AP Calculus BC Chapter 10 Summary

d0f0c0
February 2020

Have fun :)
Overview
Chapter 10 delves into infinite series. It covers power series, Taylor series, and convergence/divergence
tests/rules. With this document, I tried my best to keep each textbook section to one page (kinda
cheated by changing margin size couple times). I suggest reading this document as
review/reinforcement after studying from the textbook. I tried to write it as I understand Chapter 10,
so some stuff is a bit different (wording, flow of reasoning, etc.) from the textbook.

Contents
10 Infinite Series 2
10.1 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
10.2 Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
10.3 Taylor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
10.4 Radius of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
10.5 Testing Convergence at Endpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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Chapter 10 Summary d0f0c0

10 Infinite Series
10.1 Power Series
Addition is a binary operation, meaning it takes two objects. Thus, a finite sum is addition because it
can be grouped as following:

a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an
= (a1 + a2 ) + a3 + ... + an
= (a1,2 + a3 ) + ... + an
= a1,2,3,...,n−1 + an

The same can not be said for an infinite series. This is why we need a definition for infinite series.
Definition 10.1 An infinite series is an expression of the form
∞
X
a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an + ..., or ak .
k=1

The numbers a1 , a2 , ... are the terms of the series; an is the nth term.
n
X
A series converges to some sum S if lim ak = S. Otherwise, it diverges.
n→∞
k=1

Note: ak should approach 0 (i.e., terms should be decreasing as k → ∞).

Review: The interval of convergence of a geometric series is −1 < r < 1 for common
ratio r.

Definition 10.2 An expression of the form

∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + ... + cn (x − a)n + ...
n=0

is a power series centered at x = a. The term cn (x − a)n is the nth term; the number a is the center.

Theorem 10.3 (Term-by-term Differentiation) If f (x) is a power series centered at a and it con-
verges for |x − a| < R, then the series f 0 (x) also converges.

Theorem 10.4 (Term-by-term Z Integration) If f (x) is a power series centered at a and it converges
for |x − a| < R, then the series f (x)dx also converges.

These are nice ways to reveal new connections between functions and series.

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10.2 Taylor Series

1
Power series are essentially geometric series that allow us to express complex functions such as (x−1) 2

into simple (relatively) polynomials. This is good because polynomials are much easier to work with.
However, power series are limiting, so we want to use something called Taylor series to turn almost any
function into a polynomial. For example, imagine approximating sin 50◦ . With a Taylor series, you could
do this very accurately and easily.

So how do we approach this technique? Observe the polynomial P (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + ... +
cm (x − a)n + .... We want P (x) to match the behavior of some function f (x) centered at x = a. Notice
that for x = a, P (x) = c0 and f (x) = f (a). Similarly,

P 0 (x) = c1 · 1 = f 0 (a)
P 00 (x) = c2 · 2! = f 00 (a)
P (3) (x) = c3 · 3! = f (3) (a)
. . .
(n)
P (x) = cn · n! = f (n) (a)
. . .

Now, we can solve for each of the term coefficients of P (x).

c1 · 1 = f 0 (a) → c1 = f 0 (a)
f 00 (a)
c2 · 2! = f 00 (a) → c2 =
2!
(3)
f (a)
c3 · 3! = f (3) (a) → c3 =
3!
. . .
f (n) (a)
cn · n! = f (n) (a) → cn =
n!
. . .

Replacing c1 , c2 , ..., cn , ... in P (x) leads to the definition of Taylor series.

Definition 10.5 Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some open interval con-
taining 0. Then the Taylor series generated by f at x = a is
n
f 00 (a) f n (a)
X f (k) (a)
0
f (a) + f (a)(x − a) + 2! (x
2
− a) + ... + n! (x
n
− a) + ... = (x − a)k
k!
k=0

A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series centered at x = 0. i.e., the Maclaurin series generated by f is
n
f 00 (0) 2 f n (0) n
X f (k) (0)
0
f (0) + f (0)x + 2! x + ... + n! x + ... = xk .
k!
k=0

Note: Make sure to check the interval of convergences before doing any operations with/on
the Taylor series (e.g. adding/subtracting with another Taylor series).

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Chapter 10 Summary d0f0c0

10.3 Taylor’s Theorem

With convergent power series, we can calculate the infinite sum. However, with Taylor series, the infi-
nite sum is not always possible to calculate. Taylor’s Theorem and Lagrange error bounds (Remainder
Estimation Theorem) discusses the approximation and its accuracy.

If we approximate the value of a function using a finite Taylor series, we have to truncate the trailing
terms. Thus, the error from approximating with a finite Taylor series is called the truncation error.
This error is easy to evaluate for a geometric/power series (use the infinite geometric sum formula setting
the first term as the next term), but it is not for a Taylor series.
Theorem 10.6 (Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder) If f has derivatives of all orders in an open
interval I containing a, then for each positive integer n and for each x in I,
f 00 (a) f (n) (a)
f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + 2! (x − a)2 + ... + n! (x − a)n + Rn (x),
f (n+1) (c)
where Rn (x) = (n+1)! (x − a)n+1 for some c between a and x.

Essentially, this theorem says that Rn (x) is the error of the approximation given by
f 00 (a) f (n) (a)
f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + 2! (x − a)2 + ... + n! (x − a)n .

Review: In 10.1 Power Series, for convergence, we saw that the nth term of a series must
approach 0 as n → ∞. Now, we can mathematically define this as following: if Rn (x) → 0 as
n → ∞, the Taylor series centered at x = a converges to f for some interval I. We can use
this with other techniques/theorems to prove convergence.

Theorem
 10.7 (Remainder Estimation Theorem) If there are positive constants M and r such
that f (n+1) (c) ≤ M rn+1 for all c between a and x, then the remainder Rn (x) in Taylor’s Theorem
satisfies the inequality
n+1
|x−a|n+1
|Rn (x)| ≤ M r (n+1)!

If these conditions hold for every n and all other conditions of Taylor’s Theorem are satisfied by f , then
the series converges to f (x).

f (n+1) (c)
Note: The inequality above is basically the equation Rn (x) = (n+1)! (x − a)n+1 turned
into an inequality
 (n+1)  with the substitution of M rn+1 for f (n+1) . The = becomes ≤ because
n+1
f (c) ≤ M r
 .

exp. function
Factorial growth is always faster than exponential growth, so as n → ∞, lim = 0. Thus,
  n→∞ (n + 1)!
n+1 n+1
|x−a|
the right side of the inequality M r (n+1)! approaches 0 as n → ∞ if M and r are constant
n+1
(because the numerator M rn+1 |x − a| is an exponential function—one that increases slower than the
denominator (n + 1)! as n → ∞).
 Therefore,
 if we show that there are some constants M and r such that
M rn+1 is always greater than f (n+1) (c), |Rn (x)| must also approach 0 because |Rn (x)| is less than or
equal to 0 but not negative. Convergence is proved by this.
n+1
|x−a|n+1
Note: The inequality |Rn (x)| ≤ M r (n+1)! can also be used to give an upper bound for
n+1 n+1
|x−a|
approximation error by maximizing M r (n+1)! . You can use this to assess how accurate
an approximation is.

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Chapter 10 Summary d0f0c0

10.4 Radius of Convergence

A convergent series equates to a number, so it may be treated as such. A divergent series does not. This
means that the many operations can be performed on convergent series, but not on divergent series.
Thus, it is important to consider the radius of convergence (half of the range of the interval of
convergence) and interval of convergence, which is the set of all values of x that a series converges for.
There are many techniques/theorems that can be used to determine this interval such as the Ratio Test.

∞
X
Theorem 10.8 (The nth-Term Test for Divergence) an diverges if an is undefined or not 0 as
n=1
n → ∞.
X
Theorem 10.9 (The Direct Comparison Test) Let an be a series with no negative terms. Then,
X X
1. an converges if there is another convergent series cn with an ≤ cn for all n > N for some
integer N .
X X
2. an diverges if there is another convergent series dn of nonnegative terms with an ≥ dn for
all n > N for some integer N .
X
A nice way to think about this is each term in the series an is smaller than the corresponding term
in some convergent series, so it must also be convergent. Also, it’s nonnegative terms, so it can’t be
oscillating.
X P
Definition 10.10 an converges absolutely if |an | also converges. If it doesn’t, it converges
conditionally.
P X
Theorem 10.11 If |an | converges, then an converges.
X X
A term in the series an will never be greater than the corresponding term in the series 2 |an |,
X
which converges. Thus, by the Direct Comparison Test, the series an converges.
X
Theorem 10.12 (The Ratio Test) Let an be a series with positive terms, and with
an+1
lim = L.
n→∞ an
Then,
1. the series converges if L < 1,
2. the series diverges if L > 1,
3. the test is inconclusive if L = 1.

1 To prove this, let there be some r such that  L < r < 1 and  some N ≤ n. Then, for some large N ,
an+1  an   an−1   aN +2  n−N −1
an < r for all n ≥ N . Then, |an | =  an−1  ·  an−2  · · ·  aN +1  · |aN +1 | < r |aN +1 |. Thus, the series
X∞ X
rn converges. By the Direct Comparison Test, an also converges.
n=1
2 The series diverges if L > 1 because it means the nth-term doesn’t approach 0; it will be not equate
to a number.
3 The test is inconclusive
! if L = 1 because both convergent and divergent series satisfy this case.
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
e.g. and 2
n=1
n n=1
n
Note: The ratio test can be used to find at what values series converges absolutely.
Telescoping series are series whose partial sums cancel each other out.

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Chapter 10 Summary d0f0c0

10.5 Testing Convergence at Endpoints

10.4 Radius of Convergence explores the interval of convergence of series, but it does not consider
the convergence at endpoints deeply. The following tests/theorems explores that deeper.

Theorem 10.13 (The Integral Test) Let {an } be a sequence of positive numbers. Let an = f (n),
X∞
where f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function of x for all x ≥ N > 0. Then the the series an
Z ∞ n=N

and the integral f (x)dx either both converge or both diverge.

N

Definition 10.14 (Harmonic Series and p-series) For some real constant p, any series in the form
∞
X 1
p
is called a p-series. The p-series with p = 0 is divergent and is called the harmonic series.
n=1
n

The series diverges if p ≤ 1 because the terms never approach 0. As for convergence, considering p > 1
gives the continuous, positive, decreasing function f (x) = x1p . From this, we can see that the integral
Z ∞  ∞
dx −1 1
p
= p−1
=
1 x (p − 1) · x 1 p−1
∞
X 1
converges. Therefore, by The Integral Test, the series for p > 1 must also converge. This gives
n=1
np
the convergent and divergent tests for any p-series:
∞
X 1
Some p-series :
n=1
np

1. diverges if P ≤ 1.
2. converges if P > 1.

Theorem 10.15 (The Limit Comparison Test) Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ≥ N > 0.
Then,
an X X
1. If lim = c, 0 < c < ∞, then an and bn both converge or both diverge.
n→∞ bn

an X X
2. If lim = 0 and bn converges, then an converges.
n→∞ bn

an X X
3. If lim = ∞ and bn diverges, then an diverges.
n→∞ bn

Definition 10.16 An alternating series is a series where terms alternate between being positive and
negative. An alternating series converges if the absolute value of all terms in the series is less than the
preceding term.

Theorem 10.17 (The Alternating Series Estimation Theorem) The error of the approximation
k
X
(−1)n · an is less than or equal to (−1)k+1 · ak+1 .
 
given by
n=0