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Amalia Mărăşescu, Main Issues in Teaching English For Speakers of Other
Amalia Mărăşescu, Main Issues in Teaching English For Speakers of Other
“Obviously, not every learner is a genius: in fact, few pupils actually enjoy
learning for the sake of learning. Rather, it is the teacher who can make them love or hate
a subject. The teacher’s tactfulness, his/her warm closeness and understanding of the
students’ needs and wants, his/her interesting presentation and emotional involvement, as
well as his/her understanding of the times we live in (the age of speed and of computers),
to mention just a few, can make wonders with the most difficult cases.
And the most difficult cases are not always the ‘slow’ children; quite the opposite,
the brightest kid in class is often put down because s/he is always interrupting the lesson
and disturbing the others, because s/he has crazy ideas, or because s/he wants to talk
about the latest computer game instead of solving ‘boring’ tasks of grammar or
vocabulary.” (Vizental 133-134)
Which, do you think, is the main actor in the teaching/learning process: the
teacher or the learner?
1. 1. The Teacher
What are, in your opinion, the qualities of the ideal teacher?
Children spend more time in school with their teachers than they spend home with
their parents. Therefore, teachers influence students very much, even though the latter do
not always realize this. Teachers should be aware of this influence and should use it to
achieve positive things.
Elementary school students have a model in their teacher. Everything the teacher
does at school is imitated at home in front of the dolls. First, children imitate the exterior
elements (the gestures, words, etc.), but later on they get to imitate the teacher’s way of
thinking as well. The older the students get, however, the more difficult to shape they
become. Still, teachers remain important. Let us remember how many times we got to
love a subject because we liked the teacher who taught it and how many times we got to
hate a subject just because we hated the teacher. Children love the teachers who love
them, who love their subject and who know how to treat students.
Adrian Underhill (apud Scrivener 2005) suggests that there are three broad
categories of teaching styles:
1. the explainer, who lectures, conveying information to the students. The lectures
may be interesting and informative, even entertaining, but the students are not
personally involved or challenged. The explainer knows the subject matter.
2. the involver, who involves the students actively and uses appropriate teaching and
organizational techniques to help students learn about the subject matter. Still,
s/he retains control of what happens in the classroom. The involver knows the
subject matter and the methodology.
3. the enabler, who shares control with the learners, if s/he does not hand it over to
them; s/he enables students to learn for themselves. The enabler knows the subject
matter, the methodology and the people (in his/her class).
Consequently, we can say that methodology and knowledge of subject matter are
important, but not the most important. It is more important to be “an aware and sensitive
teacher who respects and listens to her students, and who concentrates on finding ways of
enabling learning rather than on performing as a teacher.” (Scrivener 22)
We can classify teachers according to various other criteria as well. Thus, the
Neuro-Linguistic Programming Model takes into consideration the sense that is mostly
used when teaching. (cf. Harmer 2007) Thus, we can have:
visual teachers who: talk fast, use visual aids, like to cover a lot of content,
consider forms (grammar, spelling) important, like work to be done in time.
auditory teachers, who: speak rhythmically, like class discussions, tend to repeat
students’ commands by paraphrasing, discipline their pupils by talking to them
usually with memorized sermonettes beginning with “How many times did I tell
you...?”, are easily disoriented from the focus of the lesson, read and ask the
students to read the text aloud, rarely use visual aids, make comments on
students’ performance using various words and noises (OK, etc.);
kinesthetic teachers, who: talk slowly, use manipulatives (hand-outs etc.),
involve students in projects and in team work, consider concepts important,
believe in what students can do, use a lot of demonstrations.
According to the pattern of authority that teachers use in class, they can be:
1. paternal-assertive – characterized by aggressiveness and dominance, but also by a
deep concerned for the advancement and reward of subordinates. The problem is
that the subordinates may not detect this concern and may develop a spirit of
rebellion or anxiety.
2. maternal-expressive – characterized by the fact that they avoid aggressiveness,
but concentrate instead on creating affective ties with the subordinates, exercising
control over them by withdrawing affection and threatening them with rejection.
The problem is that if a subordinate is rejected, s/he may get very angry or even
depressed.
3. fraternal-permissive – characterized by the fact that they consciously minimize
any status differentiation, aiming instead at equality. The needs of the
subordinates appear to dominate. The leader shares with the subordinates as much
responsibility as possible and tries to encourage them. This type seems to be the
ideal one, but the teacher needs to be very confident. The problem is that the
subordinates may not have the necessary experience to decide and they may get
confused. Moreover, some of them need a strong authority figure.
4. rational-procedural – characterized by the fact that they minimize emotions and
interpersonal relationships. They try to resort to the constraints of impersonal
authority in the form of objectives, laws, regulations, syllabi, textbooks. The
problem is that this pattern reaches the subordinates only at a superficial level in
their emotional experience, therefore producing very little involvement and
creativity.
Traditional teaching is characterized by emphasis on “chalk and talk” – the
teacher spends much time writing on the board and explaining, while the students listen,
take notes and do some practice meant to test whether they have understood what they
have been taught. In many cultures, this is the dominant mode of education. Students
expect such teachers and other teachers may be suspicious of a colleague who behaves
differently. Therefore, “what you do in any school or with any learner will often represent
your best compromise between what you believe and what seems right in the local
context.” (Scrivener 17)
Traditional teaching is also characterized as “jug and mug” – the teacher “pours”
the knowledge into the learners’ mind. However, there is a problem with this model:
teaching does not equal learning. Being in a class in the presence of a teacher and
listening attentively to him / her is not enough to ensure learning. The teacher cannot
learn for his/ her students. S/he can only help to create conditions in which they might be
able to learn. Moreover, we should be aware that students do not learn everything they
are taught, but those parts that suit their understanding of the world and make sense to
them.
Currently, teaching has become student-centred, in opposition to the teacher-
centred approach that dominated traditional teaching.
Teachers become different when they are in class from what they are in other
situations. “Effective teacher personality is a blend between who we really are, and who
we are as teachers.” (Harmer 24) The learners need to see the real person behind the
profession, but also the professional. Teaching is not acting, but we need to think
carefully about how we appear in front of our students.
In this respect, non-verbal communication is also very important in teaching.
Alongside linguistic and paralinguistic signs (especially tone of voice and pitch), the non-
verbal ones help the teacher establish both a hierarchy and a peer status. Effective non-
verbal signs include: eye contact, hands, positioning towards students, touch, head nods,
smiles. Eye contact is important because the eyes reflect the teacher’s attitude towards
and opinion about students and show who is in control of the class. The most suggestive
part of the body in teaching, however, is represented by the hands. Hands can regulate,
support or emphasize the verbal message, express the attitude of the teacher towards the
students, or express the teacher’s emotions by touching. Maintaining eye contact and a
semi-oriented position towards the board when writing on it the teacher shows that s/he is
still in control. Romanian students also feel comfortable when their teacher is closer to
them and walks through the rows because thus they have an opportunity of establishing a
personal relationship with him/ her. A pleasant appearance and smiling are also important
(though we should not smile too often).
Learning to become a teacher is a continuous activity, for which we can benefit
from books about methodology, experience, university courses, our former experience as
learners, talking to peers and other people (e.g. the school psychologist), and from learner
feedback. Teachers should constantly reflect on their activity, discuss it with their peers
and find solutions for their problems together.
1. 2. The Learner
The atmosphere in a class is determined by the “rapport” established between
teacher and students. Consequently, we cannot discuss the teaching / learning process
without focusing on the learner as well.
Howard Gardner (1993) claims that, rather than having a single unified
intelligence, people might have seven:
verbal/ linguistic;
visual;
musical;
logical / mathematical;
bodily / feeling;
interpersonal (related to contact with other people);
intrapersonal (related to understanding oneself).
We should provide activities that are best for each, e.g. create a poem similar to
one given, read a fragment of a text and draw an image connected to what is presented
there, read something in a rhythmic manner, categorize stylistic devices in a chart, act a
piece of literature, involve students in a project and have them write a diary page starting
from a certain fragment, respectively.
In a classroom, teachers tend to value students whose cognitive style is like theirs.
When mismatching occurs, the student is likely to feel frustrated and hostile to the
teacher, to the subject matter or to learning in general. The solution is to know your
students and to use techniques that will help all types.
Should we teach the class or the individuals?
Though all learners in one class are considered to be at a certain level, very often
they are mixed in level. There are various reasons for this:
the students are grouped by age;
the school does not have sufficient levels;
even if at the beginning they are in the same level, at the end the students may be
in different levels because they progress differently.
A common level structure used in schools divides learners into:
advanced;
post-intermediate;
upper intermediate;
intermediate
pre-intermediate;
elementary;
beginner.
Another system coming from the Council of Europe and the Association of
Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) classifies learners as:
C2 (= nearly native-speaker level);
C1 (=advanced);
B2 (=upper intermediate / post-intermediate);
B1 (=intermediate);
A2 (=pre-intermediate);
A1 (=beginner / elementary).
Beginners require simple texts and extensive drilling. Intermediate students need
more complex texts and activities oriented towards free production and independent
work. Advanced learners need authentic materials and activities that encourage their
creativity and develop their analytic spirit.
At the beginning we get a general idea of the overall class level. Then, little by
little, we come to perceive:
a general idea of individuals’ levels;
individuals’ levels in various systems and skills;
individuals’ levels over specific tasks.
The conclusion is that every learner has an individual range of levels and that
every class is a mixed-level class. Therefore, the teacher should constantly adapt.
Find out more teaching methods and comment extensively on one of them.
3. Theories of Language and Language Learning/ Teaching
Error Correction
Mistakes have been classified into three types:
slips, i.e. mistakes which students can correct themselves once the mistake has
been pointed out to them;
errors, i.e. mistakes which students cannot correct themselves;
attempts, i.e. mistakes that students make when they try to say something but do
not yet know how to say it.
Besides these, there are also developmental errors, made as the students’
knowledge of language develops and they make what seem to be logical assumptions
about the way language works. For instance, on the basis of I have to go / I want to go / I
would like to go, they say * I must to go.
No matter which of these types of mistakes the students make, first, we have to
identify if it is a mistake in grammar, pronunciation, meaning or style. Then, we will
indicate to the student that a mistake has been made. If the student understands this
feedback, s/he will be able to correct the mistake and this self-correction will be helpful
as part of the learning process.
The following techniques are used to show incorrectness:
echoing - repeat what the student has just said, but stop before the mistake, using
a questioning intonation;
S: I know he have been waiting for an hour.
T: I know he...?
asking the student to repeat;
denial – you say “no”, but it may be discouraging;
questioning – “is that correct?”;
using facial expressions, gestures – this is dangerous if the student thinks it is a
form of mockery; it depends on the teacher’s style.
In general, we should deal with showing incorrectness with tact and consideration
because the process of student’s self-correction that it provokes is an important and
useful part of the learning process. Showing incorrectness should be seen as a positive
activity.
If the students are unable to correct themselves we use the following techniques:
student corrects student – “Can anybody help?”;
teacher corrects student and, if necessary, re-explains, then goes again through
choral and individual repetition, etc.
After someone has produced the correct response, it is very important to go back
to the original student and make sure that he has got the right variant.
Thus, error correction is performed in the following stages:
1. the teacher indicates that there has been a mistake and where the mistake is;
2. the teacher indicates what type of mistake it is;
3. the teacher sees if the student can self-correct;
4. the teacher sees if other students can correct; if not
5. the teacher corrects;
6. the teacher checks understanding;
7. the teacher gets the original student say the correct variant.
Explaining Meaning
When we want to explain meaning, there are several things that we can do:
show it: show the object, mime the action, use facial expressions (for happy, sad,
etc.), gestures (for big, bigger, the biggest, etc.) or pictures;
describe it by using definitions, synonyms, antonyms;
list vocabulary items to explain concepts, i.e. caring professionals: doctor, nurse,
social worker, counselor;
translate the words.
“The trick of explaining meaning effectively is to choose the best method to fit
the meaning that needs to be explained.” (Harmer 2007: 84). Actually, most teachers use
a mixture of techniques.
Checking meaning
It is very important for the students to understand the meaning of the new
language; that is why it is necessary for the teacher to check meaning frequently. S/he can
do this in several ways:
1. by asking concept questions
e.g. for the understanding of Present Perfect
I have lived here for seven years.
Concept questions: When did I start to live here?
Was I living here in 2005?
Do I still live here?
In order to make concept questions you reduce the target structure to a number of
simple statements (2-3) which describe the meaning of that structure and then turn the
statements into questions.
I have lived here for two years.
I started living here 2 years ago.
I still live here.
The target structure should not appear in the concept questions.
causative “have”: I had my suit cleaned.
concept questions: Did I clean my suit myself?
Did someone else clean my suit?
Is my suit clean now?
2. by asking students to produce sentences of their own with the new structure;
3. by using translation – a quick and efficient technique, but not recommended.
`gəʊɪŋ tu: du: ə`baʊt ɪt/ may become in connected speech /`wɒtʃə gənə `dʊwəbaʊdɪ/
The students need to recognize and understand such sentences even if you may
not want them to produce them.
Stress changes meaning and makes words impossible to understand. Here we
should make the difference between word stress and sentence stress/ prominence (which
falls on content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, some of the pronouns).
Unstressed words tend to be pronounced faster and in a “weak” manner (with shorter
vowel sounds) – instead of /fɔ:/ (for) we may have /fə/ or just /f/. The most common
weak form vowel sound is the schwa /ə/. This happens because in English the stressed
syllables tend to occur at approximately regular intervals regardless of how many
unstressed syllables there are between them.
Intonation influences meaning and gives information about the speaker’s
attitude. It is hard to teach intonation systematically, but here are some ideas for working
on it:
get students to mark intonation patterns on dialogues (use arrows, lines, etc.);
get students to say the same word with different intonation to convey different
meanings;
hum the sentence without words before you say it;
indicate intonation with hand gestures;
exaggerate intonation/ lack of intonation;
encourage students to “feel” the emotion as they speak;
have them read aloud phrases, sentences, texts with appropriate intonation and
have them perform the texts (without the scripts).
In addition to that, sentence stress and intonation can be practiced in the following
kinds of drills:
1. repetition drills:
I have a red pencil and a green one.
I have a long pencil and a short one.
2. substitution drills: for the rising intonation in question, for instance:
Is English easy?
Is the lesson easy?
Is the lesson difficult? etc.
3. fill in drills: for tag questions, for example:
He … some sentences, didn’t he? (write down)
They … Peter, didn’t they? (meet)
4. transformation drills: turn affirmative sentences into interrogative ones:
They go to school together.
Do they go to school together?
5. sentence expansion drills:
John went to see Dennis.
John went to see Dennis one evening.
6. building up sentences according to a given pattern: What a …!
What a bright room it is!
What a sunny day it was!
We should be, however, aware of the fact that mastery of pronunciation is much
more difficult to achieve than that of the other systems and we rarely get to speak like
native speakers. That is why we should begin by being tolerant listeners and intelligible
speakers.
4.2. Teaching Vocabulary/ Lexis
When we speak about teaching words, we actually mean teaching:
single-word vocabulary items;
collocations (words that are frequently used together like traffic jam);
chunks/ multiword items (longer combinations of words that are typically used
together like someone you can talk to).
According to Jim Scrivener (2005), while the items in the first category are
referred to as vocabulary, all three are actually included within the concept of lexis. Still,
most of us refer to all three categories as words and use the terms vocabulary and lexis
interchangeably.
Lexis has a bigger communicative power than grammar since we can get our
meaning across by using the right words even if they do not appear in grammatically
correct sentences. Therefore, we may draw the conclusion that knowing as many words
as possible is the key to learning a language. Still, knowing a word might be difficult
because it means knowing:
how it is pronounced and spelt;
what it means;
the words it normally collocates with;
the situations and contexts in which it is used.
But there are also other things we can know about it:
the number of syllables it contains;
the number of phonemes it contains;
which syllables are stressed;
which stresses are stronger or weaker;
what part of speech it is;
its grammatically related forms (i.e. the past tense form of a verb);
its metaphorical meanings;
its connotations;
its synonyms and the way in which their meanings differ from one another;
its homonyms;
its antonyms;
its lexical family, etc. (cf. Scrivener 2005)
Therefore, when teaching vocabulary, an English-English dictionary should be
preferred to a bilingual dictionary since it offers us the kind of information stated above.
That is also why explaining words at random in the middle of the lesson in which we
come across them is not a way of teaching vocabulary. Vocabulary teaching should be
done systematically:
in lexical sets, e.g. clothes, food etc. Thus, the words are easy to remember,
practice is easy to contextualize and the sets can be expanded as the students
progress;
at early levels, in relation to grammar and functions. E.g. the lexical set of
adjectives of physical appearance can be related to the verb to be; or, the lexical
set about health and fitness to the function of giving advice;
in reading/ listening texts – the advantage is that the lexical item appears in its co-
text (the text that surrounds it) and thus the learner can see samples of language in
use;
by dictionary work – more appropriate with intermediate or advanced students.
The last activity should be followed by a creativity stage.
When using texts, we can teach vocabulary before, during or after reading or
listening to the text.
The words that are pre-taught should be the ones that are needed for the
completion of the reading/ listening task. The pre-teaching can be done during the
introductory conversation with the help of questions or statements that use the new words
or with the help of activities like:
match the words with the pictures/ definitions;
complete the sentences with words from the following list;
check the meaning of these words in the dictionary;
tell me as many words as you can think of on … (the topic), etc.
Teaching lexis during the work with the text is not recommended unless: the
students specifically ask for it (in this case, give few short explanations); the text contains
few unknown words, the learners have some skill in reading and the teacher wants to
teach them to work independently or the teacher wants to teach learners to guess the
meaning of the new words from context. We can explain the new words after reading
each paragraph or the whole text. We should not ask students if there are words that they
do not know/ understand because very often they do not realize that. If we ask them to
look up the words in a dictionary we should also teach them when and how to use the
dictionary. They should read the whole paragraph, and not stop at the first unknown word
and they should read the whole dictionary entry or at least up to the point when they find
the meaning that fits the context (instead of just the first meaning listed in the dictionary).
The following activities can be used to focus the learners’ attention on lexical
items:
can you guess the meaning of …?
find words in the text that mean …
find in the text synonyms/ antonyms of …
find words that the writer uses to describe …
do you know other phrases containing …?, etc.
The presentation of the new words can be made through:
demonstration: gestures, mime, facial expressions;
visual aids: pictures, objects, drawings;
verbal explanation: by means of definition, analysis (derivatives), context,
translation, synonyms, antonyms.
Translation is recommended only in the following cases:
if it is easier to translate than to explain or define: measles – pojar, oak-tree –
stejar;
in the case of false friends or partial cognates: library – bibliotecă; button –
buton, nasture;
in the case of idiomatic expressions.
We should vary the way we explain the meaning of new words.
We should make the distinction between the passive/ receptive lexis (represented
by the words we recognize and understand, though we do not use them in everyday
situations) and the active/ productive lexis (represented by the words we use). Normally,
the former exceeds the latter. Low level students should be given a limited active
vocabulary quickly. From this, each student can build his/her own vocabulary at a
natural, unforced speed. Words that are unlikely to be used by the students should not be
insisted upon. We should also encourage learners to read widely outside the class, and to
use dictionaries and other independent learning strategies to enrich their knowledge of
lexis.
The vocabulary to be taught is selected according to the following criteria:
frequency;
range. i.e. the number of contexts in which a word can be used (polysemantic
words);
familiarity – we teach first the names of the objects we use very often;
usefulness – we select vocabulary to be taught according to the students’ needs.
Another distinction that we should make is the one between content words and
function words (according to their semantic value). Content words are the lexically full
words (nouns, full verbs, adjectives, adverbs), while function words express relationships
or meanings (articles, auxiliary and modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions). While the
previous remarks referred mainly to the teaching of content words, we should note that
special attention should be paid to the teaching of function words as well, which is done
in several ways. Usually articles are taught with nouns as vocabulary elements, the
auxiliary and modal verbs are taught as grammatical items, while prepositions and
conjunctions are also taught as vocabulary items.
Function words should be taught in context, in exercises that are graded and
sequential; grammatical understanding will also be necessary. The exercises used will
vary from pattern practice and chain drills to arranging words in a sentence, question and
answer practice and guided composition. Function words help students organize their
writing and improve their understanding. They are essential in teaching both vocabulary
and grammatical structures.
We should not assume that once a word has been taught it will automatically be
learnt and always remembered. Vocabulary should constantly be revised. Activities
meant to help students remember the vocabulary learnt are of two types: pattern practice
and communication practice. The drills to be used when reinforcing or building up
vocabulary fall into three main types:
1. mechanical drills:
simple substitution drills – replace one part of a given sentence with a given cue;
multiple substitution drills – replace parts of the sentence progressively;
expansion drills – expand model sentences with two or three words provided;
integration drills – make up a complex/ compound sentence out of two or three
simple sentences;
cued response drills – make up a sentence according to a model, with two cue
words being given;
direct practice – question-answer practice.
2. meaningful drills and exercises:
multiple choice exercises;
synonyms;
definitions;
matching drills;
sentence completion;
the cloze.
3. communicative drills or exercises:
adaptation or variation of a dialogue – convert it into indirect speech;
eliciting a summary of the story (the teacher elicits it from the students by
asking questions);
paraphrasing a story – by using synonyms or transforming structures;
retelling a story from a different point of view. (cf. Popa 1995)
Besides these activities that can be done orally or in writing, there are two other
activities that can be only written: translation and composition. They “not only reinforce
and build up vocabulary, but also point to the degree of skill to select the appropriate
words, to associate them, to perceive the nuances in meaning and, eventually, to use
creatively a newly acquired vocabulary.” (Popa 83)
The words that have been taught should be written on the board in sentences
which illustrate their meaning. Stress should be marked. The students should be given
time to copy them accurately (at lower levels the teacher should check the way in which
they wrote). Phonetic transcription should also be used. Teachers will encourage their
students to keep a separate section in their notebooks for vocabulary. It may look like
this:
Literate people who use language possess the four basic skills of writing,
speaking, reading and listening. Writing and speaking involve language production
and are called productive skills; reading and listening involve receiving messages and
are called receptive skills. Though in practice we cannot separate them (in general
speaking and listening appear simultaneously, and so do reading and writing, but not
only), in the classroom the teacher may want to approach each of them separately.
However, it is also recommended that we should apply the principle of integrating
skills, which means that the focus on one skill should lead to practice in another (e.g.
writing on the basis of listening/ discussion/ reading).
5.1. Teaching the Receptive Skills (Reading and Listening)
When we learn a language, we are first of all receivers: we listen to/ read
messages before we start to produce them, at the beginning repeating mechanically,
afterwards interacting and communicating.
“When engaged in teaching receptive skills, the teacher must consider some basic
features of real-life listening/ reading:
listening/ reading is not a mere manipulation of vocabulary and grammar, but a
process of extracting meaning;
the receiver is not a passive recipient of the message, but actively interacts with
the text s/he is reading/ listening to and contributes meaning to it;
receptive skills do not work alone, but together with productive ones, in an
integrated way.” (Vizental 139)
The teacher should aim at producing active listeners/ readers. This can be done
by means of using activities that simulate real-world listening and reading.
In real life listening/ reading has a purpose. We read / listen for interest, i.e. for
pleasure, or for usefulness, i.e. for information (in the case of newspapers, phone books,
timetables, etc.). We do not focus on individual words, but on whole messages and we do
not care so much if we do not understand the meaning of all the words or if we not hear
certain parts of the message. To understand a text properly, the students should get first
of all its overall meaning and should be taught how to use contextual clues to get the
meaning of the words that they do not know.
Another characteristic of readers/ listeners is that they have expectations: as they
read/ listen, they expect something to follow. The teacher should create such expectations
in the class, by using pre-reading/ pre-listening activities.
Readers and listeners also employ a number of subskills when reading / listening.
Their success at understanding the content of the reading / listening text depends on their
expertise in these subskills. E.g. scanning – extracting specific information; skimming –
getting the general idea; guessing meaning from context; reading / listening for
detailed comprehension. Very important are the predictive skills, as they are at the
basis of the expectation principle. Efficient readers / listeners predict what they are
going to read / hear. The process of understanding the text is the process of seeing how its
content matches their predictions. As they receive more information from the text, their
predictions will change.
These are skills that we have in our mother tongue. But reading / listening in a
foreign language creates barriers for the learners (they are afraid of making mistakes, of
not being able to solve the task, etc.), which may make these skills more difficult to use.
The teacher’s job is to reactivate the skills, to help the students transfer them from their
mother tongue to the foreign language.
In Harmer’s view (1991), a basic methodological model for the teaching of the
receptive skills has five basic stages:
1. lead-in – the students and the teacher prepare themselves for the task and
familiarize themselves with the topic of the reading / listening exercise. The
purpose of this stage is to create expectations, helping the students make
predictions;
2. the teacher directs task to follow – a shorter stage. A general principle for
reading / listening texts is to have students perform a task while they are reading /
listening. During this stage the teacher makes sure that the students know what
they have to do;
3. students read / listen and perform the task;
4. the teacher directs feedback – helps the students see if they performed the task
successfully;
5. the teacher organizes a follow-up task – asks them to create something based on
the text; work based on reading/ listening texts can lead to discussion or written
work in related areas.
The following activities may be used for prediction:
minidiscussion on the topic;
discussion of a headline / title;
discussion of the first line / paragraph;
brainstorming related to the topic;
announce the topic and ask the students to think of questions they expect to be
answered by the text;
announce the topic and the characters involved and ask the students to predict
their attitudes and opinions;
the cloze can also be used as a prediction activity – for lexical prediction.
This stage should have a degree of informality and should be carefully prepared
because prediction activities bring about a “heightened degree of attentiveness” (Carter
112 in Brumfit and Carter, eds.); they can be done in pairs or in small groups, even in the
students’ native language, though the foreign language should be used as much as
possible.
The pre-reading/ pre-listening tasks will help the students “activate their prior
knowledge of the world or of society in matters related to the subject of the text”, will
introduce the new topic and will arouse the students’ interest in the text, will introduce
the linguistic difficulties of the text so as to give the students confidence that they will be
able to understand it, etc. (Vizental 162)
Tasks to be performed while reading / listening:
1. gap-filling exercises;
2. tables, charts, diagrams to be completed with information given by the text;
3. true / false statements;
4. note-taking;
5. find synonyms / antonyms for certain words in the text;
6. asking the students to guess the title;
7. asking them to answer a series of questions.
Types of questions based on a text:
1. questions of literal comprehension – their answer is directly and explicitly
available in the text;
2. questions involving reorganization and reinterpretation – the students have to take
information from various parts of the text and to put it together, or to reinterpret
it; they have to think of the text as a whole;
3. questions of inference – the students have to read between the lines;
4. questions of evaluation – the students will have to make a judgment of the text in
terms of what the writer is trying to do and how well s/he has managed to do it;
5. questions of personal response – the students will have to report their reactions to
the text. (Did you like it?, Do you agree with the opinions expressed?, etc.)
Generally, while-reading/ listening activities aim at helping students understand
the text better and become familiar with the language used.
It is important to vary text presentation and questioning, but to be able to suggest
an interesting activity the teacher should know well both the students and his/her aims
with the respective activity.
As a follow-up we may ask the students to make a summary of the text. We
should impose a word limit and ask initially “for a summary which is not an
interpretation of the story but rather an account of what happens.” (Carter 114 in Brumfit
and Carter, eds.). The word limit makes the exercise useful from the linguistic point of
view, as it requires restructuring, deleting, reshaping, etc. and enforces selection of what
is significant, while this kind of summary draws attention to narrative structure, making
the students focus on the role of the plot, see the difference between plot and theme, etc.
Other examples of follow-up activities:
have students compare and criticize alternative summaries;
organize a debate;
guided re-writing – re-write a set of instructions as a description, etc.
ask the students to explore grammar problems and language functions (use) or to
comment on the events/ characters.
These activities should aim at enhancing the comprehension of the text, practicing
grammar and vocabulary, interpreting, expanding and personalizing the text.
The tasks set should not be beyond the learners’ abilities since they may be
discouraging and demotivating, but should guide them along the difficult and long-term
process of acquiring efficient receptive skills. This can be done in three stages:
1. controlled reception – students are told what information to listen for/ locate while
listening/ reading;
2. guided activities – students are provided with some support, but are also allowed
some freedom;
3. free reception – students deal with the text independently.
The listener/ reader and the text must not be seen as separate elements, but as
interactants, in the sense that the listener/ reader communicates with the text and
contributes meaning to it. The teacher functions as a mediator between the learner and the
text helping them establish an effective relationship.
The texts chosen should be relevant and interesting to the students, on topics that
are familiar to them and easy to exploit.
Last but not least, we should realize that the skills must be taught in an integrated
way. In classroom, as in real life, listening and reading cannot be separated from
speaking and writing.
Acquiring receptive skills is not enough for someone to be able to say s/he knows
a language. For that, we also need to be capable of producing messages.
There are three main reasons for teaching speaking:
1. it provides the opportunity for rehearsal for real life – the students get to practice real-
life speaking in the safety of the class;
2. it provides feedback both for students and for teachers regarding the language
problems that students are experiencing;
3. it makes students become more fluent and confident.
We refer to speaking as a skill when there is a task to complete and speaking is
the way to complete it.
Motivation and practice are essential if we want to get our learners to produce
language. We should suggest interesting topics and attractive activities, and we should
help students move on from controlled and guided activities to free production of
language. To get students to speak, we should help them activate their knowledge,
overcome their anxiety or shyness and manage communicative strategies. For this, we
should provide them with opportunities to speak as early in the language course as
possible, we should offer interesting activities, but also support and guidance, and create
a relaxed, encouraging atmosphere in the classroom.
There are two basic modes of oral communication: the conversational (dialogic)
one and the expositional (monologic) one. The former involves (at least) a speaker and a
listener who change roles permanently and rapidly, and an also permanent and rapid
exchange of information. It allows for no preparation and it also requires listening skills.
The latter involves a speaker who presents his/her ideas at length in front of an audience.
The two modes cannot be separated. The expositional mode also implies a dialogue with
the audience, while in a conversation there may also be one participant who speaks too
much. This is a problem that may appear in the classroom as well and that may be solved
by the teacher by pairing or grouping students with similar linguistic proficiency and
personality.
In the early stages of language learning, students should be asked to imitate. They
can read dialogues in the textbook in a dramatized way and then repeat them from
memory, with or without changes. From these controlled activities, we can move on to
guided practice, requiring the students to produce similar texts with different material,
involving them in question-answer practice, asking them to continue/ join/ reorder
sentences or paragraphs. When this is done in a satisfactory manner, we can proceed to
free communication.
Though communication is an extremely complex phenomenon, we can make
some generalizations about it, which have particular relevance for the learning and
teaching of languages. In real life two people get engaged in a conversation because they:
1. want to say something;
2. say it because they want something to happen as a result of what they say, i.e. they
have some communicative purpose;
3. in order to achieve their purpose, select from their language store the language they
think is appropriate.
In their turn, the listeners:
1. want to listen to what is being said;
2. are interested in the communicative purpose of what is being said;
3. process a variety of language in order to understand exactly what is being said.
When organizing communicative activities in the classroom, teachers must make
sure that these activities fulfil the 6 conditions mentioned above. First of all, the students
involved in the activity should have a desire to communicate. If they do not, then the
respective communication would probably not be effective. The students should also
have a communicative purpose, i.e. they should be using the language to achieve an
objective. This objective should be the most important part of the communication;
consequently, the students’ attention should be centred on the content of what is being
said and not on the language form that is being used. The students will have to deal with
a variety of language structures, rather than just one grammatical construction. While the
students are engaged in the communicative activity, the teacher should not intervene, i.e.
should not insist on accuracy by telling students that they are making mistakes, asking for
repetition etc. This kind of intervention would undermine the purpose of the activity.
However, the teacher may be involved in the activity as a participant and will also be
watching and listening very carefully in order to be able to conduct feedback. During
communicative activities, the students should not be working with materials that restrict
their choice of what to say or how to say it.
In short, the 6 characteristics of communicative activities are:
1. desire to communicate;
2. communicative purpose;
3. attention focused on content, not form;
4. variety of language;
5. no teacher intervention;
6. little materials control.
By contrast, the non – communicative activities are characterized by:
1. no desire to communicate;
2. no communicative purpose;
3. attention focused on form (accuracy);
4. one/ few language item(s) practiced;
5. teacher intervention;
6. materials control.
In the case of most communicative activities it might be useful to create an
information gap between the students. A “gap” of information between two people
appears when one person knows something that another person does not. By creating
such gaps we give the students a reason for communication, which is motivating and
useful.
Communicative activities are classroom activities designed to get learners to
speak and listen to one another.
There may be:
A. Oral communicative activities – designed to provoke spoken communication
between the students and/ or between the teacher and the students.
B. Written communicative activities - designed to provoke written communication
between the students and/ or between the teacher and the students (they will be
mentioned under Teaching Writing).
A. Oral communicative activities
Jeremy Harmer (1991) distinguishes the following types of oral communicative
activities:
Reaching a Consensus
In this type of activity, the students have to agree with each other after discussions.
The task is not complete until they reach an agreement. Ex. Choosing Candidates –
the students are divided in groups; each group is given a list of candidates for a job;
each group has to choose the most appropriate candidate for the respective job.
Discussion.
Sometimes teachers complain that their students have nothing to say and are not
prepared to discuss anything. In order to avoid such a situation, several techniques
can be used:
put students in groups to try out the topic; thus, they will give their opinions in a
less threatening environment and the teacher will have the opportunity to see if
the topic is interesting for them;
give students a chance to prepare, sometimes even at home;
give students a task, for example a list of controversial statements that they score
from very negative to very positive;
offer students a cue (a short text, a provocative question);
ask just one question and then shut up instead of continuously adding new
comments and questions that are meant to help the students but that might have
the opposite effect;
you can use “open” questions that require longer answers, instead of “closed”
questions that are answered with “yes” or “no”;
sometimes you can play “devil’s advocate”, supporting the opposing point of
view in order to stimulate conversation.
A type of discussion activity is the debate – two sides arguing for and against
something. A variation is the “balloon” debate. Each student must choose a
character. All characters are in the basket of a hot-air balloon. The balloon is losing
air, so some characters have to jump from the basket to save the lives of others. Each
character must bring convincing arguments in favour of his/ her survival. A final vote
decides who should jump and who should remain.
Relaying Instructions – students have to give each other instructions; the success
of the activity depends on whether the instructions are clear and correct and on
whether they were understood. The most popular of these activities is Describe
and Draw: students are working in pairs; one student is given a picture that the
other cannot see; the second student has to draw an identical picture in content by
listening to the first student’s instructions.
Communication Games – based on the principle of the information gap.
Students have to use any or all the language they know to complete a game-like
task. E.g. Find the Differences: the students are divided in pairs; one student in
each pair is given a picture, the other another picture; they are supposed to find
the differences between the two pictures without showing them to each other.
Problem Solving – the students are given a complex situation and are told to find
a solution. E.g. The Desert Dilemma: Your plane has crashed in the desert. The
pilot and co-pilot are dead. The plane has no radio. There is a small camp 100
kilometers north of the plane and you decide to go there. Which 7 objects will you
take from the plane? (give them a list)
Talking about Yourself - What we have in common - students are put in pairs at
random and told to discover 5 things that they have in common;
Simulation and role play.
Role Play as a Special Type of Communicative Activity
1. Definition of Role Play
When students assume a role, they play a part in a specific situation. They are
creating their own reality, much like a group of children playing school or Star Wars for
example. There are no spectators to this play and the occasional eavesdropper (a parent or
a teacher) may not even be noticed. None of the risks of communication and behaviour in
the real world are present. The activity is enjoyable and does not threaten the students’
personality. It will build up self-confidence rather than damage it. For this, however, it is
very important to draw the students’ attention to the fact that in this case the process is
more important than the finished product. They are not supposed to produce dramatic
performances in front of a possibly hostile audience, but to carry out the activity for
themselves.
2. Reasons for Using Role Play
it can bring into the classroom a very wide variety of language – functions, structures,
vocabulary areas, thus training students in speaking skills that can be used in any
situation;
it is a useful dress rehearsal for real life, enabling students not just to acquire set
phrases, but also to learn how interaction might take place in a variety of situations;
it helps many shy students by providing them with a mask. Thus, no longer feeling
that their own personality is involved, these students become more talkative;
it is funny, enjoyment leading to better learning.
Role play is one of a series of communicative activities that develop fluency,
promote interaction and increase motivation. It encourages not only peer learning, but
also the sharing between teacher and student of the responsibility for the learning process.
3. Types of Roles
There are several different types of roles:
roles that correspond to a real need in the students’ lives. E.g. doctors dealing with
patients;
roles in which students play themselves in a variety of situations of which they may
or may not have direct experience. E.g. a customer complaining, a passenger asking
for information;
roles that few students will ever experience directly, but of which they have vast
indirect experience. E.g. the television journalist;
fantasy roles, fictitious, imaginary and sometimes absurd, that set free the students’
imagination.
Role cards should be concise and contain only essentials. If linguistic structures
are suggested for use, they should be the ones that the students are already familiar with.
When students have read their role card they can either return it to the teacher or turn it
over and refer to it only when completely stuck. Thus they are free to explore the
possibilities of the role in a more spontaneous manner.
As for the distribution of role cards, the teacher can decide who is who, the
students can choose or the distribution can be done at random. In the second case, the
negotiation about who would play which role may also give rise to authentic
communication. In the third case, a very weak student may get a key role, which may
lead to the failure of the play.
Assessing the Communicative Activities
It is very important for the teacher to assess the content and the form of the
activity, after it has been performed. During the communicative activity, the teacher
should not devote much time to correcting errors. Just showing the students that a
mistake has been made is enough. Still, the teacher might employ scaffolding, “the way a
competent language speaker helps a less competent one to communicate by both
encouraging and providing possible elements of the conversation.” (Scrivener 162). This
can be done in the following ways:
by showing interest and agreeing (nodding, saying “yes”, etc.);
by asking brief questions that encourage the speaker to extend the story (“and
then …”);
by unobtrusively saying the correct form;
by giving the correct pronunciation of words in replies without drawing attention
to it, etc.
After the communicative activity, the teacher should conduct feedback. This can
be of two types: content feedback and form feedback. While offering content feedback,
the teacher should insist on evaluation rather than criticism, and make sure that the
students talk about what went well before they get on to what went badly. This
encourages positive thinking about the experience. Moreover, this stage may be as
important as the main activity because it will also offer an opportunity for authentic and
spontaneous communication. After this discussion the teacher can concentrate on the
form feedback, discussing with the students the errors noticed while they were
performing the task.
Which is more important: content feedback or form feedback?
We should be aware of the fact that speech is not spoken writing. Therefore, we
should not speak like a book, but in a true-to-life, natural and spontaneous manner. The
sentences made in speech are different from the way they appear in print: they are shorter
and differently arranged, being less complex and sometimes even incomplete.
Speakers have a limited time at their disposal to decide what to say and how to
say it, and they need to be familiar with the various strategies they can employ to buy
more time: using fillers like well, err, hmmm, you know, ah, using colloquial and
idiomatic expressions (As far as I know…, Correct me if I’m wrong…, To make a long
story short…, I thought you’d never ask…, etc.). In addition to that, speakers can repeat
what they have already said in order to correct or improve it so as to ensure that they are
understood. Repetition and rephrasing are also used as another kind of fillers to buy more
time until the speakers find the word or phrase they need. That is why we should also
remember that when we are speaking it is normal and acceptable to a certain extent to
hesitate, say the same thing in different ways, or change the subject in the middle of the
sentence. Therefore, these situations should be treated with tolerance.
Though accuracy is not important in the case of a communicative activity,
appropriacy of language is. We should teach students to choose their vocabulary and style
according to the situational context.
Though most teachers focus on the conversational mode, we should also give
proper attention to the expositional one. Students need to be trained to speak fluently and
freely for some time, apparently without support or feedback. To be able to do this they
must be proficient language users, and must have enough and well-organized information
at their disposal. To get the audience’s attention and good will, expositions must be
interesting, well-organized and well-presented, in a correct and stylistically appropriate
language. Appropriate body language and paralanguage (tone, intonation, mimicry)
should also be employed. In short, learners should be aware of the fact that speakers can
rely not only on the actual words they use, but also on facial expressions, gestures and
general body language, on intonation and stress (whose variations show which part of
what they are saying is most important) or on the possibility to rephrase, speed up or slow
down what they are saying in response to the feedback they are getting from their
listeners. In their turn, the listeners will show that they do not understand through a
variety of questions, interruptions, gestures, facial expressions.
To practice the expositional mode, we can ask our students to: tell a story,
describe an object or picture, express an opinion, comment on a text/ event, deliver a
speech, etc. We may ask them to speak spontaneously (which is very difficult) or we may
allow them some time to prepare.
Class Management During Communicative Activities
Any communicative activity can lead to chaos if it is not properly organized. Here
are some hints for class management to avoid this:
distinguish between noise and chaos. There will a small amount of noise, inevitably,
as during groupwork and pairwork all students speak at the same time. To avoid its
getting louder and louder, the teacher can circulate among the students and even tell
them from time to time to be more quiet;
begin with pairwork rather than groupwork. Thus, the layout of the class will not be
disturbed and the students will not have to talk so loud. Moreover, if the students are
involved in direct one-to-one communication, they get on with the task better and are
less self-conscious;
keep the activity short until students get used to it;
make sure the activity can be used with a different number of students;
do not use an activity that is too difficult or too emotionally loaded until the students
are used to this activity;
tolerate of a minor intrusion of the native language if it is helping the activity along;
have a follow-up activity prepared for the groups that finish before the others;
set a strict time limit and stick to it.
Conversation activities are meant to help learners become fluent and confident.
But this does not happen overnight. There are people who have a lot of knowledge about
language, but who cannot use it to express what they want. They may be afraid of
appearing foolish in front of others or they may just find it difficult to put language
together in a piece of coherent communication. They may be helped by being placed in
“safe” situations of communication in class. These would be activities that allow learners
to use language that has not become part of their active language store yet, but in which
they do not feel nervous or under pressure. Students develop their fluency and confidence
by speaking as much as possible. Therefore, in order to increase the time allotted to each
individual student, we should organize such activities in pairs or small groups and not
only with the whole class.
The communicative activity is not an isolated activity, but an integral part of the
lesson in which it is used. It may be the climax of the lesson, or only a small part of it.
Anyway, it should be well prepared by the teacher in advance and not the result of
momentary inspiration.
5.2.2. Teaching Writing
As Jim Scrivener (2005) notices, the role of writing in everyday life has changed
dramatically over recent decades. While in the early 1990’s many people wrote little
every day, the appearance of e-mail, web forums, Internet messenger services and text
messaging led to an increase in written communication. This kind of communication has
its own rules, abbreviations and lexis. The generally recognized conventions for sending
electronic communications are known as Netiquette. Apart from this, most people
actually do little writing, restricted to brief notes to colleagues and friends, diary entries,
postcards, answers on question forms, etc. The need for longer formal written work
seems to have decreased over the years and this is reflected at the level of the classroom,
where comparatively less time is devoted to writing activities. However, including
writing in a course is useful because:
students may need to develop their writing skills for academic study, examination
preparation and Business English, where writing is very important;
note taking is a useful skill that is worth focusing on;
writing activities can give teachers a break, quieten a noisy class etc.
We should not ask our students to write summaries, compositions and essays from
the start because writing does not come naturally, without training. Instead, we should
ask learners to go through a whole range of activities. On a continuum, written work in a
classroom may range from very controlled to very free. Thus, we can engage our students
in copying from the board or from books or in doing various exercises, ranging from
guided writing (after models) and process writing (following the steps in writing) to
unguided writing (though a task or title may be set). The focus on accuracy,
characterizing the first types of activities leaves gradually room for a focus on fluency as
we approach the end of the list. Moreover, the first two types of activities do not help
students become better writers, but help them learn something else. Therefore, a
distinction should be made between writing-for-writing, i.e. developing students’ skills as
writers and writing-for-learning, when writing is used as an aide-mémoire.
Many teachers consider that writing is essentially an individual activity and there
is little to be done about helping students write effectively. However, teachers can help
learners: choose a topic and a genre; generate ideas, discuss them with others, select and
organize them; practice the language items that they consider will be useful; study texts
similar to what they want to write; get feedback on content and language use; write a first
version of the text; revise; write the final version; find appropriate readers. Regarding this
final step, it is very useful in the writing process in the class, as it is in real life.
When teaching writing, we should be aware of the problems that students face
when dealing with it. They may not be proficient enough in the language, they may not
know how to structure the information or how to voice their thoughts, they may not be
aware of the differences between discourse types. Therefore, the teachers should focus
not only on the product of writing, but also on the process.
The kind of writing we ask our students to do will depend on their age, level,
interests, needs, learning styles. In order to help students write successfully, we need to
consider the following:
1. genre – what genre we think they need to write in. We will perform genre analysis to
show them how typical texts within a given genre are constructed and then use guided
writing to help them produce similar texts. In a typical text they can study: the layout, the
message, the organization of the items, the specific sentences and phrases used, the
distinctive grammatical features, the style and tone and the effect on the reader. This will
help them understand: the features of a piece of writing according to its genre, function,
degree of formality etc.; the characteristics of the written discourse as compared with the
oral discourse; the construction of paragraphs and the way in which they and the
information within them is linked together to be coherent.
2. the writing process – we should teach students to plan what they are going to write,
and to draft, review and edit what they have written. This is not a linear process, any of
these stages being resumed over and over again, sometimes in a chaotic order.
3. building the writing habit – encourage students to get over their reluctance to write
by engaging them in easy and enjoyable activities.
We should be aware of the fact that creative writing will represent only a small
part of the students’ writing. Therefore, we should offer them more practice in the kind of
tasks that they are more likely to face, like: writing letters, newsletters, magazines, local
news, advertisements, comments, reviews, questionnaires, long-term projects,
applications, etc. There are three main types of writing that they may be required to
produce:
1. functional writing: CVs, letters of application and of other kinds, memos;
2. academic writing: compositions, essays, reports, research papers;
3. creative writing: diaries, short stories, poems, articles, informal letters.
We should remember that unlike speakers, writers must be accurate. They get no
immediate feedback from their readers. They do not have intonation, stress, facial
expressions or body movements at their disposal. Instead, they should rely on greater
clarity, a logical organization, correct spelling, grammatical and stylistic techniques for
focusing attention on the main points, showing attitude etc. Writers should also pay
attention to the organization of sentences into paragraphs and to the way in which
paragraphs are joined together to form a piece of coherent writing. That is why we should
offer our students practice not only in specific language items, but also in various
activities like: using pronouns to replace nouns, using synonyms to avoid repetition,
using conjunctions, etc. The following subskills are required for writing:
spelling accurately;
using the correct layout;
choosing the appropriate range of vocabulary;
using correct grammar;
using correct punctuation;
linking ideas and information appropriately;
developing and organizing the content clearly. (cf. Hedge 1992)
Basically we can use writing to target two educational aims:
1. consolidation of language;
2. development of writing skills.
In the case of the former, we can use the following activities:
labeling pictures;
arranging jumbled words/ sentences;
filling in exercises.
Special attention should be given to dictation, that not only helps learners acquire
correct spelling, but also develops listening skills, involves students actively in detecting
and correcting errors and trains them to assess themselves and others. The most common
type of dictation involves three readings of the text by the teacher. The first one is meant
to familiarize the learners with the text and is done at normal speed. During the second
one the teacher pauses after each logical unit for the students to write, but s/he still reads
naturally, while the third reading, again at normal speed, gives the students the
opportunity to check their texts. A variant of dictation is the dictogloss, in which the
students write the text that is read at normal speed and then compare their versions with
the original.
To develop writing skills, the teacher can use the following activities:
note-taking – similar to dictation, but the students put down only the essential
information, not the entire text;
outlining – planning the composition;
summarizing – develops our ability to present the information clearly and
succinctly.
Other examples of writing activities:
instant writing: Complete the sentence: I will never forget the time I …
using music and pictures – ask the students to describe the scene from a film
that might accompany a certain piece of music that they have just heard; describe
a picture; guess which the picture being described is.
writing newspapers and magazines;
writing brochures and guides;
writing poetry.
There are also written communicative activities, like:
exchanging letters –The Agony Column – experts giving advice on various
topics;
co-operative writing – writing a story; each student writes a sentence.
Any kind of writing should be guided and corrected by the teacher. Guiding
students does not refer only to explaining them what they have to write about but also to
helping them come out with a plan, giving them key structures (words, sentences, etc.),
etc. In its turn, feedback on writing should not be offered only after the text is completed.
As a matter of fact, the most useful comments are those that will have an impact on it,
therefore they should be made as the text progresses. Not only the teacher can comment
on the students’ work, but also the students themselves can offer one another ideas,
suggestions, etc.
Over-correction can be demotivating, therefore we should try to achieve a balance
between being accurate and treating students sympathetically. For instance, we can tell
students that for a certain piece of writing we are going to correct only the spelling /
grammar / punctuation. Or we can use a green pen instead of the traditional red one. We
should react not only to the form of the text, but also to its content, and make sure that
they have understood why we have reacted in a certain way (discuss the errors and the
marking criteria with the students). Correction codes can be used to mark the mistake
(where it is and what type it is), which the learners have then to correct themselves.
Possible codes: WO = word order, S = spelling, WW = wrong word, etc. Neatness and
legibility should be encouraged, especially with students who will take pen-and-paper
examinations. Otherwise, we may also consider the alternative on writing on a computer,
which has the advantage that it is easier to read by other people and to modify by the
student.
Remember, however, that before teaching communicative writing, we might have
to teach our students to master spelling, which can be done by means of:
copying words, sentences, meaningful units;
dictation;
exercises where only one element is new and the rest repeats the items found in
the exercise: fill-in, combination of units in a sentence, etc.
7. Testing
“Just like all the other aspects of education, evaluation is a complex task for the
responsible teacher. Instead of ‘just grading’ the students the way s/he considers fit, the
teacher should first try to find answers to questions, such as: when to test the students,
what to focus on in each test, what kind of items to include, how to formulate each item,
the duration of the test, how to assess the results, how to continue the teaching activity in
the light of the results obtained, etc.” (Vizental 307)
Testing is thus an intrinsic part of the learning process. It includes all the
techniques and procedures the teacher uses to promote and assess learning. It enhances
learning and it gives teachers feedback on the efficiency of their work. “By testing their
students (orally or in writing), teachers want to see if, how much and how well the
learners have acquired the new material, what their typical mistakes are, the deficiencies
of their own work, etc.” (Vizental 86) Testing includes grading, but it is not restricted to
it.
There should be a match between the teaching and the testing techniques. If this
match does not occur, various problems might appear, as the results of the test might not
be reliable and the conclusions drawn afterwards might be wrong.
According to whether they take place before, during or after teaching, tests may
be:
1. placement tests, given at the beginning of the learning process;
2. progress, diagnostic and achievement tests, given during the learning process;
3. proficiency tests, given after the learning process.
“Finding good exercises for each individual test should not be a problem: apart
from the exercises in the textbook and the students’ books, there are countless books of
exercises, and teachers may also write their own test items. However, finding the suitable
(relevant) items for a certain test is more problematic; selecting them and putting them
together to form a complex, well-rounded, test is really hard and time-consuming.”
(Vizental 308)
Placement tests are intended to provide information which will help to place
students at the stage or in the part of the teaching programme most appropriate to their
abilities. They are also meant to help the teacher elaborate an efficient teaching strategy.
Consequently, such tests should be designed to assess the overall language proficiency of
the class, but also the students’ relative language level. They test grammar and
vocabulary, sometimes reading and writing, but rarely listening or speaking, and
generally favour objective testing techniques.
Progress and diagnostic tests help the teacher find the weak and strong points of
the students, but also the deficiencies of his/her own work. Progress tests are small-scale
tests meant to verify recent, short-term learning. They cover a narrow range of language
and information, the one taught the previous day or week, for example. They make use of
both objective and subjective / communicative tasks, the latter devised in such a way as
to take little time, since the typical progress tests take place during 10 minutes at the end
of the lesson or during 20 minutes at the beginning of the new class, as unannounced
papers. Progress tests should be given frequently, assessing acquisition of the new
language, listening or reading skills, or essay writing. Diagnostic tests are larger-scale
ones, covering information taught during an entire unit or even semester. Consequently,
they last longer, 50 minutes or even more, contain both objective and subjective tasks and
target both receptive and productive skills, vocabulary, grammar and communication.
Achievement (attainment) tests are designed to establish how successful
individual students, groups of students or even courses have been in achieving objectives.
They are comprehensive tests set at the end of a school year, of a teaching cycle or of a
language course. They are complex, large-scale tests that assess a large amount of
language and a wide range of language skills. They contain both objective and
subjective / communicative tasks, and are generally organized at higher levels than the
individual class (school, region or even national level). They can be devised by one
teacher or by a testing authority or the ministry of education (the Baccalaureate).
Proficiency tests are designed to measure students’ ability in a language
regardless of any training they may have had in that language. They can be held at any
moment in a person’s life, assessing that person’s knowledge of the language at that
moment. However, they do not have only a diagnostic function, but also a selectional
function (establishing the most likely candidate to succeed in a certain position). Some of
them are also occupational tests (designed for a specific field, like banking or medicine)
or customized ones (which consist of a standard test and an additional section for a
certain profession).
After the test, the teacher must analyse the results in order to determine the
learners’ difficulties and the flaws of his / her teaching. Remedies must be found and
efficient strategies must be devised for the next stage in the course.
The teacher may also set up mock tests based on self-assessment. They are useful
because they involve the learners directly in the process. If the students know that the
teacher will not grade them, they are honest and co-operate.
Qualities of test
A test should have the following qualities:
discrimination – the test should help the teacher see who the most able, least able
and average students are;
predictive validity - the test should show the teacher whether a student will be
able to cope in a particular English language context in the future;
reliability - the test should produce consistent results if the same students take it
again some other time;
concurrent validity - the test should rank the students in the same way as other
well-known and respected tests;
face validity - the test should look acceptable as a test of language skills to a non-
expert;
practicality - the teacher should be able to administer the test in the time and with
the resources available;
utility - the test should provide the teacher with diagnostic information which will
be useful in determining which language skills and areas need most attention in
future classes;
content validity - the test should cover the skills and language areas which are
necessary for its purposes;
construct validity - the test should be based on sound principles of what is
known about language acquisition and learning.
organiser – probably the most important and difficult role, since the success of very
many activities depends on good organization. The teacher should tell the students
very clearly what they have to do, then set the activity going and then organise
feedback;
prompter – the teacher encourages the students and gives suggestions; the teacher
should be however careful not to take the activity away from the students;
participant – s/he can take part in the activity as an “equal” of the students, trying
not to dominate;
resource – s/he helps the students with the language they do not know;
tutor – a combination of resource and prompter; the teacher points students in
directions they have not yet thought of taking, either when they work in pairs or
groups in the classroom or when they work on longer projects;
observer – during various activities, when the teacher observes what the students do
in order to be able to offer feedback but also in order to see the students’ reactions
and judge the success of failure of the activities; when acting as observer, the teacher
should not be too intrusive and intimidating.
The teacher can also leave the classroom and let the students manage the activity
by themselves.
8.3. Discipline
Good discipline is not synonymous with absolute quiet. Often students must be
actively involved in using the language to be learnt. During groupwork or pairwork there
is noise, as they all talk at the same time. On the other hand, a quiet student, although s/he
may not be interfering with the progress of the class, may not be learning anything, being
mentally hours or miles away from the classroom.
The first few weeks of the school year are of crucial importance in establishing
the classroom atmosphere which the teacher desires. Usually, at the beginning, there are 1
or 2 lessons during which the students are weighing up the teacher, after which they start
to test how far they can go. Therefore, it is very important for the teacher to establish as
soon as possible a code of rules that should be respected and to eliminate all possible
discipline problems before they become established habits. It is easier to start in an
authoritative manner and relax later in the year than to reestablish your lost authority.
Ways of avoiding discipline problems:
Start the class promptly and with a spirit of enthusiasm and vigour.
Get everyone’s attention before starting the recitation.
Have your plan and all teaching aids ready. When using audio-visual equipment,
be sure you are acquainted with it before bringing it to the class.
Watch all the students all the time.
Keep eye contact to the class.
Talk to all students and ask them to talk to the entire class.
Call on those students who are beginning to lose interest.
Encourage all students to attempt to answer the questions whether they have been
called on or not.
Watch your voice. Be expressive, and speak loudly and clearly.
Stand in class and move around.
Make sure you are seen and heard by all students.
Behave as if you were sure of everything.
Admit your mistakes.
Learn to “feel the pulse” of the class, so that changes can be made as the class
progresses.
State the question before calling on the student.
Call on students in a random fashion rather than by rows. Point to them rather
than call them by name in order to keep their attention focused on you.
Use a variety of activities, so as to avoid boredom.
Know the material before attempting to teach it.
Do not use sarcasm. Do not hurt students’ feelings. Use humour constructively.
Do not smile too often, as some students may interpret your smile as a sign of
weakness.
Keep the students busy.
Do not leave the assignment of homework to the last minute. Take time to explain
the homework.
At the beginning of a new course, discuss with the students why they are studying
English, what uses they see for it, what their expectations are about what will happen in
the classroom, what they expect to enjoy and not to enjoy.
Do not be afraid of the noise – there will be noise if the students are involved in
groupwork or pairwork, but do not be afraid of silence either – they need to concentrate if
they are solving some task, they need time to formulate a thought, to remember a word,
to consider a grammar structure.
We have to be aware of the fact that sometimes the discipline problems are caused
only by the students’ need to get more attention. That may be the only reason why they
constantly ask questions, do not pay attention, chat with their neighbours or, on the
contrary, are the first to finish an activity. Those who look for attention try to find more
stimuli, more sources or expressions of attention and get bored when they are not
available.
If something happens, act quickly. In order to be able to do that, learn as soon as
possible the students’ names and notice potential difficulties early (who speaks too much,
etc.). Notice the behaviour, but address the student when you are doing something else,
so as to give them the impression that you know everything.
A difficult student is not the responsibility of an individual teacher, but of the
whole school. Though there is no magic formula for dealing with this kind of students,
Brenda Townsend (1993) suggests the following strategy based on three main steps:
1. define the difficult behaviour;
2. find the reasons behind the difficult behaviour (with the help of other teachers and/ or
students);
3. plan a course of action to help the student modify his/ her behaviour.
There are also other steps to be followed:
1. list the behaviour traits you find difficult to accept with the respective student;
2. discuss this list with your colleagues – they may not be serious problems, just facts that
you personally do not accept (like dressing untidily);
3. try to find out as much as possible about the student in order to contextualize the
difficult behaviour;
4. if what you find helps you explain the behaviour, discuss with your colleagues what
can be done to help the student; if you find nothing relevant, go to step 7;
5. implement the adjustments;
6. after one week discuss with your colleagues if there are improvements in the student’s
behaviour; in this case just keep monitoring the students’ progress;
7. if there are no improvements or if you have found nothing to help you, discuss with
your colleagues strategies for confronting the student with the problem in a supportive
but firm way and for negotiating improvements with the student (in which case also
consider if you need to involve his/ her colleagues);
8. monitor the progress and make adjustments if necessary.
You should avoid engaging in a direct confrontation with the difficult student
because this might not solve the situation but rather exacerbate it.
You should be neither their friend, nor their parent, but their teacher. Remember
that good discipline results from good teaching and begins with complete, well-prepared
lesson plans.
9. Planning
Form:
Date:
Subject (Title):
Teacher:
Aids: blackboard, pictures, etc.
Aims: to develop the students’ capacity to communicate orally about …
Objectives: e.g. - the pupils can use the Present Perfect in sentences of their own;
- the pupils can speak about the weather;
- the pupils can ask and answer questions about …;
- the pupils understand the meaning and use of the following words / grammatical
structures / functions, etc.
Anticipated problems: …
PROCEDURE
Nr. Lesson Time Teacher’s Activity Pupils’ Activity Comments
Stage
1. Warm-up 3’ Informal conversation Response to Questions about
(greetings, how are informal questions; their weekend,
you, weather, etc.) pupils’ questions holiday, term
papers, pets,
family, etc.
2. Homework 5’ Did you do your Pupils respond Be sure to involve
Check-up homework? Was it individually etc. all pupils; check
difficult? Etc. Who everybody’s
wants to read? Would homework.
anyone like to come to
the blackboard to write
the correct sentence
etc.?
3. Reading 9’ Transition: Do you Pupils read text … Involve several
remember our last text? (on fragments, on pupils, not just the
What was it about? Etc. roles, silently and best.
Who would like to answer
read? Etc. comprehension
questions etc.)
4. Transition to 5’ Informal conversation Pupils talk in pairs Pairwork
the new about … (aids: pictures, and / or with the Personalization
lesson music, realia, etc.). teacher about …
5. Prediction 5’ Pre-listening Qs and Pupils answer Qs Groupwork,
task and perform task individual, etc.
Pre-teaching of difficult … Raise interest in …
words Prepare pupils for
listening task
6. Listening 10’ Listen to the Pupils listen and Check equipment.
task conversation on the fill in the blanks. Help pupils
tape and fill in the Pupils guess perform task.
blanks in exercise … meaning of some Check
unknown words comprehension of
from the context. text by checking
task.
7. Post- 5’ What is your opinion Pupils discuss with Personalisation
listening about the text? Discuss the teacher and in
with your partner. Do pairs, using new
you agree with … ? Did words.
you like the text?
8. Issuing 4’ For the next time, Pupils take notes Write homework
homework please write a short about homework, on blackboard.
composition / ask questions if not Check that
paragraph / do exercise sure, etc. everybody knows
X (using the new what they have to
words). do.
9. Dismiss 4’ Mark pupils with Pupils record Praise active
pupils grades, or just make marks. pupils.
notes about their Greetings.
activity.
Greetings.
The format of the plan will depend on the personal preference of the teacher or,
when the teacher is observed, of the trainers, examination schemes or institutions.
When we plan a lesson, we should take into account the textbook, the curriculum
and the syllabus.
In the past, there used to be one textbook for each class (year of study), and the
language curriculum followed it closely, enumerating the texts and allotting a certain
amount of time for each. Nowadays, there is one national curriculum, but several
textbooks. However, though the lessons included in them have different titles, they
concentrate on the same topics, communicative functions and language.
The curriculum for English as Modern Language 1, to be used in the 5 th-8th
grades includes the following elements:
the presentation note, containing information about the necessity of revising the
curriculum, the premises at the basis of its elaboration and its structure;
the general competences of the discipline;
the values and attitudes targeted by its study;
the specific competences correlated with the forms of presenting the contents on
classes / years of study;
the contents on classes / years of study;
the curricular standards of performance;
methodological suggestions.
The curriculum also recommends that at the end of secondary education the
students’ level of English should be comparable with level A2 from the Common
European Framework.
The English language curriculum for secondary schools was revised in 2009, as a
consequence of the replacement of the objective-centred model, in use in the 1990’s, with
the competence-centred model, appeared at the Recommendation of the European
Parliament and of the Council of the European Union on key competences for lifelong
learning (2006/962/EC). The curriculum defines competences as “combinations of
knowledge, skills and attitudes that will have been developed by the end of compulsory
education and that are needed by an individual for his/ her personal fulfilment and
development, social inclusion, and employability on the labour market, and in order for
him/ her to become an active citizen.” (p. 2, transl. mine)
The general competences of the discipline English Language refer to: decoding
oral messages, producing oral messages, decoding written messages, producing written
messages. (p. 4, transl. mine)
The values and attitudes targeted include, among others: “manifesting flexibility
in idea exchanges and in team work in various communicative situations”; “becoming
aware of the importance of knowing some geographical aspects specific to the Anglo-
Saxon space”, refering, thus, on the one hand, to cultivating some general traits of the
children (“developing respect for other people”, “becoming responsible towards the
environment”), and, on the other hand, refering to the Anglo-Saxon culture in particular
(“manifesting curiosity towards the traditions and customs specific to the Anglo-Saxon
culture and civilization”, etc.). (p. 4, transl. mine)
Among the specific competences subsumed to the general competence of
decoding oral messages targeted by the 5th grade curriculum we can mention: “extracting
the overall meaning of a clearly articulated message uttered at a normal speed” or
“identifying specific information in a short message articulated clearly and rarely”. (p. 6,
transl. mine) The correlated forms of presenting the content are: oral presentations on
familiar topics, unofficial conversations, fragments of texts that describe events and oral
stories. (p. 6, transl. mine)
The competences, the forms of presenting the content and the content marked
with asteriscs and written in italics in the text will be taken in consideration only in case a
certain class chooses an extended curriculum (3 classes per week). Examples, also for the
5th grade: *identifying the essential information in a standard discourse on familiar
topics, * audio-video recordings, respectively *expressing preferences.
The content (i.e. the language material) to be learnt includes: themes,
communicative functions/ speech acts and elements of construction of communication.
Examples for the 6th grade:
themes: the child about him/herself: physical and moral traits, nationality, sport
activities, health; the family: family relations (revision and development), etc.
communicative functions: asking and giving directions, initiating verbal
interaction, etc.
elements of construction of communication: the noun: countable/ uncountable; the
adjective: degrees of comparison of irregular adjectives, etc. (p. 9, transl. mine)
Among the curricular standards of performance we can mention: “formulating
simple questions in situations of everyday communication”, “offering information
concerning familiar topics”, “narrating an event using descriptions and expressing
opinions.” (These are the standards for developing the competence of producing oral
messages.) (p. 16, transl. mine)
The methodological suggestions refer both to the syllabi and to the types of
activities and exercises recommended in the didactic process. For instance, for
developing the competence of producing oral or written messages appropriate in certain
communication contexts they recommend exercises and activities involving: asking
questions and giving answers, filling in forms and gapped texts, constructing paragraphs,
giving oral presentations/ written expositions, summarizing or expanding texts (orally or
in writing), projects, etc. (p. 17, transl. mine). Recommendations are also made regarding
the evaluation, to be carried out both in a traditional manner and by using complementary
methods, like the systematic observation, the project, the portfolio or the self-evaluation.
The same types of elements can be found in the curriculum for English as Modern
Language 2 for the 5th-8th grades and in the curricula for high school, structured according
to the year of study and the profile (theoretical, vocational or technological). The
curricula for the 3rd and 4th grades contain objectives instead of competences and
examples of learning activities instead of forms of presenting the contents. These last
curricula also lack the values and attitudes targeted and the methodological suggestions.
The syllabus (planificare calendaristică) is a document elaborated by the teacher
for each level or class, taking into account the curriculum and the textbook chosen. The
syllabus has the role of planning the didactic activity. It performs the following functions:
1. it helps the teacher keep time: each lesson is assigned a certain number of classes,
so as the textbook can be covered by the end of the year; by looking at the
syllabus, the teacher can see if his/ her pace is too slow or too fast, i.e. if s/he
should bring extra activities or deal briefly with certain items;
2. it matches the requirements of the curriculum with the actual conditions in the
classroom.
Therefore, in order to elaborate a syllabus we should read carefully the curriculum
and the textbook, analyse the course objectives and match the contents (the lessons) with
the objectives, establish the sequence of lessons, match the contents with the material
resources available, and manage time according to the objectives of the course and the
characteristics of the class. “In other words, the syllabus represents the teacher’s personal
plan for the language course, based on the requirements of the curriculum, the content of
the textbook, and the concrete conditions imposed by the school / classroom and the
group of students.” (Vizental 128)
Though many modern textbooks offer syllabi that can be used by the teacher, s/he
can draw her/ his own syllabus, which can be rather sketchy sometimes, like the
following (adapted from Vizental 2008):
School:
Teacher:
School year:
Grade:
Textbook:
Syllabus
Semester I
Unit Content Competences No. of Week Audio- Obs.
lessons visuals
1. London At the 1.2, 2.3, etc. 2 1 handouts,
Airport (acc. to the cassette
curriculum)
Around 2 2 texts,
London pictures
Read the following text and devise exercises that will help you teach it:
Programele şcolare limba engleză, Limba modernă 1, clasele a V-a – a VIII-a, Bucureşti,
2009,
http://www.isjcta.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/limba_engleza_moderna_5_8_l1.pdf.
Web. 15 September 2014
Programele şcolare limba engleză, clasele a III-a – a IV-a, Bucureşti, 2004,
http://www.edu.ro/index.php/articles/6069. Web. 15 September 2014
Programele şcolare limba engleză, clasele a IX-a – a XII-a, Bucureşti, 2009,
http://www.edu.ro/index.php/articles/curriculum/c556+++580/. Web. 15 September 2014
Pantazi, Raluca. Subiectele şi baremele de la examenul scris de definitivare în
învăţământ, http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-15211845-definitivat-2013-subiectele-
baremele-examenul-scris-definitivare-invatamant.htm. Web. 15 September 2014
Pantazi, Raluca. Subiecte şi baremele integrale de la examenul de titularizare,
http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-15286215-titularizare-2013-subiectele-baremele-
examenul-titularizare.htm. Web. 15 September 2014