M1 History - Switzerland 1815 – 1848

‘Restoration’ and ‘Regeneration’

As in much of Western Europe, post-Napoleonic Swiss history follows patterns that

are divided by the landmark dates of 1830 and 1848. Some of the structural
pressures were also similar. Switzerland’s industrial growth was one of the most
advanced in Europe and began to transform the country economically and socially.
Political liberalism that demanded constitutional and representative government
and a final end to restrictive feudal laws, continued to grow in influence. And
Swiss nationalism, which was first important in the period before 1798, continued
to spread out from the educated classes to all sectors of society. This historic time
in Swiss history is traditionally divided into two periods: ‘Restoration’ refers to the
period of 1814 to 1830 and the attempts to the restore the Swiss Ancien Régime
(and cantonal authority) which reversed the changes imposed by centralist
Helvetic Republic from 1798 and Napoleon’s compromise Act of Mediation of 1803.
‘Regeneration’ refers to the period of 1830 to 1848, when in the wake of the July
Revolution in Paris, the Ancien Régime was challenged by the liberal and
nationalist movement.

And yet although Swiss history appears to resemble wider European patterns at this
time, there was something distinctly Swiss about the whole process of change. The
forces of conservatism were not a simply a feudal class of landowning aristocrats
clinging on to feudal traditions that supported a traditional way of life. In
Switzerland there was a regional and religious dimension to the opposition to
change that resulted in particularly deep divisions. There were to be revolutions
all across Europe in this period, but only Switzerland had, in 1847, a genuine civil
war.

1815–1830: Restoration.

As we have seen, the old elite ‘patricians’ and many of the ruling families returned
to power as a result of decisions made at the Congress of Vienna. Switzerland was
forced into supporting the Holy Alliance and this resulted in restrictions on the
freedom of the press and an end to Swiss toleration of political refugees. However,
almost from the beginning, the restored regimes faced challenges from reformers.
As early as 1816, an economic depression caused by the return of Britain’s modern
textiles industries to European markets, made life difficult for the Swiss traditional
hand-loom worker. In addition, the Restoration regimes had reintroduced cantonal
tolls and customs and restricted freedom of movement, all of which damaged
trade. Opposition demanded political and economic reform. The Vaudois liberal
Benjamin Constant (lover and protégé of Germaine de Staël) wrote influential
texts calling for constitutional reform to follow the English model that were
inspirational to liberals throughout Europe.

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 Benjamin Constant born in Lausanne in 1767, was one
of the first political intellectuals to describe himself as
liberal. He considered the British form of constitutional
government as the best model for modern capitalist
European states. Germaine de Staël was the daughter
of Louis XVI’s banker Jacques Necker and was known
for her literary salon in Paris and at Coppet. A proto-
feminist who coined the word ‘romanticism’, it was said
of her that there are three great powers in Europe:
Britain, Russia and Madame de Staël.
Nationalists inspired by the success of the federal army called for more national
institutions to be created. The Helvetic Society was revived and played a more
political role. The example of the Greek independence movement inspired
romantic nationalists in Switzerland as throughout Europe.

Although the Swiss movement for political reform predated the 1830 revolutions in
Europe – successful pressure and petitioning for constitutional reform had resulted
in limited reform in Lucerne and Schaffhausen and significant changes in Ticino –
the July revolution in Paris was a catalyst for countrywide change. Faced with
countrywide demonstrations the Diet recognised the right of cantons to change
their constitutions and almost all did so. Historically this is known as the
‘Regeneration’.

1830-47: Regeneration

The Regeneration resulted in a swathe of classical liberal reforms being introduced

across the Swiss cantons. The 1815 restoration of feudal privileges and economic
restraints were removed, city walls were pulled down and legislative bodies were
liberalised with wider representation. Cantonal executives had powers reduced
and terms of office were limited, censorship was ended, and new constitutions
became subject to approval by popular vote.

But the 1830 Regeneration did not resolve divisions in Swiss society. As with all
revolutions and reform movements, there were divisions in the cantons between
the reformers and conservatives and also within the reform movement itself. For
example, in Basel in the 1830s, the rural population led by the lawyer Stefan
Gutzwiller argued for fairer representation in the legislature. When their demands
were rejected, they set up a Provisional Governing Assembly of their own in
Lietstal.

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 Stefan
The Gutzwiller
Basel addressing
authorities the to
tried Basel Country
break up Constituent Assembly
the assembly in 1831.
by force butThe assembly
were metoff
beaten
outside because the new half-canton had no meeting place.
in August 1831. The federal Diet sent soldiers to keep the two sides apart and
allowed the creation of two half-cantons. The city finally accepted this division in
August 1833, but only after suffering a series of military defeats in the preceding
two years. A similar conflict also required federal intervention in Schwyz.

As well as divisions within cantons, there were also divisions between reformers.
Many liberals were happy with the changes that had been implemented, but others
wanted to go still further. Contemporaneous with the Chartist movement in
Britain, these ‘advanced liberals’ or freisinnige radicals argued for the
introduction of direct democracy and universal male suffrage, often as a means to
improve living standards. In Switzerland, there was also an additional religious
dimension, which saw the radicals calling for educational reforms intended to
weaken the power of the Church. It was this religious conflict and strident and
ultimately armed Catholic opposition to reform, which would ultimately push the
Swiss cantons into civil war.

Towards civil war

As in the rest of Europe, what brought the underlying religious tensions to the
surface was the economic depression of the 1840s. The Swiss economy had
undergone significant change in the previous generation. Textile manufacture,
machine tools and chemicals had grown so that one quarter of all Swiss now
worked in manufacturing. But in the 1840s these industries were hit by recession.
The economic slump created social problems with which the new industrial society
struggled to cope. Socio-economic discontent fuelled a desire for a political
response which inevitably brought to the surface polarising religious divisions.

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In 1834, six regenerated liberal cantons agreed to the Articles of Baden which set
new rules for seminaries (schools for priests), marriages and feast days which were
strongly opposed by conservative Swiss Catholicism. In 1837 in Zurich, peasants
marched against the liberal government and after 14 people were killed an anti-
radical government was put in place. Joseph Leu of Ebersoll in Lucerne led
Catholic activists in the struggle against radicalism, founding the Catholic
Brotherhood to defend Catholic control of education and to allow Jesuits into Swiss
education. Catholic conservatives also fought against radical reforms in Valais and
Ticino.

In 1841, Augustin Keller a liberal, initiated the rewriting of the cantonal

constitution of Aargau which weakened the position of Catholics. The pro-Catholic
demonstrations and anti-Catholic government retaliation led the Catholic
leadership to begin discussions about organising themselves militarily. In Valais,
conservatives introduced a new constitution which excluded French speakers and
banned Protestantism. In 1843, Josef Leu recalled Jesuits to Lucerne.

In response, liberal cantons became increasingly radical. In 1845 Henri Druey the
leader of the National Association in Vaud overthrew the liberal government for
not preventing Jesuit influence. Similar radical movements came to power in
power in Ticino, Zurich and Berne. When radicals failed to overthrow the
conservative government in Lucerne in 1845, thousands of radical volunteers
(Freischarenzug) marched on the city on two occasions but were defeated and
suffered hundreds of casualties (see image opposite).

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In July 1845, a freischaren soldier murdered Catholic political leader Josef Leu. In
response, in December 1945, seven Catholic cantons - Lucerne, Fribourg, Valais,
Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Zug – formed a secret security pact a ‘Sonderbund’
(special alliance). As soon as it became public, ten cantons called for its
dissolution, but they lacked the majority in the Diet to force the law through. This
majority was finally achieved in July 1847 and the Diet called for the breakup of
the Sonderbund and the expulsion of the Jesuits. In response, the Sonderbund
began preparing for war.

Sonderbund War 1847

The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 had a guaranteed the right to intervene on any Swiss
change to the constitution if they all agreed it was necessary. At this point, Austria
and France were conservative Catholic powers and wanted to help the Swiss
conservatives. Austria remained neutral but Britain favoured the liberal cause and
wanted the Jesuits expelled. Consequently, there was no significant foreign
intervention, and this undoubtedly helped the liberals.

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Colonel Jean-Ulrich de Salis-Soglio of Grisons was elected and sworn in as
commander in chief of the Sonderbund army on 15 January 1847. He controlled an
army of approximately 80,000. On 21 October 1847, the Federal Diet elected
General Dufour of Geneva as commander in chief of the federal army. On October
24th, 1847 the Diet ordered the mobilisation of 50,000 men, although 100,000
signed up.

The first major offensive took place in Fribourg in November which surrendered to
the federal forces with little resistance. There was more significant resistance in
Lucerne but the city also fell on November 27 th. The other Sonderbund cantons
surrendered and by the November 29 th and after 27 days, the war was over. In all,
130 soldiers had been killed. The 20 million francs cost of the war was paid by the
Sonderbund cantons and Neuchâtel and Appenzell Innerrhoden were also fined for
not providing troops to the federal army. This was to the last armed conflict on
Swiss territory until today.

Swiss Federal Constitution 1848

In 1848, a new Swiss Federal Constitution drafted by Johann Conrad Kern of

Thurgau Henri Druey of Vaud, ended the almost-complete independence of the
cantons and transformed Switzerland into a federal state. In the year of European
revolutions only the Swiss succeeded in creating a democratic state. The Swiss
drew up a constitution which was federal, much of it inspired by the American
example. The new constitution created, for the first time, Swiss citizenship in
addition to cantonal citizenship.

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This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the
right to self-government on local issues. The executive was the Federal Council,
seven members elected by the Federal Assembly.

The Federal Assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States,
two representatives per canton) and a lower house (the National Council, with
representatives elected from across the country). One of the first acts of the
Assembly was to choose Berne as the federal capital. Referendums were made
mandatory for any amendment of this constitution. This new constitution also
brought a legal end to nobility in Switzerland.

A system of single weights and measures was introduced, in 1849 a federal postal
service was introduced and in 1850 the Swiss franc became the Swiss single
currency. A federal university and a polytechnic school were to be founded. The
Swiss railway line was opened in 1847, connecting Zürich and Baden. In 1854 roads
and canals were taken under federal control. Article 11 of the constitution forbade
sending troops to serve abroad, with the exception of serving the Holy See. All
Christians were guaranteed the exercise of their religion, but the Jesuits were
expelled from Switzerland and this ban was only lifted on 20 May 1973. The
constitutional basis for the modern Swiss state was in place.

Activities

1. Identify the main characteristics of the 1815-30 period of ‘Restoration’.

2. What was the ‘Regeneration’? Why did it fail to resolve the divisions in Swiss
society? Provide examples to illustrate your answer.
3. Explain the causes of the Sonderbund war. It is important that you explain
the economic context and the actions of both Catholics and Radicals.
4. Outline the main features of the Sonderbund War.
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 5. Summarise the main characteristics of the Swiss Federal Constitution of
1848.

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