The Historical Evolution of International Politics

¨ SUMMARY OVERVIEW
This chapter summarizes the history of international politics, from the early Greek city-states
through the 2008 global economic crisis. Many histories of international politics begin with a
discussion of the Greek city-states because they are an early example of what later came to be
viewed as a system of independent states.
Today's modern state system is often called the Westphalian system, after the Treaty of
Westphalia, signed in 1648, ending the Thirty Years' War. The Treaty of Westphalia established a
number of principles that still define the system today. First, it recognized the existence of
sovereign states. Second, it defined the rights of sovereign states. The main actor in this system is
the state, and the key principle is sovereignty. Recognition is also very important in this system,
which is also called a state system.
The state system exists in an anarchic world that is characterized by the balance of power, which
means that no single state was powerful enough to defeat the others.
In the nineteenth century, Napoleon Bonaparte attempted to expand French influence across
Europe and beyond in a series of wars. The Napoleonic wars led to the Concert of Europe where
the four powers agreed to work together to preserve the status quo in European politics.
Imperialism and colonialism characterized much of the nineteenth century. The doctrines of
nationalism, self-determination, and democracy also had profound effects. Nationalism helped
spur a new wave of colonialism in the second half of the nineteenth century.
By the beginning of the twentieth century there was intense competition among the European
powers. The decline of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires had left Europe in a delicate
balance between two great alliances-the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. This delicate
balance was destroyed with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. World War I began
soon after. The Treaty of Versailles ended World War I, and it also created the League
of Nations.
Only 21 years later, in 1939, World War II began, and it was even more brutal than World War I.
World leaders had attempted to use collective security to prevent another world war, but it failed
for a number of reasons, including the U.S. policy of isolationism. Prior to World War II, the
British attempted to appease Germany and prevent war at a conference in Munich in 1938. The
attempt at appeasement failed, and World War II began with Hitler's attack on Poland, France,
and the United Kingdom.
World War II was followed by the Cold War, a period of intense conflict between the United
States and the Soviet Union without any actual “hot” war. During the Cold War, the period of
highest tension culminated in the Cuban Missile Crisis. After the crisis, both sides agreed to take
steps to reduce the chances of such a crisis in the future.
World War II and the Cold War also demonstrated the importance of international economic
collaboration. The Bretton Woods system was created to foster expanded international trade in
order to increase prosperity. It was also founded to provide stability in the international financial
system, as well as promote economic development.
Decolonization followed World War II as many colonial relationships ended due to weakened
colonial powers and the increasing importance of the doctrine of self-determination. Poverty was
the major problem in most of these countries.
 After World War II, the world also saw an increase in the importance of nonstate actors, including
multinational corporations, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations.
The Cold War ended in 1991, and it was followed by an increased willingness to tackle global
problems through international collaboration. This period saw some successes, as nonstate actors
took on a more significant role in the world.
The events of September 11, 2001 brought a common purpose and common threat, but there was
disagreement over the best means of combating terrorism quickly. New challenges also appeared,
like the outbreak of H1N1 influenza, but there were also bright spots, like the expansion of the
European Union. Amidst these highs and lows, the global economic crisis of 2008 brought up
new questions and arguments about the free market and global economic policy.

¨ CHAPTER OUTLINE
 Consider the Case China's History and Future

I. THE BIRTH OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

· History of the Peloponnesian War by Athenian General Thucydides
o War was between Greek city-states of Sparta and Athens.
o Thucydides argued that the Peloponnesian War was caused by an
imbalance of power between Athens and Sparta.
· Why is Thucydides important?
o Thucydides early theory of international politics is still relevant today.
o States were key actors.
o Balance of power was key factor.
o Thucydides argued that discussions of justice and morality had no place
in international politics.

II. FROM CITY-STATES TO NATION-STATES

· Roman Empire
o A single empire dominated international politics.
o The Roman Empire was not an international system.
· Feudal system
o Political power and authority were highly fragmented.
o Political authority was based on personal and religious factors.
o Power was divided among local nobles, kings or emperors, and the
Church of Rome.
o Challenges to their political, economic or territorial interests led
to clashes.

III. THE WESTPHALIAN SYSTEM

· Treaty of Westphalia
o Signed in 1648
o Ended the Thirty Years' War
1. Motivated by religious conflict and a contest for political control
over Europe
2. “The last of the religious wars”
1. Westphalian System: The system of sovereign states that was recognized by the
Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
A. State Sovereignty
 The Connection to You Where Do We Get Our History?
· Treaty established the existence of sovereign states.
· It defined the rights of sovereign states.
1. Sovereignty: Each state had complete authority over
its territory.
2. No one within a state had the right to challenge the ruler's power.
3. No one outside a territory had the right to say what should go on
within that territory-known as the principle of noninterference in
the internal affairs of other states.
· Treaty acknowledged pluralism: the number of competing actors
and ideas.
4. Pluralism meant accepting that Europe would not be a single
empire based on a single religion.
· Treaty created Westphalian system.
5. The Westphalian system supported a territorially divided Europe
with rulers having authority only within their own territory.
6. Main actors in the system are states, and the key principle
is sovereignty.
7. Recognition is important, because political entities that are
recognized as sovereign by other sovereign entities have
greater legitimacy.
B. The Balance of Power System
· Anarchic system
1. Anarchy: A situation in which there is no central ruler or
government above the separate actors.
· Little to prevent states from waging war on each other
· Balance of power: No single state was powerful enough to defeat the
others kept war limited.
2. Nature of the states-monarchies-limited the size of armies where
most had no rights to citizenship and weren't willing to fight.
3. Building armies was very expensive.
4. Law of war: Based on Christian doctrine also kept war limited.
C. Europe and the Rest of the World
· China
1. First millennium BCE, the state was either empire with single
dominant leader or pluralistic system.
2. Debates occurred over type of system and influenced Taoism
and Confucianism doctrines.
3. Primarily China has been single state with some variation in
territory and state power.
4. At times political and cultural influence expanded to areas
including Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
5. During other periods, territory was controlled by outsiders like
the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century CE.
· Middle East and North Africa
6. Rise of Islam
7. Establishment of Caliphate: unified and governed by Islam
 8. Some groups, such as North African Berbers and Egyptian
Mamluks, broke from Caliphate.
9. By 16th century, Ottoman Empire was most powerful authority
of the Caliphate.
· Mongols upset three regions.
10. China-ended the Song Dynasty
11. Middle East-ended the Abbasid Caliphate
12. Europe-conquered the nascent Russian state
· India
13. Rule based on feudal systems.
14. Leaders did not recognize sovereignty of independent entities.
· Explaining Europe's domination
15. Europeans developed superior agricultural, industrial, and,
especially military technology.
16. Constant warfare among European states in the early modern
period strengthened European states.
17. Capitalism provided the means and incentive for expansion.
18. Christianity provided justification for expansion for the purpose
of converting non-Christians.
· Europe designed the “rules of the game” for the international system.
 The Policy Connection Explaining the Rise of Europe and Learning
Lessons from It
D. Napoleon and National Warfare
· Nationalism and democracy made Napoleon's rise possible.
1. Nationalism: Doctrine that “nations” are and should be a basic
unit of politics.
2. National self-determination: The idea that each state should
consist of a single nation and each distinct nation should have its
own state.
3. Democracy: Doctrine that the entire population of a nation,
rather than a small elite or single monarch, should control
the government.
· Napoleon Bonaparte
1. Napoleon came to power in 1799.
2. He sought to expand French influence across Europe
and beyond.
3. He Instituted draft: levee en masse.
4. By 1812, he conquered Austria and Prussia.
5. Napoleon, however, failed to conquer Russia.
6. Changed warfare
1. Small professional European armies now obsolete.
2. Warfare was democratized.
3. Massive increase in the size of armies, scale of combat,
and number of casualties
E. The Concert of Europe
· 1815 Congress of Vienna created Concert of Europe agreement.
· It was the predecessor of the League of Nations and United Nations.
· Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia agreed to work together to preserve
the status quo in European politics.
 · The Concert of Europe marks the first attempt to put into practice the
emerging liberal approach to international affairs.
· There is considerable disagreement over the success of the Concert
of Europe.

IV. NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM

· Rise of nationalism and imperialism in nineteenth-century Europe
o Imperialism: A situation in which one country controls another country
or territory.
o Nationalism led to a redrawing of the map of Europe.
Ø State boundaries should match up with ethnic, linguistic, or
national boundaries.
Ø Smaller states (Italy, Germany) should be combined into larger,
homogenous states.
Ø Multinational states (Russia, Austro-Hungarian Empire) should
break up into smaller parts.
o Decolonization in the Americas
1. Caribbean and Latin America were colonized first.
2. Haiti toppled slavery, declared independence from France in
1804, and wrote a democratic constitution.
3. South America's independence movements followed from 1810
to 1825, led by Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin.
4. Mexico's war of independence (1819–1820) was successful.
5. Brazil broke from Portugal in 1822.
6. Canadian Confederation became autonomous from Britain
in 1867.
o Nineteenth-century colonialism: Direct vs. indirect control
 The Geography Connection Shifting Borders, Changing Politics: Europe
in 1815 and 1914

V. THE ROAD TO WORLD WAR I

1. Erosion of the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire
1. Russia sought to gain control of the Ottoman capital (Istanbul); Germany
tried to prevent this.
2. France feared Germany and saw Russia as a potential ally.
3. Great Britain was the most powerful military and economic player and
saw Germany as a threat.
2. World War I, Major Players (Table 2.1)
4. The Triple Alliance Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman
Empire, Italy (until 1915)
5. The Triple Entente Powers: Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy (after
1915), United States (after 1917)
3. Spark provided by Serbian nationalists who assassinated Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, heir to Austro-Hungarian throne
6. Dispute between Austria and Serbia led to world war between the
great powers.
7. Many wondered why war could not have been avoided.
4. Why didn't the war end quickly?
8. Weapons were made on a vastly larger scale.
9. New technologies made it easier to defend territory than attack it.
 5. 1917 stalemate when United States intervened, and war ended on
November 1918
10. Four major empires collapsed.
11. Communists in power in Russia
12. Fundamental shift in global power
13. Demonstrated and contributed to the rise of U.S. power
6. Treaty of Versailles
14. Created the League of Nations
15. Redrew Germany's boundaries
16. Required Germany to pay substantial “reparations”
17. Placed limits on Germany's ability to rearm
18. Established several countries: Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, and
the Baltic states

VI. THE ROAD TO WORLD WAR II

· World War II, the Major Players (Table 2.2)
o Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan
o Allied Powers: France, Great Britain, Soviet Union, and the
United States
A. Collective Security and Economic Nationalism
· Collective security: Where all states agree that if any state initiated a
war, all others would come to the defense of the state under attack.
· It relied on the promise that any aggression would be countered by
attacks from all other states, but after World War I, almost every state
was determined to avoid another war, including the United States which
sought to return to isolationism.
1. All failed to act in the early 1930s when clear acts of aggression
were occurring.
2. After Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria, territory claimed by
China, League of Nations only demanded that Japan withdraw.
3. 1938 Munich Crisis: appeasement of Germany to avoid war
· Divide and conquer strategy
4. The United States, France and Britain wanted Germany to attack
Russia, with whom they had hostile relations.
5. Soviet Union signed peace treaty with Germany in 1939.
6. United States joined war in 1941 after Germany declared war.
B. Economic Roots of World War II
· Economic depression in 1930s
o Economies collapsed worldwide.
o States tried to increase barriers in order to keep more jobs
at home.
o World trade collapsed and all economies became less efficient.
· No effective international collaboration to maintain trade under the stress
of the Great Depression because the U.S. government declined to take up
Britain's leadership role
· Germany after World War I
1. New and unstable democracy
2. Financial burden of reparations undermined German economy.
3. Fertile ground for a fascist such as Hitler to come to power
 4. First elected as Chancellor of Germany
· Fascism
5. Took nationalism to a militant extreme
6. Saw strengthening of the nation as the most important
political goal
7. Rights or goals of individuals are subservient to those of
the nation
8. Ultimate expression in the Holocaust
· Japan
9. Striving to catch up to other powers
10. Japanese imperialism in Korea and China was seen as a threat by
the United States, France, and Britain.
11. United States used embargo on Japan to weaken them.
12. December 1941 Japan bombed the U.S. Pacific Fleet at
Pearl Harbor.
· Two lessons were learned from World War II.
13. Cause of war was intense nationalism and lack of democracy in
Germany, Italy, and Japan.
14. Democracy is key to peace.
15. A strong global economy is key, because democracies are under
threat in poor economies.
16. Expansionist powers must be confronted.
17. Nuclear weapons changed war and how we think about war.
 The History Connection The Uses and Abuses of History in Foreign Policy

VII. THE COLD WAR

· The Cold War
o United States and Soviet Union replaced the traditional European,
Germany, France, Britain, and Italy.
o United States and Soviet Union mistrusted each other.
o The Cold War lasted from 1946 to 1991 with no actual hot war.
o Berlin
1. Series of crises over the status of Berlin
2. Surrounded by communist East Germany
3. Under joint control by the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom,
France, and the United States
4. United States and allies maintained any attack on Berlin would
lead to general war.
o “Nuclear arms race” defines the Cold War.
A. The Cuban Missile Crisis
· 1962; Soviet Union began to install missiles in Cuba.
· U.S. threatened military retaliation and blockaded Cuba.
· Soviets withdrew missiles in return for concessions by the United States.
· Period of greatest danger in the Cold War
o Frightened both sides into taking steps to reduce the chances of
such a crisis in the future, like installing a “hotline” and signing
a major arms control agreement
o Showed that the chance that either side could win a nuclear war-
Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD)-was greatly diminished.
 B. The Global Economy
· World War II showed that states needed to work together to prevent
global economic crises.
· United States realized that isolationism had failed.
· Institutions of international collaboration were needed-the Bretton
Woods system.
1. Goal of the system was to foster expanded international trade in
order to increase prosperity through the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which in 1995 became the World
Trade Organization (WTO).
1. Tariff: A tax on imports, used to protect domestic
producers from foreign competition.
2. Goal was also to provide stability in the international
financial system.
2. International currency system was developed based on
the U.S. dollar linked to the value of gold.
3. System was managed by the International Monetary
Fund (IMF).
4. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) or World Bank was found to promote postwar
reconstruction of Europe.
3. Membership in the Bretton Woods system was limited.
5. Soviet Union and its allies chose not to participate.
6. Most poor countries didn't meet the requirements.
7. Created three groups of countries
1. First world: the United States and the Bretton
Woods system
2. Second World: the Soviet Union and other
communist countries
3. Third World: Developing states
8. Eventually, the second world collapsed with
communism, and today there are two groups: those who
are members of the WTO and those who are not.

VIII. DECOLONIZATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

· Decolonization from 1945 until 1975: Why?
o Major colonial powers were weakened by World War II.
o Stronger independence movements
o United States disapproval of colonialism
· Why was the United States against colonialism?
1. Believed that the battle with the Soviet Union would be global in scope
2. Wanted to gain friends and allies among the poor countries of the world
3. Wanted loyalty of new states
1. Used financial aid to get loyalty
2. Used military aid to get loyalty; ex. Vietnam
· Proxy wars
o Superpowers in the Cold War avoided direct combat with each other,
used “proxies” instead
o Vietnam War, Korean War, 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Ogaden War, Soviet-
Afghan War
 · Africa and Asia
o Did not revert to precolonial territorial and political arrangements
o New states were formed with new borders and recognized by UN.
o Many of these new states included multiple ethnic, linguistic, and
national groups.
· Newly decolonized or “Third World” states
o Rejected the idea that they should choose sides in the Cold War
o More interested in economic development
o Non-aligned movement was eventually created by these countries.
o Poverty was the biggest problem; independence has helped some of these
states, but not others.
o Oil-producing countries came together in Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) to force higher global oil prices.

IX. THE WORLD TODAY

A. The Rise of Nonstate Actors
· Nonstate actor: A political actor that is not a state, such as an advocacy
group, charity corporation, or terrorist group.
· Multinational Corporation (MNC): A company with operations in
more than one country.
· International Organizations (IOs): Organizations formed by
governments to help them pursue collaborative activity; UN, World
Bank, IMF.
· Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs): International
advocacy groups.
· European Union
1. 27 members today
2. Increasing political authority to common decision-making bodies
B. The End of the Cold War
1. The collapse of the Berlin Wall was the symbolic end to the Cold War.
2. The Soviet Union ended in 1991 when it fragmented into 15
separate states
3. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia also collapsed.
o Czechoslovakia broke apart peacefully, but civil wars broke out
in Yugoslavia and Russia.
o Ethnic cleansing in Yugoslavia
4. New wave of democratization
o Many believed that democracy would reduce conflict.
o Some have made a successful transition to democracy, but others
have ended up with authoritarianism.
5. Increased willingness to tackle global problems through
international collaboration
1. GATT became a stronger WTO.
2. NATO intervened in Yugoslavia.
3. Kyoto Protocol
C. New World Order? Or New World Disorder?
1. The terrorist attacks of 9/11 gave the world a common purpose and a
common threat.
2. Disagreement over how to combat terrorism.
 o What should be the relative importance of unilateral versus
multilateral action in combating terrorism?
o What is the role of traditional warfare versus less violent actions
in combating terrorism? Are the lessons of World War I, World
War II, and the Cold War applicable?
3. H1N1 influence in 2009 highlighted a new danger of global epidemic.
4. Expansion of EU provided renewed optimism.
5. Global economic crisis that began in 2008 shook prevailing conceptions.
6. Global interaction has increased.
7. Benefits of free trade have spread unevenly.