DF1 – Getting energy from fuels

Standard conditions- 1 atm pressure, 298K (25°C), 1 mol/dm³)

Enthalpy change of combustion- enthalpy change when 1 mol of a substance burns completely in
oxygen

Enthalpy change of formation- enthalpy change when 1 mol of a compound is formed from its
elements in their standard states

Enthalpy change of neutralisation- enthalpy change when 1 mol of H+ ions reacts with 1 mol of OH-
ions to form 1 mol of H₂O

Average bond enthalpy- the quantity of energy needed to break a particular bond in a molecule

Calorimetry- measuring energy changes when burning fuels

Q= m x c x ΔT
Q= energy transferred (J)

M= mass of water (g)

C= 4.2 Jg⁻¹Kg⁻¹

ΔT= temp change (K)

Limitations- heat loss to surroundings and evaporation of fuel

DF2- Enthalpy cycles

Hess’s Law- the enthalpy change for any reaction is independent of the intermediate stages
 DF3- Hydrocarbons and alkanes
Aromatic compound- compounds with one or more benzene rings

Aliphatic compound- compounds with no benzene rings

Functional group- modifiers responsible for characteristic chemical reactions of a molecule e.g. OH
for alcohol

Homologous series- series of compounds in which all members have the same general molecular
formula

Isomer- same molecular formula, different arrangement

Alkyl groups- branches on carbon chains

DF4- Calculating bond enthalpies

1. Write up balanced equation
2. Draw full structural formulae for reactants and products
3. Work out which bonds are broken and calculate enthalpies
4. Work out which bonds are formed and calculate enthalpies
5. Find the difference
6. Work out how much energy is needed

DF5- Cracking and catalysts

Catalysis- process of using a catalyst

Catalyst poison- substance that stops a catalyst from working properly

Homogeneous catalysis- catalyst and reactants in the same physical state e.g. enzymes in aqueous

Heterogeneous catalysis- catalyst and reactants in different physical states e.g. Haber process

 Reactants are adsorbed onto the active site on the catalyst

 Once adsorbed, the bonds between reactants weaken and break
 New bonds form to make the products
 The product desorbs from the surface of the catalyst

DF6- Alkenes
 C-C-C=C is But-1-ene
C-C=C=C is Buta-1-2-diene
Sigma bonds- bonds between 2 atoms in a single bond
Pi bonds- 2 areas of electron density above and below the plane
Electrophile- a positive ion/molecule that attracts to a negatively charged region and accepts
a lone pair of electrons to form a covalent bond
Electrophilic addition- an electrophilic molecule attaches and joins on
1. The bromine molecule becomes polarised as it approaches the alkene. The electrons

are repelled by the alkene electrons and pushed back along the molecule so one
atom becomes slightly positively charged and one negatively charged.
2. The positively charged bromine atom acts as an electrophile and reacts with the
double bond.
3. One of the carbon atoms now only has 6 outer electrons and becomes a carbocation
4. It reacts rapidly with the bromide ion to form a C-Br covalent bond

DF7- Polymers
Polymerisation- small molecules called monomers joining up to make long chain polymers

Copolymerisation- More than one type of monomer used in addition polymerisation e.g. ethene and
propene

DF8- Burning Fuels

Pressure: 1Pa = 1Nm⁻²

Ideal Gas Equation: pV=nRT

 P= pressure (pa)
 V= volume (m³)
 N= amount of gas (mol)
 R= gas constant (8.31JK⁻¹mol⁻¹)
 T= temperature (K)

DF9- Geometric Isomerisation

  Also known as cis-trans isomerisation or E-Z isomerisation
 If two of the same molecule are locked on the same side then it is a Z or cis molecule
 If the molecules are locked on opposite sides then it is an E or trans molecule

 The E or trans isomer has a higher melting point and a higher intermolecular attraction.
 When the atoms are on opposite sides, the molecules can line up close together and
increase attraction.
 If they are on the same side, the larger atoms will get in the way

Naming alcohols
1. Name the alcohol using the root prefix of the longest chain
2. Determine the position of the –OH group, by counting carbons
3. Add ‘ol’ at the end of the name

Naming haloalkanes

 Use chloro-, bromo- etc. to indicate a halogen atom substituted for a hydrogen atom
DF10- Atmospheric Pollutants
  Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and Nitrogen oxide (NO) react with H₂O in the atmosphere
 They form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (2HNO₃)
 This falls as acid rain

DF11- Other fuels

Biofuels

 Ethanol- made from fermentation of carbohydrate crops such as sugar cane, too volatile on its
own

 Biodiesel- made by chemically reacting fats with an alcohol producing fatty esters. This process
is called trans-esterification
 Advantages- it can be made from waste oil not fossil-fuel based oil
-Carbon-neutral and biodegradable if spilled
-Virtually no sulfur so no sulfur oxides emitted
-Produces less particulates, CO and hydrocarbons than petrol and diesel
 Disadvantages- produces more nitrogen oxides than fossil fuels

 Hydrogen- when it combusts it just makes water

 Advantages- renewable and can be made by electrolysis of water
-Easy to store and transport. Can be used in a fuel cell to generate electricity.
-Produces no CO2, CO or hydrocarbons when burnt.
 Disadvantages- production from water often depends on the use of electricity from power
stations
-doesn’t release as much energy per gram as petrol
-nitrogen oxides are produced in hydrogen internal combustion engines due to the high temp