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Modeling Guidelines For Fast Front Transients 199 PDF
Modeling Guidelines For Fast Front Transients 199 PDF
-
Abstrucz This paper summarizes the works of an IEEE Task lightning surge protection.
Force focused on development of modeling guidelines for fast - Determine minimum phase-to-ground and phase-to-
front transients (i.e., frequency range from 10 kHz up to 1 M a ) . phase clearances.
These guidelines are intended to be used by engineers involved in
digital simulations of electro-magnetic transients, with particular - Calculate Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) for
emphasis on lightning surge analysis of overhead lines and the substation.
substations. Modeling philosophies, simplified mathematical - Determine optimum location of capacitances to
relationships, typical data, and examples are given for various reduce steepness of surges.
power system components. To illustrate the overall modeling
procedure, a case study has been presented. The lightning overvoltages are caused by either shielding
Keywords - Lightning, EMTP, Insulation Coordination, failures or backflashovers of the tower insulation on the
Overvoltages transmission lines. Direct strokes to the phase conductors
may also become a concem if the transmission line andor
1. IN’IRODUCTION substation is not shielded due to relatively low lightning
Objective activity in the area. Direct strokes to the substations are
generally ignored, since it is commonly assumed that the
The fast front transients in power systems cover a substation is perfectly shielded, via lightning masts or other
frequency range from 10 kHz up to 1 MHz. One of the means.
primary causes of such transients is the lighming strokes to The Electro-Magnetic Transients Program (EMTP)is one
the transmission lines and associated backflashovers. The of the most widely used digital transient programs for
objective of this paper is to develop modeling guidelines lightning simulations. Although the information presented
for digital simulations involving fast front waveforms. in this paper generally refers to EMTP, the modeling
requirements are general enough to be equally applicable
Background to other digital transient programs.
Power system studies involving lightning surge 2. MODELINGGUIDELINES
phenomena are performed to design transmission lines and
substations, and for the protection of power system The main emphasis of this section is to identify the
equipment [l]. Substation voltage uprating and models of power system components to be used in digital
transmission line compacting are some of the specialized lighming studies. For each component, the important
studies that require lightning surge analysis [2]. The model parameters will be described, and typical values will
objectives of these studies are to characterize the be provided. The general trends and rules of thumb that
magnitude of the lightning overvoltages for insulation should be followed in the model development will also be
requirements, andor to find the critical lightning stroke addressed. Finally, the sensitivity of the study results with
current that causes insulation flashovers. respect to model parameters will be discussed.
Specific study objectives for transmission lines may be
to: Overhead Transmission Lines
- Determine transmission or distribution Line The overhead lines are represented by multi-phase
Flashover Rates (LFOR). models considering the distributed nature of the line
- Establish line arrester application guidelines. parameters due to the range of frequencies involved. Phase
For substations the objectives may be to: conductors and shield wires are explicitly modeled between
- Establishlverify surge arrester ratings. towers and only a few spans are normally considered.
- Find optimum location for surge arresters for Tower models include the effects of tower geometry and
tower grounding resistance with special emphasis on its
lightning current magnitude dependent characteristics due
to soil ionization. Insulators are also modeled with their
95 WM 278-2 PWRD A paper recommended and approved flashover characteristics. AI1 incoming lines to the
by t h e IEEE Transmission and D i s t r i b u t i o n Committee
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society f o r presentat- substation should be represented in substation design
ion a t t h e 1995 IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, January 29, studies, although the worst case tends to be with only one
t o February 2 , 1995, New York, NY. Manuscript sub- line in-service due to voltage doubling effect from open
mitted August 22, 1994; made a v a i l a b l e f o r p r i n t i n g circuit breakers. Depending upon the relative position of
November 23, 1994. open circuit breakers inside the substation, the overvoltages
may be higher for specific line outages, thus requiring the
evaluation of different line contingencies. Fig. 1 shows the
0885-8977/96/$05.00Q 1995 IEEE
494
where: where:
K1 = 4OO*L V(t) = Voltage across gap, kV
K2 = 710*L L = Leader length, m
Vv-t = Flashover voltage, kV g = Gap length, m
L = Insulator length, m
I
and
t = Elapsed time after lightning stroke, ps
Note that knowledge of the performance of insulation
under the stress of the standard impulse is not sufficient to
Configuration
I
Polarity
L
I:[
kV sec J
EO
predict the performance of insulation exposed to any non- ~ ia pr s , Post I Positive 0.8 600
standard lightning impulse. Furthermore, it is inaccurate to Insulators Negative 1.o 670
assume that flashover will occur when a voltage wave just Cap and Pin Positive 12 520
exceeds the volt-time curve at any time. The experimental Insulators Negative 1.3 600
volt-time characteristic is only adequate for relating the
peak of the standard impulse voltage to tbe time of Using the differential equation of (6), the leader length
flashover. Accurate representation of the short and long air can be solved as a function of time. The breakdown occurs
gap (insulator strings and spark gaps) breakdown is when the leader length “L” is equal to gap length “g” and
necessary to overcome the shortcomings of volt-time the corresponding time specifies the t t in Equation (4).
characteristics. The leader development method is This method can yield the breakdown volt-time
recommended as described below. characteristics of a long gap with any impulse wave in
The Leader Development Method - The leader extremely short time (e.g., less than 1 psec impulse rise
development method gives special consideration to time). It can be applied to a very wide range of
breakdown parameters and to physical aspects associated experimental conditions such as gap configuration (rod-
with the discharge mechanism. The method is partially plane and rod-rod), impulse voltage polarity (positive and
based on experimental results which, in tum, lead to some negative), any impulse voltage waveform, and a gap length
analytical formulations. By solving a set of differential up to 7m. It bas been reported [11,12] that calculations of
496
I Magnetic Potential
Transformer
I 500pF 1 550pF I 6OOpF I be neglected. However, the capacitance to ground of all
insulators should be represented, since the substation
capacitance is one of the critical parameters that modify
Current Transformer 250pF 680pF 8OOpF lightning surge waveshapes.
I Autotransformer" I 3500pF I 2700pF I 5000pF I Surge Arresters
Capacitance also depends on MVA.
The voltage-current characteristics of metal-oxide surge
Fig. 2. Circuit Breaker Representations and Minimum arresters are a function of incoming surge steepness.
Capacitance-to-Ground Values for Various Protective characteristics for surge arresters showing crest
Substation Equipment. discharge voltage versus time-to-crest of discharge voltages
The opedclose status of circuit breakers/switches should be are available from manufacturers [71. The arresters can be
considered, and can be represented by ideal switches. modeled as nonlinear resistors with 8 x 20 ps maximum
In lightning studies, conducted to design transformer voltage-current characteristics. An iterative non-linear
protection at the terminals against high voltage, high resistor is preferable. The pseudo non-linear resistor should
frequency disturbances, the most conservative and therefore be avoided if possible, especially in simulations that
pessimistic approach would be to represent the transformer involve high frequencies or backflashovers. This is due to
as an open circuit. To increase the level of accuracy when the fact that the solution algorithm allows for an incorrect
setting up a terminal model of a transformer, it is operating point for one time-step while switching from one
recommended to account for the capacitance of the segment to another on the piecewise linear representation
winding and the capacitance of the bushing to which the of the current versus voltage characteristics. Note that the
winding is connected. Values of the winding capacitance, nonlinear arrester characteristics need to be modeled up to
supplied by IEEE Working Group on Transient Recovery at least 20 to 40kA, since high current surges initiated by
Voltages, together with capacitance values for outdoor close backflashovers can result in arrester discharge
bushings are presented in [lS]. A resistance equal to the currents above 10 kA. The arrester lead lengths at the top
surge impedance of the winding can be placed across the and at the bottom must be considered to account for the
capacitance. effects of additional voltage rise across the lead
The model can be enhanced by adding the inductive inductance. A lumped element representation with an
transformer model and relevant capacitances between inductance of 1.O pH/m will be sufficient.
windings, windings to core and windings to ground as well The frequency dependent characteristics of arresters may
as bushing capacitances. The winding and core be of significant importance when excited by fast transient
capacitances constitute together a crude potential divider surges. There have been few attempts to produce frequency
in which the voltage divides inversely to the capacitance. dependent surge arrester models such as the model
Capacitances can be determined from the geometry of the suggested by IEEE Surge Arrester Committee which is
coil and core structure, or from manufacturers and tables. fairly accurate for a wide range of surge wavefronts [14].
The model is used to calculate the surge transfer from The drawbacks of this model are the increased
winding-to-winding as in the case of generator (or motor) computational time due to several nonlinear elements, and
protection studies. the difficulty in choosing the parameters of the model.
498
Lightning Stroke 3. CASESTUDY
The lightning stroke is usually represented by a c m n t The modeling guidelines described in this paper are
source of negative polarity. The parameters of a lightning, applied in a system study where a lightning surge analysis
such as crest, front time, maximum current steepness, and of an uprated substation is performed. The substation is
duration, are determined by a statistical approach uprated from 115 kV to 230 kV maintaining 550 kV BIL
considering the ground flash density at the location. These insulation. The specific objectives of the study are to
parameters are all statistical in nature, and are also used in evaluate the severity of lightning overvoltages stressing the
calculation of LFOR and MTBF. They are generally substation, and to establish the extent of the overvoltage
characterized by log-normal distributions. Note that the control required to achieve the desired lightning
peak current is statistically related to the steepness or time performance. Overvoltage control consists of selecting
to crest of the current wave form. The steepness increases optimum rating and location for the surge atresters inside
as the peak current increases, however, the front time the substation.
increases as well with peak current. The detailed
calculation procedure for these parameters is shown in the Computer Model
CIGRE Guide, Ref. [3].
A rigorous approach would require the front of the Based on the guidelines described in this paper and using
lightning current source to be upwardly concave, however, the substation layout drawings, an EMTP model for the
for practical purposes, a linearly rising front at the selected 230kV, 550kV BIL substation ana its incoming
maximum current steepness is sufficient. In this case, a transmission lines were developed as shown in Fig. 3. In
negative triangular wave shape for the lightning current the computer simulations, the lightning is assumed to strike
source can be selected. Note that the double exponential the fmt tower outside the substation on 230 kV line #2 at
impulse model given in EMTP should be used only with tower T2. The lightning stroke is captured by the shield
caution since this model does not accurately reflect the wire at the point of connection to the tower (i.e., its highest
concave wave shape of the wave front. Typical lightning point) and is represented as a current source with a
current values for backflashovers and direct strokes are negative triangular waveshape. The parameters of the
discussed below. lightning stroke, such as crest, rise time, and duration, are
Backflashover - Lightning strokes of high magnitude, in determined considering the line dimensions and lightning
the range of 20 kA up to values rarely exceeding 200kA, incidence data for the site of the substation [3]. The
cause the backflashovers, In this current range, median lightning stroke parameters used in this study are given
front times (30% - 90%)range from about 3 p at 20 kA to below:
about 8 ps at 200 kA. Maximum current steepness ranges Peak Current = .110 kA
from about 20 kA/p at 20 kA to about 48 k A / p at 200 kA Time to Crest = 3 ps
[3,111. HalfTime = 75p
Direct Lightning Stroke - Lightning strokes of These parameters are based on the MTBF rate of 200
amplitude below the critical shielding current, generally years for the substation. This assumes that substation
less than 20 kA, can bypass the overhead shield wires and would fail, if a lightning more than 110 kA would strike the
strike directly on the phase conductors. The maximum first tower of either of the two incoming lines. The strikes
lightning current that can strike the phase conductors of any further away from the substation are less severe.
given overhead transmission line can be predicted by using After the lightning stroke hits the shield wire, tower top
the methods recommended by the IEEE Working Group 0x1 voltage increases, resulting in voltage rise across the
the Estimation of Lightning Performance of Overhead insulator strings supporting the phase conductors. There is
Lines [8]. a 50% probability of insulator flashover, if its voltage
The instant of lightning stroke with respect to the reaches the critical flashover voltage (CFO). It is well
instantaneous steady-state ac voltage must be coordinated recognized that the flashover voltage is also dependent
to maximize its impact for worst case conditions. This can upon the steepness of the voltage; that is, insulator
be achieved by properly selecting the magnitude and flashover voltage has volt-time dependency.
phasing of the three-phase sinusoidal voltage sources at the When the insulator flashover occurs, a surge with a very
terminating point of the transmission lines. steep front propagates through the multi-conductor
trammission line toward the substation. The severity of the
Time Step and Sitnulation Time overvoltages at the substation depends on how far the
struck tower is away from the substation. Further distances
The accuracy of the digital simulation can be affected by result in less severe overvoltages due to stronger distortion
the use of a time step that is too large or too small. The and attenuation effects due to line parameters and also
time step selection depends upon the steepness of the corona. In this study, corona effects are neglected. This
surge, the minimum length of traveling wave models, plus assumption was justified since the lightning is assumed to
the use of flashover gaps and surge arresters with have stricken the first tower outside the substation for the
significant lead lengths. As a general guide: base case. Also, protective levels for line entrance
range of time step = 1 to 20 ns; typical = 5 ns arresters are below conductor corona starting voltage.
range of simulation length = 20 to 50 p,typical 40 ps The total simulation time was chosen to be sufficiently
large to observe the decaying of overvoltages and
reflections from the incoming lines. In this study, the
499
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-23OkVllne#l
,
\
..,____-__________
5oo TOWER 41-1 INSIILATOR IkV]
Tower # I 2 -
1ooo7 TOWER 11-2 PHASE VOLTAGE [kV] I Lightning Stroke
, o o o ~ , ,, * , , , ,, . , , , ,, , . , * , , ,, ,, , , , * , , ,
~
Time i n Microseconds'
applicable for similar phenomena having the same p] GE Tranquello XE Station Surge Arresters, Product
frequency bandwidth (i.e., 10 kHz up to 1MHz). and Application Guide, 1986.
Examples where such modeling guidelines are applicable [8] IEEE Working Group on the Estimation of Lightning
include: a) selection of surge arrester location and rating Performance of Overhead Lines, “A Simplified
for protection of transmission lines, as well as air-insulated Method for Estimating Lightning Performance of
and gas-insulated substation, b) selection/verification of Transmission Lines,” IEEE Trans. on PAS, PAS-104,
clearances within substations and transmission towers (i.e., NO.4, pp. 919-932, 1985.
phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase), c) calculation of [9] A.M. Mousa, “The Soil Ionization Gradient
flashover rates or MTBF, etc. Associated With Discharge of High Currents Into
Further illustration of the modeling guidelines has also Concentrated Electrodes,” IEEE Trans. on P WRD,
been demonstrated through a “case study”. Note that field Vol. 9, NO. 3, pp 1669-1677, 1994.
test validation of the mbdeling guidelines is reported in [io] H.W. Dommel, Electromagnetic Transients Program
Ref. 121. Reference Manual (EMTP Theory Book), Report
Altogether, this paper provides a working reference Prepared for Bonneville Power Administration,
document for engineers involved in electromagnetic Portland, Oregon, August 1986.
transients simulation of transmission and distribution [ill M. Rioual, et. al., “Short and Long Air Gaps
systems. (Insulator Strings and Spark Gaps) Modeling for
Lightning Studies with the EMTP Program,” EPRI,
5. REFERENCES Palo Alto, California, 1989.
Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and [I21 T. Shindo and T. Suzuki, “A New Calculation
Above, Second Edition, Electric Power Research Method of Breakdown Voltage Time Characteristics
Institute, Palo Alto, California, 1982. of Long Air Gaps,” IEEE Transactions on PAS, Vol.
EPRI Substation Voltage Uprating, Volumes I and 11, PAS 104, pp. 1556-1563, June 1985.
EPRI EL-6474. ADrill992. U31 M. Darvenniza and R.H. Still”, “An Improved
“Guide to Proceiures for Estimating the Lightning Method for Calculating the Impulse Strength of
Performance of Transmission Lines,” CIGRE Wood Porcelain Insulation,” IEEE Transactions on
Working Group 33-01 (Lightning) of Study PAS, Vol. PAS-98, NO. 6, pp 1909-1915, 1979.
Committee 33 (Overvoltages and Insulation 141 IEEE Working Group 3.4.11, Application of Surge
Coordination), 1991. Protection Devices Subcommittee, Surge Protection
A.J. Eriksson, K.H. Weck, “Simplified Procedures for Devices Committee, “Modeling of Metal Oxide
Determining Representative Substation Impinging Surge Arrester,” IEEE Trans. on PWRD, Vol. 7, No. 1,
Lightning Overvoltages,” CIGRE 33-16, Paris, 1988. 1992.
M. Khalifa, High Voltage Engineering, Marcel Dekker 151 A. Greenwood, “Electrial Transients in Power
Inc., New York, 1990. Systems,” Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons,
M.M. Suliciu, and I Suliciu, “A Rate TyDe 1991.
Constitutive Equation for the Description of -&e [I61 A. Morched, L. Marti and J. Ottevangers, “A High
Corona Effect,” IEEE Transactions on Power Frequency Transformer Model for the EMTP,” IEEE
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No. 8, pp. Trans. on PWRD., Vol. PD-8, No. 3, 1993.
3681-3685, August 1981.
502
adjacent towers. Sensitive to stroke current magnitude and rate h 3000 C IGRE K=l .2E-6
of rise, standard lightning impulse wave insulation strength, v
electromagnetic coupling from stricken OHGW to unstricken C IGRE K=l .8E-6
phases, ionized footing impedance. g2500
-
+-'
0
Case 3: 3-lops >
2000
Stroke current flows into three, five or possibly seven tower
footings through series impedance of OHGW system. Results in -o
Y
and (2) is appropriate for Case 2. We would like the authors to microscopic and macroscopic inception of corona. For computation of surge attenuation
comment on the high values of I# associated with typical four- and dlstortlon by corona, the latest is of practical interest, and can be identified by the
footing tower electrodes. Also, the model may not be as important sudden change of the charge-voltage curve slope. It is usually referred as the threshold
in Cases 3 and 4, especially where there is two-layer soil. The voltage.
authors recommend a simple model for tower impedance, and this Experimental charge-voltage curves (11 show that for slow front transiects, the threshold
voltage is independent from the front slope, and corresponds to the corona-inception
is also sensible for Cases 3 and 4.
field strength given by the streamer approach considered in equation (7). On the
contrary, for fast front transients, the experimental curves show that the threshold voltage
In all cases, a good LFOR estimate will also require a suitable
has an higher value, dependent on the voltage rate of rise. This may be explained by the
stroke incidence model, a shielding failure model and an estimate dynamics of the space charge generation, which plays an important role for fast front
of local lightning ground flash density. The authors' [3] and surges and can be neglected for slow front transients [2].
Reference [A] provide a healthy respect for some of the
uncertainties, and improving success, in describing these factors in [ l ] P.S. Maruvada, H. Menemenlis, R. Malewski, "Corona Characteristics of conductor
the LFOR problem. bundles under impulse voltages: IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-96, pp 102-115, Jan./Fev.
1977.
We would finally ask the authors to clarify two minor points. [2] C. de Jesus. M.T.Correia de Barros, "Modelling of corona Dynamics for Surge
First, typical capacitance values for 25-kip standard cap-and-pin Propagation.%dies< IEEE Paper 94 WM 043-0-PWRD.
porcelain insulators are usually measured to be 30-35 pF range, not Manuscrip; received March 8, 1995.
the recommended 80pF, which is more representative of bell-
shaped insulators. Second, the authors recommend 500 kHz for
models of skin effect in the line constants section. Equating peak
currents and rates of rise for a sine pulse and the standard lightning
impulse suggests a representative frequency of 80-120 kHz for
these effects.
Ali F. Imece (Morrison Knudsen Corp. Dedham,
In closing, we agree that the authors have assembled a good MA), Abdul M. Mousa (British Colombia Hydro,
working reference for EMTP simulation of transmission systems,
and look forward to seeing wider use of this work. Vancouver, BC, Canada), Daniel W. Durbak
(Power Technologies, Inc., Schenectady, NY),
[8a]IEEE Working Group on Estimating the Lightning
Performance of Overhead Transmission Lines, "A Simplified Doug Mader (Nova Scotia Power Corp., Halifax,
Method for Estimating Lightning Performance of Nova Scotia, Canada), Eva Tarasiewicz (Ontario
Transmission Lines", IEEE Trans. PAS-104, No.4, April
1985, pp 919-932.
Hydro, Toronto, Ontario, Canada), Ramasamy
Natarajan (EBASCO, Lyndhurst, NJ), Andre Lux
[AIIEEE Working Group on Estimating the Lightning (ABB Power T&D, Raleigh, NC), Hamid Elahi
Performance of Overhead Transmission Lines, "Estimating
Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines 11: Updates to (General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY),
Analytical Models", IEEE Trans. PWRD-8, No.3, July 1993, Sharma Kolluri (Entergy Services, Metairie, LA),
pp 1254-1267.
Thomas E. McDermott (AnsoR Corp., Pittsburgh,
Manuscript received February 23, 1995. PA), Atef Morched (Ontario Hydro, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada), and Luis Rugeles (C.V.G.
Edelca, Caracas, Venezuela); Members of the IEEE
Task Force on Fast Front Transients wish to thank
M.T. Correia de Barros, IST I Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal : the discussers for their interest and valuable
I wish to congratulate the Fast Front Transients Task Force members for the excellent
work that has been done, which is shortly presented in this paper. My comments concem comments on this paper. We will address the issues
the paragraph on corona, where some guidance to the readers may be missing. I
understand the difficulty on accommodating on a IEEE paper the extensive work
raised in the discussions by order of appearance.
performed by the Task Force. However, in order to avoid misusing of the information
given in equations (7) and (E), the following concepts should be clarified:
The discussions by Dr. W. A. Chisholm and Dr. H.
Excess CaDacitancQ- For the computation of surge propagation on transmission lines, it Motoyama on line flashover rate gives a detailed
is most suitable to describe corona by a charge-voltage curve. This can be described by
a voltage-dependent capacitance, which increases above corona threshold. Therefore,
accounting of the rate of rise of surge current,
an excess capacitance appears. However, it should be noticed that two different current magnitudes and possible stress on insulators,
quantities, with the physical dimension of a capacitance, can be defined in the presence
of corona: the ratio between the charge and the voltage, or the derivative of the charge
ground conductors and tower for different time
with respect to the voltage. The latest is the one to be used for surge propagation periods. Further, the discussions on the IEEE
studies.
Standing upon the two different capacitance concepts, also two different excess Working Group method versus the CIGRE leader
capacitances can be defined. propagation model highlights the need for an
According to the authors' reference [3], page 35:
improved model for flashover mechanism. We agree
C = Q l V = Cg + Ci + K (V-Vi)
with the discussers that adjustments to the leader
Cdyn =dQ IdV = Cg + Ci K 4 + 2K V
~
suspension insulators [19]. As in the case of capacitance for use in surge propagation studies.
modeling studies, values are typically chosen based Equation (8) should read:
on organizations’ experiences or rule-of-thunib
Ck = Ci - KVi + 2KV (8)
approximations. The value of 80 pF per unit was
used in a study conducted by several of the authors and the sum of the excess capacitance and geometric
in which transient study calculations were compared capacitance is the dynamic capacitance:
with high voltage impulse tests. The tests were Cdyn= c1,+ c,
performed on a full-scale substation mock up
consisting of strain and rigid bus work, disconnect Professor Correia de Barros is also correct in
switches and suspension and post insulators [2, 201. pointing out the usual distinction between the
With the selected capacitance values, good corona-inception voltage, obtained from the
agreement was obtained between the test and streamer approach as in Equation (7) and the
computer simulation results [2], threshold voltage corresponding to the sudden
change in QNcurve slope.
The increase in threshold voltage with increasing
Figure 1. Station Post Insulator Capacitance dV/dt has been accommodated by selecting higher
values for Vi in Equation (8) than would be
looT predicted by Equation (7). However, some
proposals [22] explain this apparent increase
physically in terms of the mechanical inertia of the
particles and mobility losses, resulting in time delays
observed as increases in the value of threshold
voltage, which can be modeled as an RL component
in series with the excess capacitance.
We wish also to report some minor revisions to the
O J text which arose from discussions within the Task
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Force following publication of the preprint of this
Capacitance [pF] paper:
The section entitled ‘Lightning Stroke” discusses
the typical current amplitudes involved in
For calculation of line constants, 500 kHz is backflashovers and in direct strikes. In this
recommended considering the frequency of surge connection, the following should be noted:
propagation after backflashovers and reflections
from adjacent towers. More rigorous approach a) Regardless of mechanism by which a lightning
would be to perform an FFT on the model step voltage surge is generated (backflash or direct
response, and determine the line parameters based strike), the maximum amplitude of the surge may
on the observed resonant frequencies. The selection be taken equal to 1.2 x CFO, where CFO is the
of 500 kHz is also supported by the error analysis on critical flashover voltage of the insulation. The
the line constants at various frequencies shown in 1.2 multiplier accounts for two effects:
Reference [lo] of the paper. For users who need i) the fact that the CFO is a median value and
accurate line models for surge propagation studies, hence the insulation can carry higher voltages
refer to the exact line parameters presented at 400 50 % of the time, and,
k€h in Reference [21]. ii) the CFO is based on the standard 1.2 x 50 ps
impulse waveform.
The discussion by Professor M.T. Correia de Barros
on corona model is very helpful to clarifjl the
definition of excess capacitance for steady-state The withstand voltage will hence be higher for
versus transient conditions. She is correct steeper fronts and may also be higher for some non-
concerning her comments on the concept of dynamic standard waveforms.
506