Introduction of Electric power Transmission and Distribution:

For economical generation of power large generating stations are used. Capacities
of individual generating sets have gone up recently. Generating sets in the range
of 10 MW, 210 MW and 500 MW are being manufactured in many countries.
Generating station are now not necessarily located at load centers. In fact other
factors like availability of fuel and water play more dominating role in the
selection of sites for thermal stations. Hydro stations are obviously located only at
the sites where water is available at sufficient head. A vast network of
transmission system has been created so that power generated at one station
may be fed to grid system and may be distributed over large areas and number of
states. The transmission and distribution system comprises a network of three-
phase circuits with transforming and or switching substations at the various
junctions. The parts of a transmission and distribution network maybe grouped as
given below.

Electric power TRANSMISSION:

Several generating stations can be inter connected. The main advantages are :

(i) reduction in the number of spare plants required as one station can assist the
other at the time of emergency.

(ii) during light loads one station or some generators can be shut off, thus
affecting operational economy.

Primary electric power transmission:

High voltages of the order of 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV and 400 kV are used for
transmitting power by 3 phase 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to
substations usually at the out skirts of major distribution center or city.

Secondary electric power transmission:

The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3 kV, 11 kV or 33 kV
for secondary transmission.
Primary electric power distribution:
The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large main substations
from which the power is distributed to small secondary substations scattered
throughout the load area. The voltage may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.

Secondary electric power distribution:

This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets, localities and over
the rural areas. From these sources connections to individual customers are
provided. The circuit used for this purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V from
which either 3 phase 440 V or single phase 220 V supply to the consumers may be
provided.

System layout of electric power transmission and

distribution:
From the power stations PS, emanate 3 phase feeder supplying secondary
distributions substations located at points throughout the supply area. The
normal voltages are 132 kV, 33 kV and 11 kV.

COMPARISON OF AC AND DC power

TRANSMISSION:
(A) Advantages of DC electric power transmission:
1. It requires only two conductors.
2. There is no problem of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement
which is common in ac transmission.

3. For the same load and sending end voltage, the voltage drop in dc
transmission lines is less than that in ac transmission.

4. As there is no skin effect on conductors, therefore entire cross-section of

conductor is usefully utilized thereby affecting saving in material.

5. For the same value of voltage insulating materials on dc lines experience less
stress as compared to those on ac transmission lines.

6. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication
circuits.

7. There is no problem of system instability so common in ac transmission.

Disadvantages of DC transmission:
1. Generation of power at high dc voltages is difficult due to commutation
problems and cannot be usefully utilized at Consumer ends.

2. Step up or step-down transformation of dc voltages is not possible in

equipment like transformer.

(B) Advantages of AC electric power Transmission:

1. Power can be generated at high voltages as there is no commutation
problem.

2. Ac voltages can be conveniently stepped up or stepped down.

3. High voltage transmission of ac power reduces losses.
Disadvantages of AC electric power transmission:
1. Problems of inductances and capacitances exist in transmission lines
2. Due to skin effect, more copper is required.
3. Construction of AC transmission lines is more complicated as well as costly
4. Effective resistance of ac transmission lines is increased due to skin effect.
Long distance power transmission:
Power transmission over long distances using alternating current is complicated
by the inductance and capacitance of the line. For satisfactory operation of such
lines it is necessary to balance the lagging inductive volt amperes of the line (
I2 ωL) against the leading capacitance volt amperes ( V2 ω C ). Equating the two we
get V/I the impedance of the load. √L/C which is also known as characteristic
impedance of the line, Z0. The corresponding load is thus V2/Z0 watts per phase or
(kV) 2/Z, M W for three phase line where kV is the line voltage in kilo volts. This
load is termed as "natural load " on the transmission line. Long distance high
power high voltage transmission lines are designed for rated load equal to its
natural load.

Natural Loads of transmission lines:

Voltage kV 132 220 400

Z0 (Ω) 350 320 290
Natural load, MW 50 150 500
Current (A) 220 385 752
CONDUCTOR MATERIALS of transmission lines:
A material for conducting electric power should have the following
properties :
1. High electrical conductivity.
2. Low cost.
3. Low specific gravity.
4. High tensile strength.
Commonly used materials for conductors are:
1. Copper.
2. Aluminium.
3. Aluminium conductor steel Reinforced (ACSR).
4. Galvanized steel.
5. Cadmium copper.

Economic Size of conductor: Kelvin's Law:

The most economical size of conductor is that for which the variable
part of the annual charges is equal to the cost of energy losses per year.
Limitations of Kelvin's Law:
1. The law assumes a linear relation between the cost on account of
interest and depreciation on the capital outlay which is not necessarily
always valid. Moreover, it is difficult to calculate these values.
2. Actual energy loss on a transmission line cannot be estimated
without actual load curves. Load curves are not available at the
planning stages.
3. The conductor size estimated according to this law may not be the
optimum as various aspects of safety etc. have not been taken into
account.
4. The law does not take into account some of the aspects like safe
current destiny, mechanical strength, corona loss etc.
TRANSMISSION LINES:
Transmission lines are used to transfer electrical power from one place to
another. The requirements of transmission lines are :
1. transmission losses should be least
2. power must be delivered at the specified voltage
3. no radio interference
4. high availability

Classification of overhead transmission Lines:

1. Short Transmission lines:
When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to 50 km and the line
voltage less than 20 kV, its is known as short transmission line. Due to smaller
length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects are small and hence are
neglected. Thus resistance and inductance are the major parameters considered
for these lines.

2. Medium electric transmission lines:

These lines are 50 km to 150 km and the range of voltage is 20 kV to 100 kV. Due
to sufficient length and voltage of the line , the capacitive effects are not
neglected.

3. Long electric transmission lines:

The lines are more than 150 km in length and carry voltage higher than 100 kV.

Parameters of a transmission line:

1. Resistance in transmission lines :
Aluminum Conductors Steel Reinforced (ACSR) are used for transmission of power
over long distance. The acceptable limits of current density for aluminium is
around 95 A in a conductor of 1 cm diameter. In case of copper it is 160 A in a 1
cm diameter conductor. Thus size of a conductor for a transmission line is given
by
Diameter of the conductor = (Current to be carried / 95) ½ cm
As aluminum has got low tensile strength therefore steel cored (ACSR) conductor
are used.

2. Inductance in transmission lines:

Inductance of a phase single circuit overhead line is given by

L = u / 2 π (1/4 + log S/r) henry/ meter

0 e

u0= permeability of air = 4 π x 10 -7 henry/ meter

S = Deq = 3 √(D D D ) ab bc ca

Deq is equivalent equilateral spacing between 3 conductors a, b and c. Dca, Dbc and
Dca are distances between conductors a, b and c.
r = radius of the conductor.

3. Capacitance in transmission lines:

Capacitance of a three phase line CA is given by

C = 2π ε / S, Farads per meter, phase to log S/R neutral

A 0 e

ε0 = permittivity of free air (8.55 x 10-12 Farads/ meter)

where, S and r have same meaning as in the estimation of inductance.

Transmission line constants :

The transmission lines up to 50 kilometer length and voltages up to 33 kV are
considered as short lines. Lines more than 50 kilometers in length and carrying
voltages above 33 kV are called long transmission lines. If Vs and Vr be respectively
the sending end and receiving end voltages (corresponding currents being 1s and
lr) then
Vs = AVr + BIr and Is = CVr + DIr
The values of constants A, B, C and D primarily depends on the R, L, C parameters
of the line.
For short lines,
Vs = Vr + LZIr
Is = Ir
A = D =1 ,
B=Z
And
C=0,
AD-BC =1,
A=D
For medium lines (T-network) :
A = D = 1 + (YZ)/2
B = Z + YZ2 /4
C= Y,
AD-BC=1,
A=D
( π network ) :
A= 1+ (YZ)/2 B + Z,
C = Y + Y2Z/4 ,
D= 1+ YZ / 2
Long lines :
A = cosh √(YZ) ,
B =√ (Z/Y) sinh √(YZ) ,
C = (Y/Z)1/2 sinh (YZ)1/2 ,
D = cosh (YZ)1/2 ,
AD - BC = 1,
A=D
Transmission Line Voltage Regulation:
Voltage regulation = ( Sending end voltage - Receiving end voltage) /
Receiving end voltage
The permissible variation in voltage at the consumer ends ± 10% with reference
to nominal voltage. Following methods are used to control the voltage during
transmission over long distances

(i) Use of tap changing transformers

(ii) Use of shunt capacitors at the receiving end during heavy loads or low
power factors

(iii) Switching in shunt reactors during low loads to neutralize the effect of
shunt capacitance of the long transmission lines.

(iv) Use of booster generators.

Skin effect in transmission lines:
When alternating current flows through a conductor it is always linked with flux.
The flux linking the central portion of the con doctor is always more than that at
the surface. This results in higher current density at the surface of the conductor
as compared to that at the core of the conductor. This is known as skin effect.
This has following effects.

(i) Skin effect causes increase in dc resistance of the effective dc resistance

(ii) Skin effect is high for conductors of magnetic materials
(iii) Skin effect is more predominant at higher frequencies
(iv) In case of dc, skin effect does not exist.
Proximity effect in transmission lines:
For a conductor carrying alternating current, the current density in the conductor
depends on the internal flux distribution. When two ac current carrying
conductors non parallel, the internal current distribution in both the conductors
gets rearranged in such a way so that ac current density on the side nearer to the
other conductor is lesser than that at the other end. The effect. is known as
proximity effect. As a result of this effect the effective dc resistance of the
conductors increases.

Corona :
Conductors carrying electric power at higher voltage have strong electrostatic
field around them. This results in a violet visible discharge, called corona. It is
accompanied by hissing sound, vibrations, power loss and radio interference.
The voltage between the conductors at which the surrounding air is ionized is
called the break down voltage or disruptive voltage. Break down voltage depends
on atmospheric conditions and also surface conditions of the conductor.
The electrical stress at the surface of a conductor is given by

E = V / r log (S/ r )
0 e 0

where,
V = phase to earth voltage,
r0 = radius of conductor
S = equivalent equilateral spacing between 3 phase conductors.

Factors affecting corona

1.Atmosphere:
There is more tendency during stormy weather.
2. Conductor size:
Rough and irregular surfaces give rise to more corona because unevenness of the
surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage stranded conductors having
rough surface have more tendency for corona.

3. Spacing between conductors:

Shorter distance between conductors increases tendency for corona.

4. Line voltage:
Higher voltages have increased chances of corona.

5. Insulators:
A insulator should have high mechanical and electrical strength and should be
non-porous free from impurities and cracks and should have high ratio of
puncture strength to flash over.
Pin type insulators are used up to 33 kV. Suspension type insulators are used for
voltages higher than 33 kV. Strain insulators are installed at the dead end of the
line or whenever mere is comer or sharp curve.

Transmission lines > String Efficiency:

A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs
connected in series through metallic links. The figure shows 3 strings of
suspension insulators. The porcelain portion of each disc is in between two metal
links. Shunt capacitance exists between porcelain discs as shown. The string
efficiency is defined as the ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product
of number of discs and the voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor. Thus,
String efficiency = Voltage across the string / n x voltage across disc nearest to
conductor
where n is the number of discs in the string.

(i) using longer cross-arms

(ii) grading the insulators
(iii) using a guard ring.