Electrical Engineering (2018) 100:2117–2127

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00202-018-0689-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Analysis of faults in active distribution network with and without

synchronous generator using instantaneous symmetrical components
in time domain
Vladica Mijailović1 · Dragan Ćetenović1 · Aleksandar Ranković1 · Predrag Petrović1 · Dimitrije Rozgić1

Received: 19 September 2017 / Accepted: 17 March 2018 / Published online: 26 March 2018
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
The paper demonstrates the application of instantaneous symmetrical components method for the analytical calculation of all
types of short-circuit currents in faulted distribution feeder with and without three-phase synchronous distributed generation
(DG) connected. In active distribution systems, time-domain short-circuit current analysis is required in the processes of
protective devices coordination and fault localization. In terms of the impact on the fault current, synchronous generator is
the most critical DG type. The method enables encompassing initial conditions (load currents and voltages) before the fault
occurs, critical conditions at the moment of fault occurrence, shunt parameters of network elements and the degree of voltage
unbalance present in the feeder. Also, the procedure that we propose enables calculation of short-circuit current when the fault
arc resistance cannot be neglected. Comparison with results of the fault current calculations based on the IEC methodology
was performed through simulation tests and results.

Keywords Short-circuit current · Active distribution network · Symmetrical components · Time domain · Synchronous
distributed generator

List of symbols d Distribution feeder length

t Time F(s) Laplace transformation of a function
Ui (i = a, b, c) The root-mean-square (rms) value of f (t)
phase i voltage waveform u f ,x (t) Instantaneous voltage of x-sequence
α0 Initial pre-fault voltage angle (the at the point of failure, x = { p, n, 0}
phase angle determining the magni- p, n and 0 Subscripts (denoting positive, neg-
tude of the three-phase voltages at ative and zero sequences, respec-
t = 0); ω = 2 · π · f n , T = tively)
1/ f n , f n = 50 Hz; u a (t), u b (t), u c (t) Instantaneous voltage of phase a, b

Uns , Ss , Tas Supplying network parameters and c, respectively
(nominal voltage, sub-transient short- eq,x (t) Instantaneous voltage of x-sequence,
circuit power, short-circuit time con- q = {s, DG}, x = { p, n, 0}
stant, respectively) Subscript s Supplying network

UnG , SnG , xnG , TaG Distributed generator parameters Subscript DG Serial connection of distributed gen-
SnT , m T , x T , r T Distribution transformer parameters erator and distribution transformer
R Resistance i v,x (t) x-sequence of the current flowing
L Inductance through the point of fault
C Capacitance i DG,x (t) x-sequence of the current flowing
from DG
B Predrag Petrović i k,x (t) x-sequence of the current flowing
predrag.petrovic@ftn.kg.ac.rs
from the supplying network
1 Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, Ik, p (0), IDG, p (0) Initial values of the currents i k, p (t),
Čačak, Serbia i DG, p (t), respectively

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2118
u C1,x (t), u C2,x (t) Instantaneous voltage of x-sequence
across shunt capacitance C1 and C2 ,
respectively
Uc1, p (0), Uc2, p (0) Initial values of the voltages u c1, p (t),
u c2, p (t), respectively
i C1,x (t), i C2,x (t)x x-sequence of the current flowing
through shunt capacitance C1 and
C2 , respectively
K i,x (s) Functional coefficient of x-sequence
in Laplace domain, i = {1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6}
Z ground Complex value of grounding impe-
dance
rv,x Serial resistance of x-sequence per
feeder unit length
lv,x Serial inductance of x-sequence per
feeder unit length
cv,x Shunt capacitance of x-sequence per
feeder unit length
1 Introduction
A short-circuit current analysis (fault analysis) is one of the
most important steps in the process of electrical power system
design [1]. Faults occurring in a power system can be cate-
gorized as balanced (symmetrical, with all the three phases
equally affected) or unbalanced (asymmetrical, wherein the
three phases are affected differently). Balanced three-phase
faults may be analyzed using an equivalent single-phase cir-
cuit.
As for asymmetrical faults (two phase, two phase to
ground and single phase to ground), the use of symmetrical
components helps to reduce the complexity of the calcula-
tions. In Ref. [1], the authors presented the synthesis of a state
observer which can be applied for estimation of the current
and voltage symmetrical components in a three-phase elec-
trical network. In Ref. [2], the application of unitary and
orthogonal transformations on power network calculations
is presented. Logic choices for base quantities required in
per-unit calculations are derived from these general transfor-
mations. The method employs the actual three-phase models
to handle asymmetrical faults. The paper [3] looks at the
generalization of the symmetrical components technique for
periodic non-sinusoidal three-phase currents and voltages.
The generalization of the concept of symmetrical compo-
nents is discussed together with their derivation in both time
and frequency domain. In [4], time-dependent symmetri-
cal components are used to study the dynamic analysis of
asymmetrical faults in a power system. The Lyon approach
allows the calculation of the maximum values of over-
voltages and over-currents under transient conditions, as well
as the study of the network under non-sinusoidal conditions.
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Electrical Engineering (2018) 100:2117–2127
A sequence networks-based methodology for investigating
voltage unbalance in distribution networks with renewable
generation is presented in [5]. The sequence networks were
derived from original asymmetrical three-phase network and
then interconnected so as to allow studying the sequence
voltages and unbalance propagation through the network.
Reference [6] presents a new approach for performing the
fault analysis of multiphase distribution networks based on
the symmetrical components. The obtained results for the
IEEE radial test feeders infer the accuracy of the proposed
technique. Reference [7] presents the well-known symmetri-
cal components transformation (SCT) by means of a different
approach from the traditional matrix analysis. This approach
leaves more space for intuitive analysis, simplifying the
application of such a method for teaching purposes and com-
pleting the traditional mathematical view. Moreover, the use
of graph concept allows the unified analysis of unbalanced
faults, leading the matter to the general theory of balanced
three-phase systems. In [8], the need for short-circuit analy-
sis in real-time applications of modern distribution networks
is discussed and a short-circuit tool that builds on recent
advances in Fortescue-based current injection power flow
is presented. A real-time short-circuit calculation method,
based on the superposition theorem, applied in large-scale
distribution system with a high penetration of distributed
generators is proposed in [9]. Generally, a large number
of authors have focused their investigation on short-circuit
behavior of induction generators, as shown in [10–16].
Procedure for short-circuit current calculation in three-
phase distribution system is standardized [17] and is termed
equivalent voltage source method (EVS). Several recently
developed procedures (overview is given in [18]) for short-
circuit current calculations are based on EVS or similar
methods. All of these methods neglect the influence of loads,
the shunt parameters of network elements and the pre-fault
state in order to simplify the calculation procedure [18].
Traditional distribution networks are designed to operate
radially (without distributed generator connected to the net-
work). Also, these networks are inherently unbalanced due
to their constructive and exploitation characteristics. Nowa-
days, different types of DG are connected to the distribution
network. The presence of DG has significant influence on
both the steady state and disturbed operating conditions. The
connection of DG changes both the load flow, during steady-
state operation, and magnitude and direction of fault current
during short circuit.
With regard to the short-circuit modeling, DGs are classi-
fied into four types [9]:
(1) Type I—Synchronous generator directly connected to
the grid;
(2) Type II—Induction generator directly connected to the
grid;
Electrical Engineering (2018) 100:2117–2127 2119

(3) Type III—Doubly fed induction generator; of network elements and the degree of voltage unbalance
(4) Type IV—DGs connected to the grid by power converter. present in the feeder, using Laplace transformation as a tool
for these calculations in the time domain. In this way, we
The study [19] compared fault current contribution between have come to the position of carrying out the reduced and
synchronous and induction machines. Induction machines analytical relations (closed form) defining the short-circuit
have been confirmed to contribute far less to fault currents, current during the transient processes in faulted distribution
and their contribution decays within (0.15 ÷ 0.2) s due to the feeder. Also, the proposed algorithm enables calculation of
fast decay of the machine flux. If a synchronous machine is short-circuit current in cases when the fault arc resistance
operated as a synchronous motor (rather than as a generator), cannot be neglected.
its fault current contribution will be lower than in the mode
of operation as a generator. The short-circuit contribution
of converter-interfaced DGs is low and mainly determined
by the thermal limit of the semiconductors; therefore, it is 2 Relations between phase quantities and
usually limited to up to 2 p.u. of the nominal current [20]. symmetrical components in time domain
Synchronous generators are mainly used in distributed gen-
erator systems, in thermal, hydro and wind power plants. Denoting the three phases as a, b, c, three-phase instanta-
Induction generators are used in wind power plants and small neous voltages are defined as follows [1–4,22,23]:
hydro stations.
Given that DG changes the network contribution to the √
u a (t) = 2 · Ua · cos(ω · t + α0 ), (1)
fault current, the operation of the protective relays can be  
√ 2·π
affected. u b (t) = 2 · Ub · cos ω · t + α0 − , (2)
Hence, in terms of its impact on the fault current, the most 3
 
critical DG type is the synchronous generator. √ 2·π
u c (t) = 2 · Uc · cos ω · t + α0 + . (3)
If the three-phase bolted fault occurs between the sup- 3
plying network and the DG, short-circuit currents from the
network and from the DG can be calculated separately using
Using subscripts p, n and 0 to denote the positive, negative
the well-known equations [20]. If the three-phase arcing fault
and zero sequences, for the symmetrical components of the
or any of the unsymmetrical faults occur, the calculation will
voltages, e p (t), en (t) and e0 (t), we may write:
not be simple. Locating the DG between the supplying net-
work and the point of fault renders calculation of the fault
currents highly complicated and time-consuming, for both     
1 T 2·T
the bolted and the arcing faults. Also, one may observe a e p (t) = · u a (t) + u b t + + uc t + ,
3 3 3
decrease in fault current from the supplying network and (4)
increase in fault current through the point of fault.     
1 2·T T
In active distribution systems, time-domain short-circuit en (t) = · u a (t) + u b t + + uc t + ,
3 3 3
current analysis is necessary in the processes of protective
devices coordination and fault localization. For example, (5)
the point of asymmetrical fault can be localized by mea- 1
e0 (t) = · [u a (t) + u b (t) + u c (t)] . (6)
suring zero-sequence or negative-sequence fault current. 3
Additionally, the fact that, very often, distribution system
is unbalanced should be observed. Conversely, the phase voltages can be expressed in terms of
In this paper, we are demonstrating the application of the sequence voltages as:
instantaneous symmetrical components method for the cal-
culation of all types of short-circuit currents in faulted
distribution feeder with or without three-phase synchronous u a (t) = e p (t) + en (t) + e0 (t), (7)
   
DG connected. Single-phase units were not analyzed because 2·T T
connection of single-phase generator units is typical for low- u b (t) = e p t + + en t + + e0 (t), (8)
3 3
voltage network. On the other hand, the hosting capacity for    
T 2·T
a single-phase unit is only one-sixth of the hosting capac- u c (t) = e p t + + en t + + e0 (t). (9)
3 3
ity for a three-phase unit [21]. The method proposed in this
paper enables encompassing initial conditions (load currents
and voltages) before the occurrence of fault, critical condi- Also, the set of three-phase instantaneous currents can be
tions at the moment of fault occurrence, shunt parameters converted into symmetrical components and vice versa.

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Fig. 1 Medium voltage

distribution feeder with
synchronous generator
connected at point B and a fault
at point C
d AB d BC ( d AB + d BC = d )
U ns A B C

S s" ,Tas
U ns
S nT , mT =
U nG Z
− ground

xT [ p.u.] , rT [ p.u.]

S nG ,U nG
x"nG ,TaG
~

3 The use of symmetrical components in L 3,x and shunt capacitances C1,x and C2,x (generally, d AB =
active distribution network d BC ), x = { p, n, 0} [4,5,19–21,24–30].
The load is modeled as constant current. Stator winding
3.1 General model of distributed generator is ungrounded. Wye winding of dis-
tribution transformer is grounded via impedance Z ground .
It is assumed that a synchronous type DG is connected via General equivalent circuit of arbitrary sequence for the
its distribution transformer at point B to the medium volt- part of distribution system in Fig. 1 is presented in Fig. 2.
age distribution feeder and an arbitrary fault (symmetrical Synchronous generator is modeled as an ideal three-
or asymmetrical) occurred at point C, as shown in Fig. 1. phase voltage generator with the parameters (inductance
Rated power SnG of DG is lower than the hosting capacity at and resistance) connected in series to the outputs (Thevenin
the point of connection at any moment of operation [4,5,19– equivalent). The same is valid for the supplying network.
21,24–30]. The distribution transformer is represented with the trans-
Supplying network (subscript s), distributed generator former short-circuit parameters (inductance and resistance).
(subscript G) and distribution transformer (subscript T ) are Both positive- and negative-sequence impedances are equal.
presented as their positive-, negative- and zero-sequence As for the circuit in Fig. 2, the following system of equa-
impedances in the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence net- tions in the time domain can be written as (x = { p, n, 0}):
works, respectively:
di k,x (t)
es,x (t) = R1,x · i k,x (t) + L 1,x · + u C1,x (t), (10)
– supplying network: Rs, p = Rs,n , L s, p = L s,n (both dt
positive and negative sequences of network impedance du C1,x (t)
are equal), Rs,0 , L s,0 (zero-sequence impedance depends i k,x (t) = i k1,x (t) + C1,x · , (11)
dt
on type of neutral grounding); u C1,x (t) = R2,x · i k1,x (t) + L 2,x
– distributed generator and distribution transformer: di k1,x (t) di DG,x (t)
RDG, p = RDG,n = RG, p + RT , p , L DG, p = L DG,n = · − L DG,x · − RDG,x
dt dt
L G, p + L T , p , L T ,0 , RT ,0 . (The subscript DG denotes · i DG,x (t) + eDG,x (t), (12)
serial connection of distributed generator and distribu- di DG,x (t)
tion transformer. Given that the distribution transformer eDG,x (t) = RDG,x · i DG,x (t) + L DG,x · + R3,x
dt
is delta-wye connected, zero-sequence impedance of di k2,x (t)
distributed generator is of no importance [4,5,19–21,24– · i k2,x (t) + L 3,x · + u C2,x (t), (13)
dt
30].) i v,x (t) = i k2,x (t) − i C2,x (t), (14)
i k2,x (t) = i k1,x (t) + i DG,x (t), (15)
Sections of the distribution feeder (sections AB and BC) di v,x (t)
are presented with serial parameters R2,x , L 2,x , R3,x and u C2,x (t) = R3,x · i v,x (t) + L 3,x · + u f ,x (t). (16)
dt

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R1,x L1,x R2,x L2,x R3,x L3,x R3,x L3,x

B C

→ → → →

i (t )
k ,x
i (t )
k1 , x
LDG,x
i (t )
k2, x
iv ,x ( t )
+ + +

C1,x uC1,x ( t ) C2,x uC 2 ,x ( t ) u f,x ( t )

~ es,x ( t ) RDG,x ↑ iDG,x ( t )
− − −

R1,x = R2 ,x + Rs ,x +
↓ iC 1,x ( t ) ↓ iC 2 ,x ( t )
L1,x = L2 ,x + Ls ,x
~ eDG,x ( t )
−

Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit of arbitrary sequence for the part of distribution system in Fig. 1

The system above involves seven equations and eight 3.2 Three-phase short circuit
unknown variables, five currents (i k,x (t), i k1,x (t), i DG,x (t),
i k2,x (t) and i v,x (t)) and three voltages (u C1,x (t), u C2,x (t) The fault is symmetrical; thus, for symmetrical components
and u f ,x (t)). The solutions for positive-, negative- and zero- of currents and voltages we obtain:
sequence components of the each current can be written as
functions of the proper sequence of voltage at the point of Iv,n (s) = 0, Iv,0 (s) = 0, (22)
fault u f ,x (t), (x = { p, n, 0}). Therefore, analyses are per- U f , p (s) = 0, U f ,n (s) = 0, U f ,0 (s) = 0. (23)
formed for the phase current i v (t) through the point of fault,
the phase current i DG (t) flowing from DG and the phase cur- Hence, the expressions for individual components of the ana-
rent i k (t) flowing from the supplying network. lyzed currents are:
In order to solve Eqs. (10)–(16), they are transformed to
the Laplace domain, so that equations for symmetrical com-
ponents of the currents we are analyzing are the following: Iv, p (s) = K 1, p (s), IDG, p (s) = K 3, p (s), Ik, p (s) = K 5, p (s).
(24)

Iv,x (s) = K 1,x (s) − K 2,x (s) · U f ,x (s), (17)

IDG,x (s) = K 3,x (s) − K 4,x (s) · U f ,x (s), (18) 3.3 Two-phase short circuit
Ik,x (s) = K 5,x (s) − K 6,x (s) · U f ,x (s). (19)
When a two-phase short circuit occurs between phases b and
c, the boundary conditions can be expressed as [1–4,22,23]:
In (17)–(19), functional coefficients of x-sequence in Laplace
domain K i,x (s) are:
Iv, p (s) + Iv,n (s) = 0, (25)
 Iv,0 (s) = 0, (26)
K i,x (s) = f i E s,x (s), E DG,x (s), R1,x , R2,x , R3,x , L 1,x ,
U f , p (s) = U f ,n (s), U f ,0 (s) = 0. (27)
L 2,x , L 3,x , C1,x , C2,x , Ik,x (0), IDG,x (0),

Iv,x (0), Uc1,x (0), Uc2,x (0) (20) Equations (25) and (27) infer that:
i = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, x = { p, n, 0}. (21)
K 1, p (s) − K 2, p (s) · U f , p (s) + K 1,n (s)
Solutions to Eqs. (17)–(19) depend on the fault type. For − K 2,n (s) · U f , p (s) = 0, (28)
simplicity reasons, it is assumed that the fault impedance is K 1, p (s) + K 1,n (s)
⇒ U f , p (s) = U f ,n (s) = . (29)
equal to zero in all the cases. K 2, p (s) + K 2,n (s)

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After performing inverse Laplace transformation of i DG (t) = i DG, p (t) + i DG,n (t) + i DG,0 (t), (43)
Eqs. (17)–(20), involving the analyzed currents in time i k (t) = i k, p (t) + i k,n (t) + i k,0 (t). (44)
domain in phase b, the following can be written [1–4,22,23]:
    Complete procedure for calculation of short-circuit current
2·T T
i v (t) = i v, p t + + i v,n t + , (30) in time domain for arbitrary fault type is given as a flowchart
3 3
    in Fig. 3.
2·T T
i DG (t) = i DG, p t + + i DG,n t + , (31)
3 3
   
2·T T 4 Case study
i k (t) = i k, p t + + i k,n t + . (32)
3 3
The method of instantaneous symmetrical components will
3.4 Two-phase-to-ground short circuit be applied on calculations of balanced and unbalanced short-
circuit currents at the point C of medium-voltage cable
For a two-phase-to-ground short circuit on phases b and c, distribution feeder Uns = 10 kV, d = 5 km, with three-
fault conditions in phase domain are [1–4,22,23]: phase DG of synchronous type connected at point B of feeder
(d AB = d BC = 2, 5 km), Fig. 1. Data necessary for calcula-
Iv, p (s) + Iv,n (s) + Iv,0 (s) = 0, (33) tion are given in Table 1.
U f , p (s) = U f ,n (s) = U f ,0 (s). (34) For performing the calculation, inverse Laplace transform
function in MATLAB® program package was used.
Equation (17), based on (33) and (34), results in:

U f , p (s) = U f ,n (s) = U f ,0 (s) 5 Results and discussion

K 1, p (s) + K 1,n (s) + K 1,0 (s)
= . (35)
K 2, p (s) + K 2,n (s) + K 2,0 (s) Firstly, the influence of phase angle α0 on the maximum
values of currents i k (t), i v (t) and i DG (t) is analyzed, in
Now, we can write for currents in phase b [1–4,22,23]: the case when supplying network phase voltages are bal-
    U
anced U A,a = U A,b = U A,c = √ , with or without DG
ns
2·T T 3
i v (t) = i v, p t + + i v,n t + + i v,0 (t), (36) connected. The results of the analysis are given in Table 2.
3 3
    It is obvious that, for each type of fault, currents i k (t)
2·T T
i DG (t) = i DG, p t + + i DG,n t + + i DG,0 (t), and i DG (t) do not reach their maximum values at the same
3 3 moment. The biggest difference can be noticed in the case of
(37) single-line-to-ground short circuit, when time shift is 0.012 s
   
2·T T (for nominal frequency of 50 Hz).
i k (t) = i k, p t + + i k,n t + + i k,0 (t). (38)
3 3 We further set out to analyze the influence of voltage
unbalances at the point of DG connection (point B). The
3.5 Single-line-to-ground fault following cases of the phase voltage unbalances were ana-
lyzed:
In case of single-line-to-ground fault on phase a, boundary
conditions are [1–4,22,23]: U U U
(a) U B,a = 0.96 · √ns , U B,b = √ns , U B,c = √ns ,
3 3 3
U U U
Iv, p (s) = Iv,n (s) = Iv,0 (s), (39) (b) U B,a = 1.04 · √ns , U B,b = √ns , U B,c = √ns ,
3 3 3
U
U f , p (s) + U f ,n (s) + U f ,0 (s) = 0, (40) (c) U B,a = U B,b = U B,c = √ns .
3

whereby: The influence of the voltage unbalance on the values of

K 1, p K 1,n K 1,0 two-phase short-circuit currents is quite different from that on
K 2, p + K 2,n + K 2,0 the values of two-phase-to-ground short-circuit currents. In
Iv, p (s) = Iv,n (s) = Iv,0 (s) = , (41)
1
K 2, p + 1
K 2,n + 1
K 2,0
both cases, current flowing through the fault point remains
almost unchanged. Similarly, the impact of voltage unbal-
and for the currents in the time domain we can write [1– ances on the values of zero-sequence components of currents
4,22,23]: i k (t) and i v (t) is negligible. As for the analyzed cases of
voltage unbalances, the values of negative-sequence current
i v (t) = i v, p (t) + i v,n (t) + i v,0 (t), (42) component i DG,n (t) for α0 = − 87◦ when two-phase short

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Electrical Engineering (2018) 100:2117–2127 2123

Fig. 3 Flowchart of the

proposed method for Calculation of the symmetrical components of phase voltages , eqs. 4-6
determining short-circuit current

Modeling the analyzed distribution feeder with DG connected at point B

and a fault at the at point C, according to Fig. 1

Creating an equivalent circuit of x-sequence, x = {p, n, 0},

according to Fig. 2

Writing the eqs. 10-16 of x-sequence, x = {p, n, 0},

in time domain according to Kirchhoff's first and second law

Transformation of the previous equations in time domain

to the Laplace domain

Calculation of x-sequence components of the short-circuit current

in the Laplace domain

Calculation of the short-circuit current in time domain for particular fault

type (subsection 4.1 to 4.5)

Plotting short-circuit current vs. time diagrams

Table 1 Parameters for calculating the network in Fig. 1

Data

MV feeder
Supplying network 10 kV
Synchronous generator
Distribution transformer
Initial conditions
Cable feeder (three single cables), copper conductors, cross section 150 mm2 , nominal current In,cabl = 350 A;
 H ;
rv, p = rv,n = 0.12 km , rv,0 = 3 · rv, p , lv, p = lv,n = 0.32 × 10−3 km
lv,0 = 3 · lv, p , cv, p = cv,n = 0.37 × 10−6 km F ,c =3·c
v,0 v, p

For Ss = 250 MVA and Tas = 0.05 s:
Rs, p = Rs,n = 0.025 , L s, p = L s,n = 1.27 × 10−3 H, L s,0 = 3 · L s, p
Neutral point is grounded through a low-resistance impedance Rs,0 = 60  (3 · 20 )

SnG = 2.5 MVA, UnG = 0.48 kV, cos ϕnG = 0.8, xnG = 0.125, TaG = 0.0262 s
m T = 0.48 kV
10 kV , SnT = 4 MVA, x T = 0.05, r T = 0.01 · x T
Neutral point of distribution transformer is grounded through a low-resistance impedance
Z ground = RDG,0 = RT ,0 = 60  (3 · 20 ), L DG,0 = L T ,0 = 3.98 × 10−3 H
Ik, p (0) = In,cabl , IDG, p (0) = √ SnG · m T = 144 A,
3·UnG
√
Uc1, p (0) = Uc2, p (0) = √2 · 10 kV
3

circuit occurs are shown in Fig. 4. Depending on the voltage
unbalance, current i DG,n (t) poses variation of ±6% com-
pared to the current values without voltage unbalance.
In the case of two-phase-to-ground short circuit, the
impact of voltage angle α0 and voltage unbalance on val-
ues of i k,0 (t) and i DG,0 (t) is negligible. For example, values
of zero-sequence current component i DG,0 (t) for α0 = − 87◦
when two-phase-to-ground short circuit occurs are shown in
Fig. 5. Depending on the voltage unbalance, current i DG,0 (t)
poses variation of ±10.3% compared to the current values
without voltage unbalance.
When a single-line-to-ground fault occurs, the value of
α0 and degree of voltage unbalance have a considerable
influence on the values of i DG,n (t), Fig. 6. For example,
maximum values of the phase current i DG (t) are within the

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Table 2 Values of angle α0 for which the currents i k (t), i v (t) and i DG (t) reach the maximum values
Fault type DG connected α0 (◦ ) i k (t)max (kA) α0 (◦ ) i v (t)max (kA) α0 (◦ ) i DG (t)max (kA)

Three-phase sc No − 87 8.601 − 87 8.601 – –

Yes − 87 8.072 − 87 9.403 − 90 1.381
Two-phase sc No − 87 6.746 − 87 6.746 – –
Yes − 87 6.605 − 87 7.232 96 0.823
Two-phase-to-ground sc No − 87 6.826 − 87 6.826 – –
Yes − 87 6.706 − 87 7.393 96 0.891
Single-line-to-ground sc No 150 0.398 150 0.398 – –
Yes 150 0.7006 150 0.787 − 72 0.318

0.6
a)
b)
c)
0.4

0.2
i DG,n( t ) [kA]

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t [ms]

Fig. 4 Values of i DG,n (t) for α0 = − 87◦ when two-phase short circuit occurs

0.08
a)
b)
0.06 c)

0.04
i DG,0( t ) [kA]

0.02

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t [ms]

Fig. 5 Values of i DG,0 (t) for α0 = − 87◦ when two-phase-to-ground short circuit occurs

range [220 ÷ 320] A and maximum values of the negative- to-ground short circuit occurs is negligible. The values of
sequence current i DG,n (t) are within the range [22 ÷ 54] A. i DG,0 (t) for α0 = − 72◦ are shown in Fig. 7, for voltage
The influence of voltage unbalance on the values of zero- unbalance case (b), which is the worst analyzed case. For
sequence component of current i DG,0 (t) when a single-line-

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0.06
a)
0.05 b)
c)
0.04

0.03
i DG,n( t ) [kA]
0.02

0.01

-0.01

-0.02

-0.03

-0.04
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t [ms]

Fig. 6 Values of i DG,n (t) for α0 = − 72◦ when single-line-to-ground fault occurs

0.15

0.1

0.05
iDG,0( t ) [kA]

-0.05

-0.1

-0.15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
t [ms]

Fig. 7 Values of i DG,0 (t) for α0 = − 72◦ when single-line-to-ground fault occurs for voltage unbalance case (b)

Table 3 Maximal values of the

Fault type DG connected i k (t)max (kA) i v (t)max (kA) i DG (t)max (kA)
currents i k (t), i v (t) and i DG (t)
according to IEC standard [17] Three-phase sc No 8.191 8.191 –
Yes 7.350 8.620 1.270
Two-phase sc No 7.093 7.093 –
Yes 6.875 7.625 0.796
Two-phase-to-ground sc No 7.097 7.097 –
Yes 6.873 7.692 0.819
Single-line-to-ground sc No 0.423 0.423 –
Yes 0.425 0.855 0.430

two other cases, (a) and (c), differences between the values
of current i DG,0 (t) are less then 5 A.
Finally, if the required calculations are performed accord-
ing to IEC standard [17], Table 3, and the obtained results are
compared with those given in Table 2, depending on the fault
type, noticeable errors are observed, especially in the case of
a single-line-to-ground fault when DG is connected on the
feeder. The differences arise from the fact that initial loads
and critical conditions at the moment of fault occurrence are

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taken into account for the calculation of maximal values of
the currents, as presented in Table 2.
6 Conclusions
The analysis proposed in this paper is useful for accurate off-
line calculation of the fault current—manual application of
this method is impossible. The method requires significant
computer time for its realization due to the large amount of
data, as well as the high degree of derived Laplace functions
(require significant computer running time), which describe
the short-circuit current transient changes. On the basis of
derived analytical relations, which define the waveform of
the short-circuit currents, we are now able to perform con-
tingency analysis more precisely and faster, especially if
analyzed the influence of different types of short-circuit faults
or the synchronous machine parameters. The main contribu-
tions of the proposed approach in the analysis of fault in an
active distribution networks can be summarized as follows:
– When the fault occurs, current i DG (t) does not reach the
maximum value at the same moment as the current i k (t);
– The phase angle α0 influences only the maximum values
of the currents, which is important for the calculation
of mechanical stress, but not for their stationary values
(important for over-current protection adjustment);
– Influence of the load is considerable and cannot be
neglected;
– The procedure enables calculation when the fault arc
resistance cannot be neglected;
– Voltage unbalance at the point of DG connection on the
feeder may considerably affect the values of the fault
currents.
– If there are no systems for reactive power compensation,
shunt capacitances C1,x and C2,x can be neglected (errors
in the calculation of the fault currents magnitudes are
lower than 0.5%).
After performing the necessary calculations according to
IEC standard and comparing the obtained results with those
obtained according to the proposed procedure, noticeable
errors are observed and commented. Future work is aimed
on development of the model for the calculation of all types
of short-circuit currents in faulted distribution feeder when
arbitrary number of different types of DG are connected (for
example, synchronous and induction DG) and will be focused
on analyzing the impact of connecting different types of
renewable sources (wind turbines with asynchronous gen-
erators, PV panels, etc.) on the short-circuit current.
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Electrical Engineering (2018) 100:2117–2127
Acknowledgements This study is the part of the Project No. III-42009
financed by Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Ser-
bia. The authors hereby express their sincere gratitude for the support.
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