть, рухнуть

44 falloff 1) падать; 2) отпадать, отваливаться

45 figureout сообразить, выяснить, понять, разобраться

48
46 findout выяснить, разузнать, обнаружить, найти

47 get along 1) уживаться, ладить; 2) поживать; 3) справляться сделами

48 getaround обойти, преодолеть; справиться; перехитрить

49 getaway 1) удрать, ускользнуть; 2) уходить

50 getback вернуть(ся)

51 getdown опустить(ся)

52 get in войти, забраться в, проникнуть, попасть в

53 get off 1) выходить, покидать; 2) уносить, удалять; 3)уходи!

54 get on 1) садиться на (в); 2) приступить к; 3) продолжить

55 get out 1) уходить, уезжать; 2) выходить; 3) вынимать,вытаскивать

56 getover 1) справиться; понять;2) добраться до; 3) перейти,перелезть

57 get through 1) проходить, проникать через; 2) выдержать,справиться

58 get up 1) вставать, подниматься; 2) просыпаться

59 give up 1) сдаться, отказаться; оставить, бросить; 2)отдавать

60 goalong 1) соглашаться, поддерживать; 2) идти вместе,сопровождать

61 goaround 1) расхаживать повсюду; 2) обойти вокруг; 3) двигатьсяпо кругу

62 go away уходить, уезжать

63 go back возвращаться

64 go by 1) проходить/проезжать мимо; 2) проходить (овремени)

65 go down спускаться, идти, ехать вниз

66 go in входить

67 go off уходить, уезжать; убегать, улетать

68 go on 1) продолжай(те)!; 2) продолжать(ся); 3) происходить

69 go out выходить

70 go over 1) подойти, приехать; 2) повторять, перепроверять

49
71 gothrough 1) пройти через, сквозь; 2) повторять; 3) тщательноизучать

72 go up подниматься

73 grow up вырастать, становиться взрослым

74 hang around слоняться, бездельничать, болтаться без дела

75 hang on 1) держи(те)сь!; 2) подожди(те)!; 3) цепляться,хвататься

76 hang up 1) повесить, положить трубку; 2) висеть; 3) повеситьчто-л.

77 help out помочь, выручить, вывести из затруднит. положения

78 hold on 1) держи(те)сь!; 2) подожди(те); 3) держаться,вцепиться

79 hold out протягивать, вытягивать

80 hold up поднимать

81 keep on продолжать

82 keep up 1) не отставать; 2) продолжать; 3) поддерживать

83 knock down 1) сбить с ног; 2) сносить, разрушать; 3) понижать

84 knock off 1) уничтожить; 2) прекратить; 3) уронить, сбросить

85 knock out 1) оглушить, вырубить;2) поразить; 3) выбить

86 let in впускать

87 let out выпускать, освобождать

88 lie down лечь, прилечь

89 line up выстраивать(ся), становиться в линию, ряд, очередь

90 look back оглядываться, оборачиваться

91 look down смотреть, смотреть вниз

92 look for 1) искать, подыскивать; 2) присматривать

look forward
93 ожидать с удовольствием/с нетерпением
to

94 look out 1) выглядывать; 2) быть осторожным

95 look over 1) смотреть; 2) просматривать; осматривать

50
96 make out 1) понимать, различать; 2) составлять; 3)справляться

97 make up 1) составлять; 2) сочинять; 3) компенсировать

98 move in 1) въезжать/ поселяться; 2) входить

99 move on идти дальше; продолжать движение

100 move out 1) съезжать; 2) выдвигаться, выходить

101 pass out 1) терять сознание; 2) раздавать, распределять

взять, подхватить, подобрать, поднять (в оченьшироком смысле

102 pick up
слова: любой предмет , человека, сигнал, звук, запах, след ит.п.)

103 point out 1) указывать; 2) подчеркивать; 3) заметить

104 pull a way 1) отъезжать, трогаться; 2) отпрянуть, отстраниться

105 pull off 1) снимать, стаскивать; 2) справиться, выполнить; 3)съехать

106 pull on 1) натягивать (одевать); 2) тянуть (на себя)

107 pull out 1) вытаскивать, вынимать; 2) отъезжать, выезжать

108 pull up подъезжать, останавливаться

109 put a way убирать, отложить, прятать

110 put down положить, опустить

111 put in вставлять

112 put on 1) надевать, одевать; 2) включать, приводить вдействие

113 put out 1) вытягивать; 2) выставлять; 3) тушить

114 put up 1) поднимать; 2) строить; 3) финансировать

115 run away убегать, удирать

116 run into встретить, столкнуться, наскочить

117 run off удирать, убегать, сбегать

118 run out 1) выбегать; 2) кончаться, истощаться

119 run over 1) подбегать; 2) переехать, задавить

120 set down поставить, положить

51
121 set off 1) отправляться (в путь); 2) вызывать (действие)

122 set up устраивать, организовывать, создавать

123 settle down 1) усаживаться; 2) поселяться; 3) успокаиваться

124 shoot out выскочить, вылететь

125 show up появляться, приходить

126 shut down 1) закрыть, прикрыть; 2) выключить, отключить

127 shut up заставить замолчать, заткнуть

128 sit back откинуться назад/на спинку сиденья

129 sit down садиться, усаживаться, занимать место

130 sit up приподняться, сесть из лежачего положения

131 spread out растягивать(ся),развертывать(ся), расширять(ся)

132 stand by 1) приготовиться; 2) ждать; 3) поддерживать

133 stand out выделяться, выступать, быть заметным

134 stand up вставать, выпрямляться

135 stick out 1) торчать, выпирать; 2) вытягивать, протягивать

136 switch off выключать

137 switch on включать

138 take away 1) убирать, забирать; 2) отбирать, отнимать

139 take back 1) отдать обратно/назад; 2) взять назад/обратно

140 take in 1) вбирать, воспринимать; 2) впустить, приютить

141 take off 1) снимать (с себя); 2) уходить, уезжать

142 take on приобретать, принимать (форму, вид, свойство и т.п.)

143 take out вынимать, вытаскивать

144 take over захватить, овладеть, взять под контроль

145 take up 1) занимать (место); 2) заняться чем-л.; 3)подхватить

52
146 throw up 1) выкинуть - тошнить, рвать; 2) вскинуть, поднять

147 turn around оборачиваться

148 turn away отворачиваться

149 turn back 1) повернуться снова, опять; 2) повернуть назад,отступить

150 turn down 1) отвергать, отклонять; 2) убавлять, уменьшать

151 turn into превращать(ся) в кого-л. или во что-л.

152 turn off 1) выключать; 2) сворачивать, поворачивать

153 turn on включать

154 turn out оказаться, получиться, "выйти"

155 turn over 1) переворачивать(ся); 2) передавать

156 turn up появляться

157 wake up 1) просыпаться; 2) будить кого-л.

158 walk around ходить, бродить повсюду

159 walk away уходить

160 walk back возвращаться, идти назад/обратно

161 walk in входить

162 walk off уходить

163 walk out выходить

164 walk over подойти, подходить

165 walk up подойти, подходить

166 watch out 1) остерегаться, быть начеку; 2) присматривать (for- за)

167 wind up очутиться, оказаться; завершиться чем-л.

168 work out 1) понять, разобраться; 2) спланировать; 3)получиться

2.2 The difficulties of translating English phrasal verbs into Russian

language
53
The phrasal verbs are widely spread in English literature. Translating phrasal
verbs of this passage I had some difficulties because of difference in the
meaning given in a dictionary and the contextual meaning. For example, the
verb “to reach up” is translated like “протянуть руку ввeрх”, but this meaning
isn’t suitable for the context. The sentence would sound like “Она протянула
руку вверх, чтобы поправить челку” and it isn’t correct for the Russian
language, because she didn’t stretch her arms.

The next phrasal verb is “to push off”. It is translated in the dictionary like
“отталкивать, смываться” and this meaning isn’t suitable for the word
“челка” in Russian completely.

The phrasal verb “to peel off” is translated in the dictionary like “слезать,
облезать”. We can meet this verb twice in the passage: “to peel off gloves” and
“to peel off glasses”. Both in the first and second cases the dictionary’s meaning
isn’t suitable for the translation. It’s impossible “слезать перчатки” and
“облезать очки”. Therefore I translated them like “стягивать” in the first case
and “снимать” in the second.[ http://dictionary.reverso.net/english-russian]

Practical translation

The Porsche crept along the street like a sleek black panther. Hugging the curb,
its engine purred so deep and low it sounded like a predator’s growl.

Marnie Hibbs was kneeling in the fertile soil of her bed, digging among the
impatiens under the ligustrum bushes and cursing the little bugs that made three
meals a day of them, when the sound of the car’s motor attracted her attention,
she glanced at it over her shoulder, then panicked as it came to stop on front of
her house.

“Lord, is it that late?” she muttered. Dropping her trowel, she stood up and
brushed the clinging damp earth of her bare knees.

54
 She reached up to push her dark bangs off her forehead before she realized
that she still had on her heavy gardening gloves. Quickly she peeled them off
and dropped them beside the trowel, all the while watching the driver get out of
the sport car and start up her front walk.

Glancing at her wristwatch, she saw that she hadn’t lost track of time. He was
just very early for their appointment, and as a result, she wasn’t going to make a
very good first impression. Being hot, sweaty, and dirty was no way to meet a
client. And she needed this commission badly.

Forcing a smile, she moved down the sidewalk to greet him, nervously trying
to remember if she had left the house and studio reasonably neat when she
decided to do an hour’s worth of yard work. She had planned to tidy up before
he arrived.

She might look like the devil, but she didn’t want to appear intimated. Self-
confident friendliness was the only way to combat the disadvantage of having
been caught looking her worst.

He was still several yards away from her when she greeted him. “Hello”, she
said with a bright smile.

“Obviously we got our signals switched. I thought you weren’t coming until
later.”

“I decided this diabolical game of yours had gone on long enough.”

Marnie’s sneakers skidded on the old concrete walk as she came to an abrupt
halt. She titled her head in stunned surprise. “I’m sorry, I –“

“Who the hell are you, lady?”

“Miss Hibbs. Who do you think?”

“Never heard of you. Just what the devil are you up to?”

55
“Up to?” She glanced around helplessly, as though the giant sycamores in her
front yard might provide an answer to this bizarre interrogation.

“Why’ve you been sending me those letters?”

“Letters?”

He was clearly furious, and her lack of comprehension only seemed to make
him angrier. He bored down on her like a hawk on a field mouse, until she had
to bow her back to look up at him. The summer sun was behind him, casting
him in silhouette.

He was blond, tall, trim, and dressed in casual slacks and a sport shirt – all
stylish, impeccably so. He was wearing opaque aviator glasses, so she couldn’t
see his eyes, but if they were as belligerent as his expression and stance, she was
better off not seeing them.

“I don’t know what you are talking about.”

“The letters, lady, the letters.” He strained the words through a set of strong
white teeth.

“What letters?”

“Don’t plat dumb.”

“Are you sure you have got the right house?”

He took another step forward. “I have got the right house”, he said in a voice
that was little more than a snarl.

“Obviously you don’t.” She didn’t like being put on the defensive; especially
by someone she’d never met over something of which she was totally ignorant.
“You are either crazy or drunk, but in any case, you’re wrong. I’m not the
person you are looking for and I demand that you leave my property. Now.”

“You were expecting me. I could tell by the way you spoke you me.”
56
“I thought you were the man from the advertising agency.”

“Well, I’m not.”

“Thanks God.” She would hate having to do business with someone this
irrational and ill-tempered.

“You know damn well who I am”, he said, peeling off the sunglasses.

Marnie sucked in a quick, sharp breath and fell back a step because she did
indeed know who he was. She raised a hand to her chest in an attempt at keeping
her jumping heart in place. “Law”, she gasped…

Sandra Brown “Long Time Coming”

Перевод

Порше медленно крался вдоль улицы, как будто черная лоснящаяся

пантера. Обнимая обочину, его двигатель урчал подобно рычанию
хищника.

Марни Хиббс стояла на коленях на плодородной почве своей клумбы,

копаясь под кустами и проклиная маленьких жучков, которые едят их
трижды за день, когда звук мотора машины привлек ее внимание. Она
взглянула на нее через плечо и занервничала, так как машина остановилась
перед ее домом.

- Боже, неужели я опоздала? – пробормотала она. Бросив лопатку, она

встала и стряхнула прилипшую к ее голым коленям сырую землю.

Она подняла руки, чтобы поправить свою темную челке на лбу, как
поняла, что на ней до сих пор одеты тяжелые садовые перчатки. Она
быстро стянула их и кинула к лопатке, все продолжая смотреть на
водителя, который вышел из спортивной машины и появился на дорожке.

57
 Взглянув на свои наручные часы, она поняла, что не виновата. Он
просто приехал на встречу слишком рано и, как результат, она не
подготовилась, как следует, чтобы произвести хорошее впечатление. Она
была разгоряченной, вспотевшей и грязной, и это был не самый лучший
вид, в котором можно встречать клиента. А эта встреча была ей очень
нужна.

С натянутой улыбкой она вышла на тротуар поприветствовать его,

нервно вспоминая, оставила ли она дом и студию в порядке, когда решила
часик поработать во дворе. Она планировала навести порядок до того, как
он приедет.

Она могла выглядеть как чертенок, но ей совсем не хотелось выглядеть

испуганной. Самоуверенное дружелюбие было единственным способом
скрасить то состояние, в котором она была застигнута.

Он был в нескольких ярдах от нее, когда она сказала:

- Привет!

- Очевидно, наши сигналы выключены., я думал, вы не подойдете.

- Я решила, что эта ваша чертовская игра продолжается уже

достаточно долго.

Полукеды Марни спотыкались на старой дорожке, как будто она

хромала. Она наклонила голову в ошеломляющем удивлении.

- Извините, я...

- Кто вы?

- Мисс Хиббс. А кто вы думали?

- Никогда не слышал о вас. Просто, какого черта вы это делаете?

58
- Что делаю? – она беспомощно оглянулась вокруг, как будто
гигантские платаны в ее переднем дворе могли предложить ей ответ на
этот странный вопрос.

- Почему вы посылали мне те письма?

- Письма?

Он был взбешен и ее недопонимание, казалось, только делало его еще

более злым. Он сверлил ее глазами как ястреб полевую мышь пока она не
выпрямилась и не посмотрела на него. Летнее солнце было за его спиной,
обрамляя его силуэт.

Он был блондин, высокий, стройный и был одет в обычные брюки и

спортивную рубашку – все стильно и так безупречно. На нем были темные
пилотские очки, так что она не видела его глаз, но если бы они были такие
же воинственные, как и его выражение лица и стойка, она предпочла бы
не видеть их.

- Я не знаю о чем вы говорите.

- О письмах, леди, о письмах, - он выговаривал слова, показывая ряд

крепких белых зубов.

- Каких письмах?

- Не валяйте дурака.

- Вы уверены, что обратились по адресу?

Он сделал шаг вперед.

- Я уверен, что обратился по адресу, - сказал он голосом, немного

похожим на рычание.

- Очевидно, нет, - ей не нравилось защищаться, особенно от того,

кого она раньше никогда не видела и кто был полностью невежественен к
59
ней. – Вы или ненормальный, или пьяный, но в любом случае, вы
ошибаетесь. Я не тот человек, кого вы ищете, и я прошу вас покинуть мой
дом. Сейчас.

- Вы ждали меня. Я могу судить об этом по той манере, как вы

разговаривали со мной.

- Я думала, что вы человек из рекламного агентства.

- Нет.

- Слава Богу! – ей бы не понравилось иметь дело с таким неразумным

человеком с ужасным характером.

- Вы отлично знаете, кто я, - сказал он, снимая очки.

Быстрый, острый вздох засосал Марни и она отступила на шаг, потому

что она на самом деле знала, кто он. Она подняла руки к груди в попытке
удержать выпрыгивающее сердце.

- Луи! – задыхаясь произнесла она...

Сандра Браун «Настанут лучшие времена».

Conclusion

In Second chapter we had analyzed and marked the particularities of English

phrasal verbs in translating into Russian. Discerned translating problems and
difficulties don’t exhaust the all variety of complications in translation. They
reflect only the fundamental, the most typical situations. Translating of English
phrasal verbs is very important part of the science of translation because it
couldn’t be a real good correct translation without correct translating of the
phrasal verbs. Every translator should pay attention to the translation of the
phrasal verbs and work hard with each phrasal verb. English and Russian lexical
60
systems are so different that they demand the special approach to translating of
each verb according to its contextual meaning. The phrasal verbs of great
importance and should be studied. The basic assumption of this diploma work is
helpful and maximize student’s interaction in class is very necessary. This work
is based on motivating all students to speak English in class.

Conclusion

Phrasal verbs are primarily of use in verbal English and informal written
content. There are no set rules as to how phrasal verbs are formed appropriately.
The English language has become more and more dominant and very popular all
over the world, over the years. It is far and wide spoken by people in many
countries. It is the most important language of the world. In order to have a
command over the language, it is imperative to incorporate the skills and that
includes phrasal verb lessons as well. The demand of these lessons has increased
tremendously. Phrasal verbs and meanings are not very easily decipherable
many times. The meanings of some are a little complicated and hence they
require thorough study. Many competitive exams test the knowledge of English
and the knowledge of these verbs holds great importance.

Traditional approaches to the teaching of phrasal verbs have tended to focus on

the syntax rules, i.e. whether they are transitive/ intransitive, and, if the former,
whether they are separable or not. Phrasal verbs are also often grouped
according to their lexical verb: get up, get back, get off, get over, etc., and
exercises are designed to test the learner’s knowledge of the difference. This
may seem systematic but there is a very good chance learners will get them
confused: there is a "sod’s law" operating in language learning that goes: the
more similar two items are, the more likely it is that they will get muddled.
Occasionally, exercise types focus on the meanings of the particles – a particle
being the adverb or preposition component of the phrasal verb (in, back, off,
around etc). A focus on particles aims to sensitize learners to the shared

61
meanings of a group such as carry on, drive on, hang on, go on and come on.
The good thing about this approach is that it helps "fix" the meaning of the
particles, so that learners have a better chance of understanding new phrasal
verbs when they meet them, e.g. log on, press on, etc. But there still remains the
problem of confusability. It may be the case that phrasal verbs are best learned
on an item-by-item basis, and preferably in short contexts that demonstrate their
syntactic behavior. There some good advices to students:

Whenever you read a book, newspaper or text in English, get into the habit of
identifying and underlining phrasal verbs.

Write down in a special notebook the sentences in which they appear.

Use your English-English dictionary to look up the meaning, and write this after
your sentence.

Try to write your own sentence using the same phrasal verb in a different
context.

Get an English teacher or friend to check that your sentences are correct.

Limit the number of new phrasal verbs you collect to, say, two or three each
day; if you do five or ten minutes’ good work with each, you will quickly build
up a useful stock of words which you have actually seen used in the English you
have read.

Every phrasal verb in English forms a complete semantic component that has a
set meaning of its own. There may be sentences which contain direct and
indirect objects apart from the phrasal verb.

Having a rich Phrasal verbs vocabulary enables you to speak good and fluent
English. In order to understand, speak, read and write good English, one needs
to be skilled in them.

62
In Final conclusion we have reached the main aim, which we had researched in
the work.

We come to conclusion that we need to use the phrasal verbs to develop the
grammar, its peculiarities, and to widen vocabulary.

63
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