Review of Literature: 2.1 Offset Print Standards

Chapter 2 Review of Literature
Printing is one of the growing fields of technology and it has travelled a long way over the
years towards transforming itself from art to science and finally technology. Except digital
printing technology, all other printing systems are well established and being accepted widely
for various purposes. In the recent times, various digital printing systems are gaining
popularity over the conventional printing systems due to personalization, print-on-demand
and cost, very minimal material waste and environmental aspects. As the recent trend is
towards greener printing so the digital printing systems addresses to this point more
effectively.
Being a matured technology, sheet fed offset printing technology has devised various
standards over the years to take care of raw material to the final printing and other related
activities associated to it, but at the same time there is a different scenario for the digital
printing systems. Most of the digital printers till to date are following the print related quality
factors close to the sheet fed offset printing system. As the growth and development of this
sector is continually increasing, it cannot be ignored completely when it comes to quality
printing, as because standardization essentially helps to reduce the cost of production and at
the same time ensures consistency into the print production system.
As the hybrid presses are becoming popular day by day in the printing industry due to various
reasons, development of a common substrate is the need of the hour. Hence the print quality
factors which are applicable to sheet fed offset press and digital press needs to studied and
analysed carefully, so that these points can be incorporated into the papermaking system for
producing a common printing substrate which will be used for both the conventional sheet
fed offset and digital presses very successfully for taking care of runnability and printability
related issues for these presses. The print quality factors which are very common to both the
sheet fed offset and digital printing systems which are discussed in detail in the subsequent
pages;
2.1 Offset print standards
In a paper written by Ian C. White entitled “The Print Quality Index, A Management Tool,”
three categories of defects is defined: minor, major and critical (White 1975). Minor defects
are slight imperfections which, if noticed, would not be the source of any complaint. A minor
defect does not fall outside of any specified numerical tolerances. Major defects are defects
which seriously affect the overall visual appearance of the product. Examples of these defects
are hickies, streaks, and mottle. Major defects fall outside of specified tolerances. Critical
Feasibility and Analysis of a Hybrid Paper (Common Substrate) for Conventional Sheet
Fed Offset Printing and Digital Printing 28

defects are serious deviations from specifications which jeopardize the integrity of the
product (e.g., the cover of a book tears away from the spine when it’s laid flat). When the
number of print demerits exceeds a specified tolerance level, particularly with critical defects,
there is sufficient cause to reject the job. In the offset printing system it is very easy to deal
with conformance of standard, because over the years numbers of standards have been
developed to take care of such issues and moreover offset printing is a matured technology.
Materials used in the offset process also undergo various check process to confer with the
offset standards prior to the use in the production process. These standards only fail in their
ability to address the visual significance of any print defects. ISO 12647:2 clearly defines
various standard procedures and characteristic of the sheet fed offset printing and is being
used and adopted by the sheet fed offset process worldwide.
2.2 Digital print standards
Digital printing, when compared to offset printing, is a hands-off process. Digital printing is
comparatively cheaper than offset for short run printing jobs. An offset press operator who
has tested the inks and substrates can make modifications (e.g. by adding surfactants,
defoamers, primers, etc., or adjusting plate pressure, press speed, ink coverage, etc.), either
prior to a pressrun or on the fly, to make up for any problems that might occur on the press.
On the flip side, most production digital printing processes depend on the use of certified
paper to perform to their best capacity. Any adjustments that need to be made to the actual
press require the intervention of technical support personnel other than the press operator.
While digital printing materials are not yet standardized, some work has been done exploring
the impact that materials have on digital printing, with the intention of developing material
standards.
2.3 Solid ink density (SID)
Density is basically defined as the ability of a material to absorb light. It plays a major role in
any printing process, as because the density of the ink on the printed sheet should be within
the specified density range for producing quality print products. For the success of printing of
halftones and process colours, it is highly important to measure, monitor and control the
amount of ink to be deposited on to the printing substrate during the printing cycle. In a more
technical aspect, this can be expressed as the ink film thickness on the printed substrate.

Effective control of thickness of printed ink onto the printing substrate is highly important for
all the available printing processes. By maintaining proper solid ink density (SID) during the
printing cycle it is very much possible to control related print quality factors like; the hue, dot
gain, ink trapping, ink consumption in the press and a number of other related factors which
are highly important to maintain consistent print quality throughout the print run. It is a well-
known fact in the printing industry that, high density of the printing ink is basically resulted
by high thickness of printed ink layer during the printing cycle.
The amount of ink to be deposited on to the substrate is highly dependent upon the target
densities of each process colour within a given printed area. High roughness and porosity
substrates requires high ink feed and as the ink drying mechanism in this type of substrates is
mainly by penetration and absorption, there is the possibility of higher dot gain in this type of
papers also. It is generally observed that, for a given volume of printing ink, the higher the
roughness and porosity of the printing substrate the lower will be the final print ink density
on the printing substrate. Ink density is basically measured by a suitable measuring
instrument (i.e. densitometer) on the solid ink patches printed (preferably outside the print
area) on the substrate. There is no unit of solid ink density (SID); and it is denoted by a
number. They are two concepts related to solid ink density; absolute density and relative
density. Absolute density denotes the measured density of the ink sample including the
substrate to be printed or the base. Relative density is basically calculated by the density of
the ink sample minus the density of the substrate or the base paper.
It should be taken in to account that for ensuring a consistent print quality level throughout
the print run, the variation in solid ink density should be in the range of ± 0.05. Care must be
taken to avoid variation of SID beyond this density range for ensuring consistent print quality
throughout the whole print run. While measuring the solid ink density, the ink film thickness
should be maintained at 0.7-1.0 micro-meter on the substrate. Two print quality factors; dot
gain and print contrast are highly dependent upon solid ink density. As per the general rule,
dot gain and print contrast values are highly dependent upon the changes in solid ink density.
For maintaining consistent print quality in a press, the solid ink density should be measured,
monitored and controlled as per the standards at a regular interval of time.
As per the general rule, the higher the density of a solid ink area the thicker the printed ink
film layer and vice-versa. Care should be taken to control the thickness of ink film because
excess ink feed may result into spaces between half-tone dots begin to fill. When the ink film

thickness is too high than the standard targeted value for the particular printing system, it may
leads to ink tailing/misting and subsequently the non-image area/background of the image
carrier may start taking up ink. When the ink film thickness is too thin, it may results in to
breakdown of the ink on the sheet causing low contrast, loss of sharpness, and mottle.
2.4 Dot gain
Dot gain is a general phenomenon in any printing system, and moreover it can be controlled
effectively but cannot be avoided entirely. It should be kept in mind that dot gain is a
measurable, predictable and controllable effect in any of the printing process for effecting
quality printing output. When the dot grows in size during the pre-press/press operations (i.e.
from the preparation of image carrier to the final printing) basically due to some of the
unavoidable situations during the successive stages of print production, it is termed as the dot
gain.
Total dot gain can be defined as the difference between the dot size on the image carrier/plate
and the corresponding printed dot size on the printed substrate. Surface characteristics of
paper and ink absorption rates on the surface of the substrate are the basic factors which lead
to accelerate the process of dot gain. While comparing the surface of the coated paper and
uncoated paper, uncoated papers show higher dot gain, because of its surface roughness and
porosity. In the conventional sheet fed offset presses, the squeeze pressure between the
printing cylinders may also help the dot size to grow.
There are two different dot gain phenomena which are commonly in use: physical dot
gain/mechanical dot gain and optical dot gain. The first is related to the printing process, and
it is commonly known as the physical dot gain and it is basically comes into picture when the
printed halftone dots differ from their nominal size/original size dots. On the other hand,
optical dot gain comes into picture when the light scatters inside the substrate which is to be
printed thereby causing the light to exchange between the different chromatic areas.
Physical dot gain is the difference between the film printing dot area and the physical area of
the dot on the printed sheet. This change in dot size (increase or decrease) results from both
exposure effects in plate making and physical deformation of the dot during the printing
process (CGATS 1994). Optical dot gain is the difference between the apparent dot area and
the physical area of the dots printed on the sheet. This apparent optical increase in dot area
occurs because the dot is on the surface of the sheet but light is scattered throughout the

substrate. As a result, some of the light that enters the paper between dots is not totally
reflected but is trapped under the dots (CGATS 1994).
Some amount of dot distortion will always be present in the printed images because of the
physical nature and elements of the current lithographic process. Understanding the types of
dot gain, why and when they occur, and how they can be discovered, measured, and
controlled can give the printer a winning hand in quality printing. Dot gain beyond the
standard acceptable limit leads to loss of image detail and definition, variation of colours
from print to print, print contrast, ink density, trapping of colours, and hue error of the
process colours. Electronic printing processes have taken some of the guess work out of dot
gain, but controlling dot gain is still essential if one is to improve quality in printing (Killeen
1995).
Most of printing defects in the offset lithography are either the results of poor operating
skills, the use of defective materials, and/or improper techniques or control. They are usually
correctable. Dot gain, on other hand, is a characteristic defect of offset lithography and also a
built-in/ integral part of the offset lithographic printing process (Bruno 1986).Optical dot gain
is a visual phenomenon created because of the light-absorbing characteristics of ink and the
light-scattering characteristics of the substrate. When light hits the non-image area, or "white
space," it is scattered and some of the light is absorbed below the halftone dots. This light
cannot be reflected back to the eye and is said to be "absorbed" (Killeen 1995).
Dot gain variation has the greatest influence on colour variation, it is important to understand
how to control and compensate for it (Southworth & Southworth 1989). If controlled, dot
gain is not necessarily bad which is just as well, because dot gain is inherent to every printing
process (Schlapfer 1988).There is one-to-one relationship between the dot spread and dot
gain; the greater the spread of the dot, greater the dot gain.
In any printing system, care must be taken to control the dot gain within the targeted
limit/standard range, so as to produce consistent print quality throughout the whole print run.
It is very difficult to print half tone dots at true its true value (in comparison of half tone dot
on the printed sheet to that of the half tone dot in original supplied for printing). In practice,
for maintaining effective gray balance between the printed colours, care must be given to
maintain balanced dot gain between the three process colours (cyan, magenta, and
yellow).Figure 7 indicates the concept of dot gain. Figure 8 shows a typical densitometer
which is used in the graphic arts industry for quality control purpose.

Fig.7. Concept of dot gain (Lawer 1997)
Fig.8. Densitometer (Dot gain in process technology 2004)
The densitometer, one of the most widely used instruments to measure dot areas, provides
important information that helps to control and improve the printing process (GATF 1995).
Generally, dot gain is measured from solid and tint values by densitometers. A densitometer
can measure either incident light reflected from a substrate (reflection density) or light
transmitted through a film (transmission density) or both (Killeen 1995). Most modern
densitometers use the Murray-Davies and/or Yule-Nielson equations to calculate dot gain. A
unique aspect of dot gain is that the gain is not the same across the scale of halftone values;
the gain is generally greatest around the 50 % dots, tapering off at the highlight and shadow
ends of the tone scale (Rinehart 1983).

Dot area (%) is defined as the % of an area covered by halftone dots, ranging from 0% to
100%. The lightest areas of an image are represented by the smallest coverage, at or near 0%,
while the darkest image areas consist of dots near maximum coverage of 100% (CGATS
1994). Some of the common dot areas selected for the measurements of dot gain are; 30%,
40%, 50%, 70%, 75%, and 80%. It is very important to identify various factors that are
responsible for the dot gain in various printing systems. In order to produce optimum print
quality, the very first step is to identify the factors followed by understanding them in detail
before reducing their effects in the printing system. The mechanisms of both the optical and
physical/mechanical dot gain in relation to various print factors affecting them can be
summarized under the following distinct heads: pre-press factors, press factors, ink, and
paper.
Prepress factors and dot gain; prepress factors that can contribute to dot gain range from such
basics as the shape of the dot and the fineness/coarseness of the screen ruling through the
method of making the halftones and negatives to plate exposure and processing. Dot shape,
generally, dots could be round, square, elliptical, or other special shapes. Dot shape is an
important factor in tonal reproduction. Shape distortion during ink transfer from plate to
blanket and blanket to substrate causes poor colour and a shift in gray balance (Killeen 1995).
Screen rulings are described in lines per inch (lpi) and refer to the number of halftone dots
per linear inch in the halftone or colour separation. As a general guide, dot gain is less with a
lower screen ruling (Killeen 1995).
Press factors and dot gain; press factors such as press speed, fountain solution, blanket, and
rollers all contribute to dot gain (Killeen 1995). It is a basic fact that when the printing press
runs at high speed the sharper will be the printing, and the lower and more consistent will be
the dot gain. Press speed is another variable that should be controlled and monitored for
controlling dot gain in the press. When discussing on the characteristics of blankets, there are
basically two types of offset blankets used in the printing industry: conventional (non-
compressible) and compressible (Bruno 1986). Compressible blankets are more popular
today than conventional ones because they feature an additional rubber layer that functions
similar to a shock absorber, allowing a blanket to rebound after it has taken a hit.
On conventional blankets the deformation, especially in the nip, can cause slippage of the
blanket particularly on coated paper in dot areas from middle-tones to solids, resulting in
directional distortion of the dot gain called slurring. Compressible blankets, on the other

hand, compress under impression and do not exhibit the accumulation of rubber in the nip
even under moderately excessive impression pressure. Therefore, compressible blankets are
more tolerant to pressure changes, do not distort image elements, and maintain more
consistent dot gain and dot shapes during printing (Bruno 1986).
In the sheet fed offset printing, proper setting between the three cylinders is highly crucial for
the transfer of ink film from the plate to the blanket and finally from the blanket on to the
substrate (GATF 1995). Pressure between the cylinders in the printing unit is commonly
known as the squeeze. The squeeze between the plate and blanket cylinder and the blanket
and impression cylinder decides the amount of dot gain to be observed on the printed
substrate. High amount of squeeze between the cylinders will result into more ink spread
which finally results in to high dot gain, if the squeeze is low than the required amount of
squeeze between the printing cylinders then the inked image may not be transferred on to the
substrate effectively.
In order to ensure overall contact of the plate, blanket, and impression cylinders in sheet fed
offset presses, a squeeze of at least 0.003 inch (0.076 cm) must be used. This is equivalent to
an impression band of about 3/16 inch (4.8 cm), which amounts to an impression pressure of
about 50 pounds per lineal inch (8.9 Kg/cm) or about 200 pounds per square inch (0.36
Kg/cm^) (Bruno 1986). The fountain solution system on a sheet-fed offset lithographic press
provides a water-based fountain (or dampening) solution to the printing plate before it is
inked. Its major objective is to provide fast and complete separation of the image and non-
image areas of the plate; i.e., to prevent ink from becoming deposited in non-image areas
(DeJidas & Destree 1990).
High-quality offset printing depends on fountain solutions formulated to a precise level of

acidity, and this level is bracketed by a narrow range on the pH scale. It is fundamental that
the fountain solution and printing ink are in balance to achieve high quality prints at
maximum production levels. The pH of fountain solutions is one of the major factors to
consider in reaching a balance between ink and fountain solutions (Brothers 1988).
In offset lithography, one of the important factors to be taken in to consideration is the

amount of ink to be applied on to the printing substrate. Success of offset lithography is
highly dependent on the proper ink film thickness on the printed substrate. As per the
theoretical part thick ink film results in to more saturated colours. But excess feed of ink will
help the white spaces between the halftone dots to fill and it is a serious problem for the light

colours i.e. it looks dirty (Measuring ink density 1986).The more ink supplied, the thicker the
ink film, and therefore, the greater the dot gain (Takahashi, et al. 1983). Dot gain increases as
the square of the ink film thickness (Johnson 1980). Ink should be carried at the thinnest film
possible conductive to achieve good runnability, and water, in turn, should be kept to the
minimum required to keep the plate clean (Scarlett 1989).
Ink and dot gain; the effect of ink rheology on offset printing quality is a complex subject.
One of the key issues is the effect that ink has on dot gain. Many elements of ink, such as
pigment, viscosity, tack, stability, and strength, contribute to overall dot gain (Takahashi, et
al. 1983). Strength of ink is an indication of the amount of pigment contained in an ink
(Scarlett 1988). Due to the high cost of pigment in ink, it is easy to reduce cost by reducing
the amount of pigment. Reducing the pigment reduces the strength of the ink, causing the
press operator to run a thicker ink film, which can cause dot gain problems on press (Killeen
1995). However, an optimum level of strength should be determined by experimentation,
which varies from case to case.
Tack of ink is the stickiness of an ink (Southworth & Southworth 1989). The higher the ink
tack, the lower is the dot gain (Scarlett 1989). If tack is too high, the ink will pick up the
paper; if it is too low, the ink will not print a sharp dot. It is also indicated that the normal
rule of thumb for sharp printing is to use the highest tack possible within the limitations
imposed by the paper and press speed (Scarlett 1988).
Ink viscosity is different from ink tack. Viscosity is a property of fluids resulting from
molecular attraction which makes them offer a resistance to flow (Scarlett 1989). Ink
viscosity is affected by ink temperature. If the press is cold, the viscosity of the ink will be
higher and the dot gain lower; if the press is too warm, the viscosity will be lower and dot
gain higher. In offset lithographic printing, a delicate ink-water balance is essential for
printing quality. It is not completely true to state that the lithographic process is based on the
fact that ink and water do not mix (Killeen 1995). In fact inks do absorb some water,
normally at the 30-40 % level, but this should level out when they reach their limit. The water
pick-up of an ink will reduce the viscosity and tack of the ink, which, in turn, creates dot gain
problems (Scarlett 1989).
Paper and dot gain; generally, there are two major categories of paper types: uncoated, which
includes newsprint, some magazine papers, bound, and most book paper; coated, which
includes most magazine papers and high finish and glossy papers (Bruno 1986). Printers can,

however, rely on assistance from their suppliers in making selections of both coated and
uncoated stocks. The printability of each of the paper types is determined by its surface
properties such as acceptability of ink transfer and amount of absorption. Absorbency is the
property that determines at what rate and in what amount the ink penetrates the paper. The
more absorbent the paper, the higher will be the dot gain %. The rate of absorption plays a
key role in the amount of dot gain on press. When ink is set on an absorbent paper, it will
penetrate the paper and spread (Killeen 1995).
It is obvious that uncontrolled dot size change will seriously distort the tone and colour
reproduction. Better control of dot size change means better control of colour. Better control
of colour during the printing cycle will certainly reduce the rework and scrap, and thus, lower
the cost and also increase the productivity. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor the dot gain
on press closely, establish a standard that will match the chosen proofing system, and then
maintain that standard in the pressroom (Prince & Adams 1994).
Uncoated papers have a rough surface that absorbs and lets the ink spread, and therefore,
produce greater dot gain than coated paper (MacPhee & Lind 1991). The surface of uncoated
papers is filled with much irregularity, intertwined cellulose fibres that create peaks and
valleys (Adams, et al. 1996). The essential difference between the uncoated paper and the
coated paper is the surface roughness/surface irregularity. Uncoated papers are generally
having the more surface roughness and for creating the coated paper, the surface of the
uncoated paper has to be coated with the help of suitable coating material like clay.
Surface of the uncoated papers shows more deviations from an ideal plane than that of the
coated papers. This is the reason behind achieving high quality half tone reproduction on
coated papers than the uncoated papers. Coated papers are basically less absorbent and
having smooth surface than the uncoated papers (Southworth & Southworth 1989). As a
common practice, smoothness of a paper is usually visually examined before and after
drying.
Under microscopic view of the printed image it is observed that in the case of uncoated
papers, the ink penetrates into the pores and the cavities of the paper. One of the basic
problems with the coated paper is the large coverage areas of the printed dots which results
into larger physical dot gain on the printed sheets. Coated papers also results into more
homogenous dot shape and hence lower dot gain. Uncoated papers always show larger total
dot gain because optical dot gain is higher in this type of paper. Some of the possible causes

behind optical dot gain can be summarized as; the lateral light scattering within the substrate,
the size of the halftone dots, and the halftone dot shape (especially the dot perimeter)
(Mahziar, et al. 2014).
One of the major factors that affect dot gain is the solid ink density of more precisely the ink
film thickness of the printed substrate. For maintaining a consistent dot gain throughout the
complete print run, it is essential to monitor and control ink density during the press run. At a
regular interval of time, the possible changed variables (in relation to the benchmarking
process) in a typical press that affects dot gain is required to be checked and rectified without
any delay. It is very difficult if too much unwanted delay is there before testing and it may
leads to change of several variables in between. This will make the work more difficult for
bringing the process in to control (US Ink).
Coated papers are to be selected along with lower blanket to paper pressures, higher plate to
blanket pressure, and higher fountain solution pH values for the situations which demands for
print products with high amount of emphasis on highlight areas and high fidelity factors.
Coated papers are also to be selected along with lower blanket to paper pressures, lower plate
to blanket pressure, and lower fountain solution pH values for the situations which demands
for print products with high amount of emphasis on mid tones and shadow areas and high
fidelity factors (Yung-Cheng 1997).
2.5 Print gloss
Gloss is an aspect of the visual perception of objects. Gloss is the attribute of surfaces that
causes them to have shiny or lustrous, metallic or matt appearances. Gloss is a visual
impression that is caused when a surface is evaluated by either visually or by suitable
measuring instrument. The more direct light is reflected from the surface of the object the
more will be the impression of gloss.
The gloss of a printed image is highly dependent upon the gloss of the paper, with a matt
coated paper giving lower print gloss and a gloss coated paper giving higher print gloss.
However, as a secondary effect, the coating porosity will impact on the rate that the ink
solvents are removed from the ink and that the ink sets, which will also influence the print
gloss. A fast ink setting coating generally has a lower print gloss and this occurs because of
the following two mechanisms: (a) ink filaments produced in a printing nip do not have time
to level before being immobilized as the ink sets. This leaves a macro rough surface which

reduces the print gloss. (b) A very micro-porous and fast ink setting coating paper surface
may pull more of the ink oils and some resins from the ink into the coating layer, leaving ink
pigments and extenders sticking out from the surface of the paper. This will result in to an
increase in micro roughness and a reduced print gloss effect.
Print gloss is one of the important factors influencing print quality and determined by surface
smoothness other than refractive indices of the materials formulated in paper and inks. In
offset printing the viscous inks transfer to the surfaces of a paper sheet passing through the
printing nips and solidify on the surfaces and in electrophotography the solid toner particles
are fused and adhere to paper surfaces. In offset printing, when an ink split pattern stays on
an inked surface of paper immediately past to the printing nip and if the ink vehicle absorbed
quickly by the coating of the paper surface then the ink film loses fluidity and the split pattern
is left even on the dried inked surface of the paper.
This split pattern result in to a low print gloss. The effects of the formulated amount and
chemical structure of latex in coatings, pigment properties, smoothness and porosity of
coatings and printing conditions are the basic factors to be taken in to account for print gloss.
Offset-like (where print gloss changes with paper gloss) electrophotography has been
established by controlling toner movement (Kitano, et al. 2008).
In offset printing, the formation of printed surface topography occurs through the following
processes. The ink is transferred to the paper, and the topographical unevenness of the printed
surface results from ink layer splits. This unevenness is smoothed out during the initial
several tens of seconds. Furthermore, the ink flows along the paper surface, and the printed
surface becomes smoother than the paper surface. For the next several hundreds of seconds,
the ink vehicle penetrates the paper and causes the printed surface to gradually become
increasingly similar to the paper surface. In other words, the roughness initially hidden by the
ink layer becomes apparent as a result of the ink vehicle penetration.
In electrophotography, the formation of printed surface topography takes place through the
following processes. Before the toner is fused on the surface of the paper, low-frequency
roughness, that is, roughness greater than the size of the toner particles distributed over the
un-fused surface, is characteristically similar to that of the paper surface. The pressure and
heat applied to the toner provide the toner layer with a shape different from that of the paper
surface topography through processes such as coalescence and flow. The change in the shape

of the toner on the printing substrate is highly dependent on the applied heat energy and the
viscosity of the fused toner during printing cycle (Kitano, et al. 2008).
Gloss together with colour, brightness and opacity are critical optical properties of the papers.
Gloss is an important optical parameter in evaluation of print quality. The psycho-
physiological sensation of gloss of a paper is a measure of the surface reflection of light in
the specular direction and it essentially decides the gloss of the paper.
In general, a paper surface reflecting light in all directions produces a sensation of a 'non-
shiny' or matt surface having low gloss. The appearance of a surface depends on the way the
incident light is reflected, absorbed or transmitted by the surface. Hunter (1937, 1952) tried
to characterize gloss and led to the conclusion that at least six different visual criteria exist for
ranking gloss; (a) specular gloss: perceived brightness associated with the specular reflection
from a surface (b) contrast gloss: perceived relative brightness of specular and diffusely
reflecting areas (c) distinctiveness-of-images gloss: perceived sharpness of images reflected
in a surface (d) absence-of-bloom gloss (haze): perceived cloudiness in reflections near the
specular direction (e) sheen: perceived shininess at grazing angles in otherwise matt surfaces
(f) absence-of-texture gloss: perceived surface smoothness and uniformity.
Paper gloss and print gloss are important optical qualities for the paper along with brightness.
These attributes are the primary quality indicators for the end-use performance of papers.
Gloss for rough surfaces like papers was described as a function of surface roughness,
refractive index of constituent materials, and the wavelength of light (Chinmayanandam
1919). Since most of components in coating have similar refractive indexes, one can readily
presume that gloss is a function of roughness (Lee 1974). As like gloss itself, print gloss
could be determined by final surface roughness of the ink film on substrates given that ink or
ink components has similar refractive indexes too.
It is accepted that, if a paper surface is not smooth, some areas locally have orientations that
differ from the average plane of the surface. These reflect light at angles differing from the
average specular angle, lowering the gloss of the surface. Each constituent of the coating
colour, as well as the roughness of the substrates, affects the final roughness of the coating.
Researchers have usually preferred to measure gloss rather than roughness. Because it is well
accepted that a high roughness results in a low gloss and vice versa, data available about
gloss may be used to identify the parameters influencing the coating surface roughness.
Porosity and surface roughness of base paper are of major importance for the quality of

coated paper. There are many of factors which influence roughness and porosity of coated
paper: presence of fines, coarseness of fibres, ratio of softwood and hardwood, fibre size and
size distribution, filler content effect, formation, pre-calendering, and so on. The composition
of the coating colour and the absorption potential of the base paper are crucial.
Gloss increases with increasing coating weight and then levels off. The rougher the raw
stock, the higher the coat weight to apply to reach the maximum gloss. As the coat weigh
increases, surface defects are filled up and the surface becomes smoother. For a certain
critical coat weight, all surface defects are leveled and the roughness is then only defined by
the coating components and gloss is only a function of the coating formulation (Kent, et al.
1986).
Print gloss is a complex function of the ink composition and the ink film roughness. The print
gloss was known to increase with ink film thickness. In fact, print gloss was found to
decrease again at higher inking level since a split pattern was appearing in the ink film. Ink
rheology affects strongly print gloss since it influences the ink film splitting in the nip and the
ability of the ink to level before drying.
Roughness is therefore a cause of reduced gloss. Most of the previous research work
attributed to the macro scale roughness to poor fibre dispersion, ionic destabilization or
flocculation, roughness of base paper, and insufficient coating or calendering (Fugett, et al.
1991). Pigment particle size distribution, particle shape, binder type (film shrinkage), drying
temperature and time, pigment wetting, coating holdout (especially at low coating weights),
and varying coating weights contribute to micro scale roughness (Lee 1974).Properties of the
paper coating and the characteristics of the ink affect printed gloss. Greater paper gloss and
greater ink holdout both increase printed gloss. Depending on choice of paper and ink,
different authors have found differences in the relative importance of paper gloss and ink
holdout (Borchers 1988).Current paper and printing researchers agree that excessive ink
solvent absorption can strongly reduce printed gloss (Aspler & Lepoutre 1991 and Zang &
Aspler 1994).
2.6 Print mottle
Print mottle is without doubt one of the most important factors regarding visual impression of
print quality in any printing system. It is usually the result of uneven ink layer or non-uniform
ink absorption across the paper surface and it is more prominently visible in middle tone

images or areas of uniform colour such as solids and continuous tone screen images. Mottle
may be the result of differential ink gloss, density, or colour of the printed ink film. It is often
described in terms of its more specific root cause by mottle type. Some of the very common
printing mottles are; Printer’s mottle, ink trap mottle, back-trap mottle, water interference
mottle and paper surface mottle. Two offset prints showing different amount of mottle: figure
9 shows low amount of mottle and figure 10 shows high amount of mottle on printed sheets.
Fig.9. Low amount of mottle (STFI-Mottling 2012)
Fig.10. High amount of mottle (STFI-Mottling 2012)
During the wet on wet printing, ink from the surface of the printed substrate gets deposited on
the subsequent printing unit blankets and if the substrate fails to absorb ink evenly on its
complete surface area, then the subsequent blankets take ink unevenly giving cloudy
appearance to the final print on the printed substrate which is commonly known as back trap
mottling. Some of the possible causes of such type of mottle are; paper uniformity and setting

characteristics, ink set rates, poor ink trap, and blanket surface characteristics. Figure 11
shows back trap mottle. Figure 12 shows paper which is unsuitable for printing and figure 13
shows paper which is suitable for printing.
Fig.11. Back trap mottling (Mottling 2004)
Fig.12. Unsuitable press paper (Mottling 2004)
If the water in the fountain solution in the conventional offset printing system at some of the
places stays on top of paper surface and eventually refuses the ink layer to be deposited on it,
then it is termed as water interference mottle. Ink and water imbalance may also affect the
uniformity of ink layer transfer on to the surface of the paper thereby resulting in a non-sharp,
hollow, or weak dot structure in subsequent printing units. Some of the possible causes of this
type of mottle include; inconsistency in the metering of the fountain solution or irregularity in
the fountain solution mix (such as high conductivity or pH, etc.), that may demand running
heavy layer of fountain solution to the plate surface so as to keep the non-image areas clean.

This excessive fountain solution can over emulsify the ink thereby leading to water
interference mottle. Figure 14 shows a print with water interference mottle.
Fig.13. Suitable press paper (Mottling 2004)
Fig.14. Water interference mottle (Mottling 2004)
In paper surface mottling, the surface of the paper to be printed does not allow homogeneous
transfer of ink layer on to its surface. Some of the possible causes related to paper surface
mottle include paper manufacturing process variables such as uneven coat weight, binder
migration, wire/felt patterns, poor base stock formation, non-uniform surface absorption of
the paper, and other few factors. Figure 15 shows a print with paper surface mottling.
Printer’s mottle is the result of a misconfigured printing press that transfers an inconsistent or
uneven layer of ink film on to the paper surface. It is generally caused by the printing press
including insufficient printing pressure, contamination of the blanket, wrong printing

sequence, and excess ink quantities applied on to the paper surface which leads to a muddy
and mottled print image, cloudy structures may be generated due to faults in film and printing
plate production. Figure 16 shows a print with printer’s mottle.
Fig.15. Paper surface mottling (Mottling 2004)
Fig.16. Printer’s mottle (Mottling 2004)
Poor or inconsistent ink traps in various printing units which eventually transfers non-
uniform ink layer on to the surface of the paper and/or previous ink films. This type of mottle
is commonly known as the ink trap mottle. Trap requires one wet ink film to capture or trap
subsequent ink films. Incorrect ink tack grading, wrong ink sequence, screens over solids,
and paper absorbency are the basic causes behind the ink trap mottle.
It is still common to use visual assessment method to quantify the amount of mottle in the
printing industry. However, the drawback of using visual evaluation method for assessing
mottle is high cost and time consumption factors involved in it. A minimum printing pressure

is required for a good print, a good ink transfer from cylinder to cylinder. Under ideal
conditions, the pressure between plate and blanket must be 0.08 mm and the pressure
between blanket and substrate must be at least 0.10 mm. The above pressure setting between
the cylinders in the printing unit will result in to print having no sign of cloudiness or
mottling. As a general rule rough/uneven surfaces of the printing substrate may need a higher
printing pressure as mentioned above to take care of mottling effectively.
2.7 Print sharpness
Sharpness is considered as one of the most important print quality factors because it helps to
determine the amount of detail in a particular printing system. It is expressed by the
boundaries between zones of different tones or colours. Print sharpness should be given
immediate importance for the specific printing system in use, so as to take care of possible
risk of lateral spread of the inks which are used for effecting printing. As per the basic rule,
high print sharpness is related equally to the high print quality.
Print sharpness is better judged by visually. It is determined by visual appearance of the

sharpness of the edge of the particular image. As per the general practice, an ideal edge is
formed when the image consists of a straight line of some density followed by an immediate
changeover to paper white.
Sharpness is one of the print quality factors which draw attention of the print users in a
greater extent and prints with low level of sharpness not only degrades the final quality of
print but also spoils or rejects the jobs. Printing sharpness is an indication of how well a
printing process can reproduce and maintain detail. Due to mechanical differences in printing
press/paper and differences in the flow properties of printing inks, sharpness will vary from
one colour ink to another colour ink. Therefore it is important to determine sharpness for each
colour. Sharpness is calculated by taking density measurements of a solid patch and a middle-
tone tint patch of a colour and plugging them into the following formula: density of
tint/density of solid = sharpness. The sharpness value is a relative number and there is no
specific number to be used as a guideline. However, once satisfactory printing conditions are
achieved, the sharpness number must be maintained throughout the press run.
2.8 Print consistency
Consistency is a very hard question. The perfect state of the consistency may only exist in the
theory. One of printing industry’s biggest challenges is ensuring colour consistency

throughout the print run and also in the repeat order printing consignments. In the printing
industry, the term print consistency is related to the press consumables, the press calibration
and the colour conversion techniques. Practically, the ink pigment varies from batch to batch,
the surface characteristics of paper may also vary and the printing condition may not be same
all the time. Combining all the above issues, colour consistency comes in to picture. But
despite of all of the above mentioned conditions, the basic purpose in a print shop is to get
printed sheets as much closer to each other.
Colour should be consistent across all printed materials; an experienced printer will be able to
provide printed materials that are spot-on every time. Some of the points which help to
maintain print consistency include; paper quality, paper base colour, standard press
environment, etc. The way each person sees a colour can vary, depending on the structure of
the individual’s eye. The type, quality and amount of light in the room can greatly affect the
shade and tone of colour as perceived by the human eye.
Digital printing technology simplifies the printing process and it essentially eliminates the
need to create plates/image carrier and hence it leaves less room for error. In other words,
once the printer has printed as per the specification and requirements of the customer’s
requirements, then it becomes very easy to reproduce the same results again and again with
same consistency.
The digital printing process is highly different from the conventional offset printing in several
ways. First of all, when a print product is run on an offset press, there is the possibility of the
density of the ink to vary across one sheet and/or vary sheet-to-sheet, which leads to colour
inconsistency or variation of print quality from one print sheet to the other. This essentially
due to number of variables that affect print quality in sheet fed offset printing. At the same
time, it is very difficult to modify digital inks because these inks are mostly proprietary in
nature. It is not required to add additives to the ink and the ink is supplied to the press in
sealed can. These inks are highly stable and are not subject to any possible changes due to
humidity, evaporation, etc. The colour can only be changed if the art file values are changed
to create a different colour. Digital printing provides consistency both within a run and
between different orders and which is a bit complicated task in the traditional sheet fed offset
press environment.

2.9 Runnability
Runnability is generally understood to encompass the performance of papers in press

operation such that the sheets will run smoothly through the print engine without jamming,
and thereby minimizing possible stoppage of the press during the print production cycle. In a
more simplified language, it is related to the ease with which a paper/substrate moves through
a printing press (from feeding unit to the delivery unit through various printing units). Paper
affects print productivity, quality and profitability as because paper constitutes 50-70% of the
total printing costs. Two properties of paper are highly important from a printer’s point of
view i.e. runnability and printability. Within runnability, properties such as MD: CD, paper
tension, paper travel, temperature resistance is highly important (Wilson 1998).
A poor running sheet will cause problems or necessitate slow operation of the presses which
adversely affects the economics of printing. It is also equally important from the runnability
point of view that the pallet of paper should arrive in the press room in good mechanical
condition well before the printing operation. Paper strength, uniformity and freedom from
defects are the some of the important properties which affects the runnability of paper also.
The offset process of printing demands that paper should withstand following the following
factors; nip pressure of the blanket, the tack of the ink, stress and strain from the feed board
position to the delivery board through the different printing units, the moisture by the
fountain solution, the heat that may be applied during the drying of the printing ink. Some of
the causes for poor paper runnability are; paper is generally hygroscopic in nature which
means it expands when exposed to moisture, paper with very low moisture content tends to
absorb moisture when exposed to the environment for extended period of time. This may
results in to wavy edges that may lead to runnability problems.
The trend towards short-run, variable data printing and personalization are some of the basic
factor for the wide acceptability of digital printing technology. Electrophotography printing
technique is basically targeted for the marketing applications which require robust paper
runnability. Machine downtime is a serious issue in variable data printing system, where the
loss of a single sheet can disrupt the whole print run. Runnability related issues are very
common across all printing processes, but some of them are highly specific to digital printing.
A leading cause of paper jams in digital printing is out- of-plane deformation (such as curl or
cockle), a problem that is occurred at the higher toner levels and fuser temperatures used in
full colour printing.

Runnability is also one of the major points to be taken in to account in the digital printing
machines. Two of the more common causes include; high paper curl caused by poor storage
of paper or by poor control of press room conditions. If the rate and degree of change in
paper moisture content is large then the paper is likely to curl in one or both planes and may
in extreme cases, develop a wavy edge. The best possible solution of this problem is to keep
the paper in moisture proof wrappings until the same is required for printing. The paper
should be conditioned in the press room temperature in its original packaging for at least 24
hours before printing (Guide for digital printing).
Compared with many offset press requirements, paper properties for digital printing systems
must be controlled critically in terms of paper stiffness, moisture level, edge quality and
dimensional stability in order to meet the jam free requirements of complex high-speed paper
paths of the digital press and uniform charging characteristics for toner transfer efficiency on
to the printing substrate. The chemical composition, spatial distribution of components, and
thickness uniformity of paper used in the digital presses are therefore more critical than the
traditional printing papers. The design and production of high quality digital papers requires
significant skill and expertise and care must be taken to incorporate all the related issue that
may affect runnability of paper in a digital press.
Different printing processes are designed to produce optimum result with certain amounts of
moisture either in paper or in the press room. In digital printing the moisture content can
affect seriously to the toner adhesion on to the printing substrate, paper jams in the
feeding/printing cycle and finally the fuser roller temperature. In offset printing machines, it
can seriously affect the interaction between the ink and the printing press, the paper and the
press, and finally the ink and paper. Moisture in paper varies from 2 - 12% depending on
various factors during the manufacturing of paper and the chemicals/additives added to the
pulp. The moisture content of a print shop is measured as relative humidity and it affects the
amount of moisture in paper, but once unpacked the paper can either absorb or dissipate
moisture. Printing papers are manufactured to work best in a 45-55% relative humidity (RH)
at 72°F environment for producing high quality printing and being stable in the press.
A non-uniform moisture profile of the sheet, in turn, may create areas of stress concentration
which are prone to tearing during printing. Utmost care must be given to have the paper
surface with uniform moisture profile. Tear strength of paper is most often used as a predictor

of runnability of paper. Optimum tear strength of the paper contributes to the better
runnability of the paper. Sticking together of the sheet edges generally leads to paper feeding
problem in printing machines. The best possible way to take care of this problem is through
fanning of all four sides of the paper stock prior to loading the same on to feed board. Uneven
calliper of paper also contributes to poor runnability of paper. Creased, folded, turned over
corners, damaged edges, or bent sheets also affects adversely the smooth and continuous
feeding of paper in to the printing machine and there by contributes to poor runnability.
2.10 Heat resistance
In sheet fed offset printing, the substrate on the pile is allowed to move from the pile board to
the subsequent printing unit for printing. Suitable arrangements are made to register the
substrate while entering the various printing stations. Dampening solution followed by a thin
and even ink layer is allowed to be deposited onto the image carrier, which eventually
transfers the ink on to the substrate via the blanket. Heat generated in the printing unit, and
the possible driers installed after the last printing unit are the major sources for generation of
heat on to the substrate in sheet fed offset printing systems.
The heat concept on the substrate is due to the fusion of the toner on to the surface of the
substrate. In the liquid ink digital presses (Hp Indigo), the principle is same that of the sheet
fed offset press without the component of dampening solution. Heat resistance of the
substrate is a major issue for the toner based digital printing machines in comparison to the
conventional sheet fed offset and Hp Indigo presses. The substrates used in toner based
digital presses should withstand the high range of temperature applications during the
printing cycle, for producing acceptable print quality.
In electrophotography, different moisture levels in paper will result in to variable print

consistency because these machines are generally operated at high temperature. In the case of
contact fusing system, paper properties should be taken in to consideration for controlling the
toner fusing and finally the quality of fixed image on to the substrate. If the grammage of
paper is high, then there is a higher amount of moisture in the paper hence it will absorb a
higher amount of heat compared to a low grammage of paper during the printing operation
which results into improper fixing of toner on to the paper surface during the fusing phase
(Hird 1995).

2.11 Perfecting/duplexing
Duplexing/perfecting is a very common term in the printing & publishing industry. It is a

term frequently finds its use in the printing machines, irrespective of sheet fed offset
press/digital press. Duplexing is mostly used in the digital printing press environment and
perfecting in the conventional printing systems, but both of these terms denotes to the same
meaning i.e. printing on the side 2 of the printed sheets. As per the needs and requirement of
the customers, one can go for either one side printing or both side printing. In all the cases,
the response from the respondents shows that they go for duplexing/perfecting most
frequently.
2.12 Curling
Curl is the waviness of a sheet of paper which is generally seen along its edges. Curling is the
result of physical stresses or changes in humidity/moisture content and may occur at the
paper mill, in the pressroom, on press or after binding& finishing operations. Paper tends to
curl along, rather than across, the grain of the paper. Paper curl can be defined as a systematic
deviation of a sheet from a flat form of the surface. It results from the release of stresses that
are introduced into the sheet during manufacture of paper and subsequent use in the printing
press. Paper curl has been a persistent quality issue and is increasingly important for paper
grades being subjected to high speed printing. Paper with a moisture content of above 5.3%
have greater tendency to curl. Care must be given to select paper with proper moisture
content, to take care of such problems.
Paper curl is a problem that is associated with the dimensional stability of paper. It occurs
when there is in an unequal amount of moisture on both the felt and wire side of the paper. As
such the paper will enlarge structural changes. This clearly indicates that paper will curl if
one side of the paper gains or losses more moisture than the other side (Bureau 1968).
There are four types of curls, inherent curling that occurs immediately after the paper is first
sheeted (AL-Rubaiey 2010), moisture curling that occurs when the moisture content of paper
becomes equilibrium with the relative humidity of its surrounding atmosphere (AL-Rubaiey
2010), reverse curl that occurs when paper curls towards the wetted side (Bureau 1968),
permanent curl which is caused by applied moisture in the press and is mostly noticeable in
thinner types of papers.

As the paper reacts to the moisture, it curls away from the wetted side, but as it dries it curls
towards the wetted side and takes on a permanent curled form (Bureau 1968). It is also
important to consider that the possible treatments that are given during the papermaking
process, such as beating and refining, which can also influence the curling tendency of paper
(AL-Rubaiey 2010). For instance, paper that has been highly refined during paper
manufacturing is more likely to curl due to the effects of the changes in relative humidity
(Bureau 1968).
Another important factor to consider that may have influenced the curling tendency of each
sample paper is its grain direction. When the moisture content of paper changes, paper will
expand or contract more across its grain direction of the paper due to the physical
characteristics of its fibres (AL-Rubaiey 2010). Some of the possible basic causes of paper
curl include; variations with the fibre orientation of paper and the differences between the felt
side and the wire side of the paper.
Curled paper has a major effect on the final print quality and end result in the print
production system. Curled papers basically result into paper jams and wrinkles in the printing
press. The curled printed papers also create problems in the delivery board. If heat is applied
to the paper during the printing process, the entire sheet of paper may curl. Paper may also
partially curl after printing if the moisture content is not evenly distributed. Also, the extent
of the curl may vary depending on the printing surface of the paper.
2.13 Ink drying ability
In conventional sheet fed printing technology drying of printing ink takes place in two
distinct steps/phases. The first phase is ink setting followed by actual drying for transforming
the ink layer on the printing substrate into a hard and flexible layer which will be ready for
other operations/end use. During the printing cycle a layer of ink is applied on the substrate
and the liquid content of the ink immediately after application either penetrates into the stock
or evaporate into the environment. This essentially helps the ink layer (s) to thicken on the
substrate. After setting of the ink actual drying of the ink comes into picture.
In the actual drying phase, one or more of the following mechanism comes in to picture;
oxidation, polymerization, precipitation, etc. the possible drying mechanism is highly
dependent on the principles of the particular printing process, vehicle in the printing ink, and
surface characteristics of the printing substrate. Besides these drying mechanisms, radiation

curing is also one of the other possible options for ink drying. In radiation curing the content
of the inks are polymerized in to a hard and flexible layer with the help of ultra violet or
electron beams. These drying mechanisms essentially help to trigger a chemical reaction for
polymerization. Photo initiators are added into the UV inks and the electron beam curing
system do not require such initiators for ink drying.
In toner based digital printing engines, various steps are generally followed for the creation of
the image on the photoconductor to transfer of toner from the photo conductor on to the
substrate followed by fixing and fusing. At the transfer the toner, print engine, and the
substrate to be printed comes together for effecting the printing cycle. There are different
principles (such as electrostatic forces/mechanical forces/adhesive forces/thermal energy or a
combination of these) which help to transfer the developed image on the photoconductor to
transfer on to the substrate to be printed. After the image is transferred on to the substrate, the
dry toner particles on the surface of the substrate are adhered slightly so that the substrate
along with the toner layer can be conveyed smoothly and safely to the fusing unit for
permanent fixing of the toner. Fusing of the toner and the mechanism behind it essentially
controls the print quality factors related to physical and optical characteristics. The fusing
energy in the fusing unit is basically either heat or pressure or combination of both.
Thermoplastic materials used in the toner should be compatible with the fusing energy that is
applied in the fusing unit to allow softening, spreading, and penetration of ink toner
constituents into the printing substrate before fixing the solidifying image on to it.
The essential difference between the conventional offset printing and liquid based Hp Indigo
digital offset printing system is the inks used in these printing engines. Hp Indigo digital
offset printing essentially uses electro ink unlike the high viscous inks used in conventional
offset printing. In the case of electro ink, the ink transfers from the blanket surface onto the
printing substrate with virtually no splitting of ink. This is the only reason behind making it
possible to create and produce a completely different image during each printing cycle, hence
variable date printing on each printing sheet. A notable characteristic of the above print
engine is that the ink is dried on the blanket and when it is transferred onto the printing
substrate it is in the form of a completely dried film which is ready for use.
One of the important characteristics of Hp Indigo digital offset printing system is that the
process is not dependent on the substrate to be printed. In addition to this, the printing
substrate in this presses do not undergo any stress unlike other printing systems which

employs suitable means for the ink to dry completely on the substrate. Particle size of the
electro ink is in the range of 1-2 microns which essentially makes it possible to produce
higher resolution image with uniform print gloss, high sharpness image edges, and a very fine
& thin layer of print image.
2.14 Dimensional stability
Dimensional stability is one of paper’s physical properties. It is a measure of the extent to

which a paper will resist a change in size as the result of a change in moisture content or the
application of a compressing force, as during printing. It is defined as a sheet or web paper’s
ability to withstand dimensional changes in its grain and cross-grain directions when
subjected to environmental changes and stresses applied during printing and converting
(Bureau 1968). Moreover, this property is directly related to the characteristics of the
cellulose fibres that make up paper. Cellulose fibres are hygroscopic in nature which means
they are highly affected by water. As per the general rule when exposed to moisture or wetted
the cellulose fibres tend to expand more in width rather than length of the fibre. As such, the
dimensional stability of paper is relative to its grain direction (Bureau 1968). As per the
laboratory finding, papers used in the offset printing with few surface characteristics (such as
little refining, high porosity and high filler content) are more dimensionally stable than the
papers which are refined and have tightly bound fibres and strong sheet strength which are
given during paper manufacturing (Bureau 1968).
That is, chemical or mechanical refining increases fibre’s ability to bind with each other.
During the paper manufacturing process, as paper becomes more tightly bound then less
internal spacing exists between individual fibres in the paper. This tight bound fibre in the
paper makes the paper having low porous surface and hence are less absorbent and hence
preferred for printing in sheet fed offset process or the digital printing technology. On the
other hand a decrease in internal spacing between the fibres causes expansions or
contractions of each individual fibre be translated into greater dimensional changes of the
paper and shows high affinity towards moisture and are not stable in the printing press (AL-
Rubaiey 2010). Lastly, high filler content in paper imparts great dimensional stability because
unlike cellulose, fillers will be inert moisture changes (AL-Rubaiey 2010). This clearly
indicates that, the dimensional stability of a paper is the result of manipulation of various
paper properties.

Possible changes in atmospheric temperature and relative humidity in the press room and
warehouse are the most influential factors towards dimensional instability of paper. These
possible changes lead to either increase or decreasing the relative moisture content of paper
which is exposed in the surrounding environment. The change in the size of the fibre is
termed as the hygroexpansivity of the paper and it is in the %. Fibre (cellulose) which is the
main constituent of paper generally swells in its diameter from 15-20 % from dry condition to
saturation point. During papermaking process, the fibres are aligned in the machine direction
which finally makes the paper to change dimension in the CD direction (the expansion or
contraction of the paper). Dimensional instability of the paper is the major source of
registration related problem during multicolour printing. The possible expansion and
contraction of paper is related to either high or low moisture contact level of the same during
various operation and storage.
Another factor that influences dimensional stability of paper is the manufacturing process of
converting cellulose fibres, fillers and other components added into paper during
papermaking process in the paper mills. The type of conversion method used will determine
the nature of a particular type of paper. Dimensional stability of paper can be improved by
avoiding fibre to absorb moisture from the environment in which paper is exposed during
storage and converting process and dampening solution in the offset printing press. Care
should be given to size the papers with suitable additives during papermaking to have better
dimensional stability of the paper. For printing paper care must be given to control the
dimensional change of paper less than 0.25 % in machine direction and 0.7 % in cross
direction over a humidity range of 20 to 70 % for taking care of dimensional stability of
paper.
2.15 Print contrast
Print contrast % measures how well shadow detail is maintained on a printed sheet. It is a
ratio of the 75% screen dot density to solid density. Print contrast should only be used as a
comparison of one print to another. In is generally observed that a print product with a higher
print contrast will result into an image with greater shadow detail. Print contrast is a good
indication of print quality because shadow detail carries important information in many
images. Print contrast values are generally used to correlate to the subjective evaluations of
print quality in the printing industry. Density and high print contrast values of print generally
demand both high density and sharp printing in order to maintain shadow detail in printing.

Print contrast value is often used as a guide for maintaining proper ink/water balance in the
sheet fed offset presses. It is a measure of the ability of the printing process to hold shadow
detail. The print contrast is inversely proportional to the gain.
2.16 Hue error & grayness
Hue and grayness are two important print quality factors which ultimately decide the quality
of any print product. Both hue and grayness are expressed in %. Both of them are related to
process colours used in printing. Hue error is the indication of shift of a process colour from
its theoretical ideal colour. Grayness indicates the gray component in the particular process
colour i.e. how much clean is the process colour when compared with its theoretical ideal
colour. Generally solid ink patches printed in the colour bars are generally used for the
measurement of hue error and grayness. It is expected that the process colour inks used in the
printing system should be free from any possible contamination and the quality of the ink
also needs to be assured all the time before printing. Hue error/grayness comes into picture
to take care of the above issues in a systematic manner. Error does not indicate ink problem
rather it is related to the ink characteristics.
Higher the amount of error indicates greater shift of the process colour from its theoretical
ideal colour and hence lower the colour gamut. While discussing grayness, the higher the %
the higher the component of gray in the process ink and dirtier the process colour from its
theoretical ideal colour. Hue error and grayness and hence is related to the process colour
used for printing.
Yellow, magenta, and cyan are the process colours used in the printing system to produce a
whole range of colours of the spectrum, but none of the above colours are completely pure in
nature. As per the rule, when measured with the help of densitometer, a theoretically yellow
colour would reflect only its own colour and no magenta and cyan colour. But practically
yellow also reflects small amount of cyan and magenta, this indicates that yellow is impure.
The same is true for all the process colours.
As the hue error is expressed in %, it denotes the deviations of particular colour from its
theoretically ideal colour. This % helps to compare hue errors of various process colours and
accordingly suitable measures can be taken to reduce hue error related problems. Grayness is
related to the gray component of a particular colour. By adding a small amount of black
colour to a perfect magenta colour, grayness of yellow ink increases but the hue of the yellow

colour remains the same. This shows the relationship between hue error and grayness of any
colour.
There are various steps being involved in the printing workflow system and colours of the
inks need to be consistent throughout the whole system for achieving consistent print quality.
Staring from proofing, procuring ink and printing on paper, it is highly demanded to make
sure that the hue and the grayness of the various colours are same, and this is possible if these
two factors are measured and monitored in the press environment. These values are essential
to test the incoming ink and paper in to the press prior to printing operations. This will help to
reduce possible errors related to inks and papers more systematically.
Work environment of each and individual presses are quite different from each other, and
typical values of hue error & grayness for each press must be fine-tuned internally by each
press by taking in to consideration the variables affecting final print quality. Fine tuning of
these values related to hue error & grayness will help to ensure consistent and high quality
printing during the whole print production run.

Review of Literature: 2.1 Offset Print Standards

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review of Literature: 2.1 Offset Print Standards

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 2 Review of Literature

2.1 Offset print standards

2.2 Digital print standards

2.3 Solid ink density (SID)

2.4 Dot gain

Fig.7. Concept of dot gain (Lawer 1997)

Fig.8. Densitometer (Dot gain in process technology 2004)

High-quality offset printing depends on fountain solutions formulated to a precise level of

In offset lithography, one of the important factors to be taken in to consideration is the

2.5 Print gloss

2.6 Print mottle

Fig.9. Low amount of mottle (STFI-Mottling 2012)

Fig.10. High amount of mottle (STFI-Mottling 2012)

Fig.11. Back trap mottling (Mottling 2004)

Fig.12. Unsuitable press paper (Mottling 2004)

Fig.13. Suitable press paper (Mottling 2004)

Fig.14. Water interference mottle (Mottling 2004)

Fig.15. Paper surface mottling (Mottling 2004)

Fig.16. Printer’s mottle (Mottling 2004)

2.7 Print sharpness

Print sharpness is better judged by visually. It is determined by visual appearance of the

2.8 Print consistency

Runnability is generally understood to encompass the performance of papers in press

2.10 Heat resistance

In electrophotography, different moisture levels in paper will result in to variable print

Duplexing/perfecting is a very common term in the printing & publishing industry. It is a

2.13 Ink drying ability

2.14 Dimensional stability

Dimensional stability is one of paper’s physical properties. It is a measure of the extent to

2.15 Print contrast

2.16 Hue error & grayness

You might also like