Control, Analysis and Comparison of Different Control Strategies of

Electric Motor for Battery Electric Vehicles Applications

Omar Hegazy, Ricardo Barrero, Joeri Van Mierlo, Mohamed El Baghdad, Philippe Lataire and Thierry
Coosemans
VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUSSEL (VUB)
Pleinlaan 2, B-1050
Brussels, Belgium
Tel.:+32 / (2) – 629.23.68
Fax: +32 / (2) – 629.29.92
Omar.Hegazy@vub.ac.be
http:// www.vub.ac.be

Keywords
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Electric Motors (EMs), Motor Control Strategies, Indirect Field-
Oriented Control (IFOC), Direct Torque Control (DTC), Space Vector PWM (SVPWM), Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO), Digital Signal Processor (DSP).

Abstract
Electric motors are key components in all electric drivetrains, particularly battery electric vehicles
(BEVs). Consequently, the control strategies of those electric motors play an important role in the
development of high performance BEV powertrains. Therefore, this article presents the control design,
analysis and comparison of different motor control strategies. In this paper, the most popular control
strategies (such as Indirect Field-Oriented Control (IFOC), Hybrid IFOC and PWM voltage scheme, IFOC
based on SVPWM, Direct Torque Control (DTC), and DTC based on SVPWM) are designed and
analyzed in detail by using Matlab/Simulink. Furthermore, in this research, IFOC based on PWM voltage
and PSO is designed to improve the motor efficiency especially at low load conditions. It is shown that
the PSO algorithm has the straightforward goal of minimizing the motor losses at any operating condition
by selecting the optimal flux. The simulation and experimental results are provided.

1. Introduction

I n recent years, there is growing interest in clean vehicle technologies, such as Electric Vehicles (EVs)
and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) due to their low fuel usage and low emissions.
Therefore, Electric Vehicles (EVs) and PHEVs have become more attractive solutions than conventional
vehicles, which can be defined as internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), due to concerns about the
environment and fossil fuels depletion [1]-[3]. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) can be an alternative to
the ICEVs. BEVs are powered by electric batteries, which need to be recharged with electricity from the
grid. It is clear that the BEVs constitute a clear link between the electricity sector and the transport sector,
as their batteries would be recharged with electricity from the grid. Furthermore, the BEVs can provide
an ideal solution to reduce the environmental impact of transports and reduce energy dependency because
they have low energy consumption and zero local emissions. In other words, BEVs are zero-emission
vehicles (ZEVs) [1]-[4]. Nowadays, the commercialization of BEVs has mainly been possible due to
advances in battery systems, power electronics converters, electric motors and control strategies. In BEV
powertrain, the wheels are powered by electric motors. Consequently, the EM is a key component
required for the emergence and acceptance of high performance BEV powertrains. Hence, in recent years,
there are quite a lot of researches exploring electric motors that can be used to satisfy the requirements of
the BEVs and other vehicular application [4]-[7].

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 As reported in literature, the selection of the EM and its control strategy has a great influence on the
development of clean vehicles applications. In general, three types of the electric motors that can be
suitable for these applications. These machine types are defined as induction motor (IM), permanent
magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), and switched reluctance machine (SRM) [1], [7]. The electric
motors should be evaluated in function of the requirements of the applications. PMSM is a very promising
technology due to its unique characteristics such as high efficiency, high torque, low torque ripple, low
noise, compact size and high power density. However, the PMSM inherently has a short constant power
range due to its rather limited field weakening capability. In addition, the cost of the PMSM is still high
due to the high price of the magnets and the availability of these rare-earths materials is limited. On the
other hand, the SRM is gaining interest as a candidate of electric propulsion for automotive applications,
because of its simple and rugged construction, compact size and high torque capability. Nevertheless, the
SRM is plagued with (acoustic) noise and high torque ripple, which might be compensated with a more
complex and expensive control drive system. Furthermore, since the SRM is not yet commercial as a
standard motor, its cost may be higher than the IM. As a result, the IM can be a good candidate for
automotive applications, especially EVs due to its robustness, low price, simplicity, low torque ripple and
wide speed range [1], [7]. Consequently, in this paper, the induction motor (IM) is chosen to be the
electric motor of the BEV drivetrain.
Selection of the electric motor and its control strategy is a crucial task in EVs powertrain design.
From the point of view of the EV performance, the motor control strategies have a significant influence on
the motor characteristics and lifespan as well as battery systems performance. As mentioned in literature
studies, the most popular control strategies of the induction motor are Indirect Field-Oriented Control
(IFOC), Space Vector PWM (SVPWM), and Direct Torque Control (DTC) [5], [8], [9]. Recently, a few
research studies have been conducted to utilize the optimization techniques (such as PSO) to minimize the
motor losses [5], [10], [11].
In this paper, different IM control strategies are designed and analyzed in detail. The dynamic
modeling of the IM is presented including the core losses. Furthermore, this paper gives a comparative
study of different control strategies (such as Indirect Field-Oriented Control (IFOC), Hybrid IFOC and
PWM voltage scheme, IFOC based on SVPWM, Direct Torque Control (DTC), DTC based on SVPWM,
and IFOC based on PWM voltage and PSO). The real-time controller based on TMS320F2808 DSP is
developed to implement the proper motor control strategy. The simulation and experimental results are
presented.

2. BEV Powertrain Description

Generally, Fig.1 illustrates the block diagram of the battery electric vehicle (BEV) powertrain. As can
be seen from Fig.1, the powertrain comprises a high-voltage (HV) battery pack, three-phase DC/AC
inverter, single-phase AC/DC on-board battery charger, transmission systems, and electric motor (EM).
In this powertrain, a high-voltage (HV) battery pack is directly connected to the DC-link, whereas a
single-phase AC/DC converter can be used to connect the HV battery pack to the AC grid during
charging/discharging modes. In other BEV powertrains, DC/DC converters can be used to connect a low-
voltage battery pack to the DC-link in order to downsize the battery system [5], [10]. In addition, Fig.2
depicts the schematic diagram of different motor control strategies. As can be seen from Fig.2, different
control strategies can be used to generate the PWM signals in order to control the voltage source inverter
(VSI). These control strategies are:
o IFOC based on hysteresis current control;
o Hybrid IFOC and PWM voltage;
o IFOC based on SVPWM;
o IFOC based on PWM voltage and PSO;
o DTC based on hysteresis control;
o DTC based on SVPWM.

2
 Fig.2: The schematic diagram of different motor
Fig.1: The block diagram of the BEV powertrain
control strategies
2.1 Mathematical Model of Induction Motor
Induction motors (IMs) are widely accepted as one of the most suitable candidates for the vehicle
propulsion systems, due to their reliability, ruggedness, low maintenance and low cost [7], [10].
However, the speed and torque control of these motors is difficult due to their nonlinear and complex
structure. In the last decades, different control schemes/strategies were developed based on a dynamic
model of the IM in order to overcome the control challenges. Thus, the dynamic model of the IM is
essential for the design of high-performance control strategies. Therefore, this paper presents the dynamic
model of the IM including the core losses. As illustrated in Fig.3, d-q model of the motor in synchronous
reference frame considers the core losses, which is represented as core resistance (called ) [10], [12],
[13].
ω e (Lls ieqs ) ω r (Llr ieqr + Lm ieqm ) ω e (Llr i eqr )
Rs Lls Llr Rr

i dse i dre
idfe i dm

Vdse Lm Vdre
Rfe

ωe (Lm ieqm)

(a) d- axis equivalent circuit

ω e (Lls i eds ) ω r (Llr i edr + Lm i edm ) ω e (Llr i edr )
Rs L ls L lr Rr

i qse iqfe iqm i qre

Vqse Rfe Lm
V qre
ω e (Lm i edm )

(b) q- axis equivalent circuit

Fig.3: The d-q equivalent circuit of the IM in synchronous reference frame

3
 The mathematical model of the IM can be described in a synchronous reference frame by the
following equations:

(1)

(2)

0 (3)

0 (4)

0 (5)

0 (6)
3
(7)
22
where the d-q variables ( , ) and ( , ) are the stator voltages and stator currents, respectively.
The d-q variables ( , ) and ( , ) are the rotor voltages and rotor currents, respectively. is the
angular speed of the IM, and represents the pole numbers. , , , , and are the stator and
rotor resistances, and the stator leakage, rotor leakage, and mutual inductances, respectively. is the
rotor self-inductance ( . Finally, , , , and are the electrical and load torques,
friction coefficient, and moment of inertia, respectively.

3. Motor Control Strategies

3.1 IFOC Based on Hysteresis Current Control
The indirect field-oriented control (IFOC) is the most popular control scheme of the field-oriented
control methods, which are used to achieve the speed control of the IMs. IFOC can provide a decoupling
between the torque and the flux currents. It means that the stator current of the IM can be decoupled into
torque producing and flux producing components. These torque and flux components can be
independently controlled and maintained of each other in a synchronous reference frame. The direct axis
current acts to control the flux component, while the quadrate axis current controls the torque
component [5], [8], [10]. As a result, this control scheme of the IM is somehow similar to the control of a
separately excited DC machine.
In the IFOC control scheme, the d-axis component of the stator current can be determined by:
λ (8)
while the q-axis component of the stator current , for a given torque demand , can be calculated
from the following equation:
3
λ (9)
22
The torque demand can be calculated from speed controller (PI controller) as follows:
(10)
The proportional Kp and integral Ki constants of the speed controller can be derived as follows:
2 . . (11)
. (12)

4
Where J is the moment of motor Inertia, B is friction coefficient, is the damping ratio, and is the
natural frequency (in radians).
For the d-axis of the synchronously rotating reference frame is aligned with the rotor flux, the slip speed
should be maintained as follows:
(13)
As can be seen from Fig.4, in the HCC scheme, the current error function is centered in a preset
hysteresis band. When the current error exceeds the upper or lower hysteresis limit the HCC generates
appropriate switching patterns to control the error within its preset band. The HCC can be realized with
acceptable accuracy and fast response. However, the variable switching frequency is the main
disadvantage of the HCC, which may increase the switching losses of the inverter.

e*
i ds
e*
i qs
θe

Fig.4: Schematic diagram of IFOC based on HCC for the drive system of the IM
3.2 Hybrid IFOC and PWM voltage
To overcome the drawbacks of using a HCC scheme, the IFOC is designed based on voltage PWM
control, which has a fixed switching frequency. In hybrid IFOC and voltage PWM scheme, the measured
and components are compared to the references (the flux reference) and (the torque
reference) as shown in Fig.5. Therefore, the current regulator outputs are and which are also
compensated by a back electromotive force. These reference d-q voltages with back electromotive force
compensation ( & ) can be calculated as follows [10],[14],[15]:

(14)

λ and
Where
1 / ;

2 1 ; ; (15)

;
The subscript i is referred to the current controller. is the damping ratio of the current controller, while
is the natural frequency (in radians).

5
 E qe

i qse * Vqse Vqse*

Va*
λ *
r
K pi + Kii / s
Vb*
i qse
i dse * Vdse Vdse* Vc*
Kpi + Kii / s
e
K p + Ki / s
T
e
*
i ds

ωr i qse E de

i dse

Fig.5: Block diagram of Hybrid IFOC and Voltage PWM scheme

3.3 IFOC Based on SVPWM
SVPWM is an advanced computation technique, which is used to generate the PWM signals for
driving the inverter. This technique also provides a fixed switching frequency. Fig.6 shows the schematic
diagram of the IFOC based on SVPWM. As can be seen from Fig.6, the SVPWM technique is used to
approximate the reference voltage instantaneously by combination of the switching states
corresponding to the basic space vectors. As presented in Fig.6, the reference voltage can be
implemented by the switching vectors of , and null vectors ( , ). Furthermore, is sampled with
a fixed switching frequency 1/ , and the next sampled value is used to calculate the
stationary times , , and [16].
√3
2 3
√3 (16)
2
, = , while
Where represents the modulation index, and is the dc-link voltage.
e
E q

i e*
qs Vqse Vqse*
λ*r K pi + Kii / s Vα*

i qse
i e*
ds
Vdse Vdse * V β*
K pi + Kii / s

K p + Ki / s
Te* i dse
E de
e
ωr i qs

i dse

Fig.6: Block diagram of IFOC based on SVPWM

3.4 IFOC Based on PWM Voltage and PSO
As can be observed from Fig.4, Fig.5 and Fig.6, the IFOC operates at a rated flux which may exhibit a
poor efficiency for the drive system especially at low loads. At low loads, the core losses of the IM
increase dramatically leading to a considerably reduction in the motor efficiency. Consequently, the motor
efficiency can be improved by minimizing its losses. In general, the copper losses can be reduced by
decreasing the stator and rotor currents, while the core losses are essentially increased when increasing

6
air-gap flux density. A study of the copper and core losses components reveals that their trends conflict.
When the core losses increase, the copper losses tend to decrease. However, for a given load torque, there
is an air-gap flux density at which the total losses is minimized. Hence, electrical losses minimization
process ultimately comes down due to the selection of the appropriate air-gap flux density of operation
[8],[10]. In this paper, PSO is used to evaluate the optimal rotor flux that minimizes the total losses of the
IM (called “cost function”) as shown in Fig.7. In order to achieve this objective, there is a need to
calculate the total losses of the IM and its inverter. Hence, the total losses and efficiency of the drive
system can be calculated as follows:

3 1
(17)
2

(18)
where where and are the coefficients of the inverter, which may be experimentally estimated
from the efficiency map. represents the core losses, while is the output of the IM.
E qe

λoptimal i qse * Vqse Vqse*

Va*
K pi + Kii / s
Vb*
i qse
ωr
i dse * Vdse Vdse * Vc*
Kpi + Kii / s

K p + Ki / s
Te* i dse

ωr i qse E de

i dse

Fig.7: Block diagram of IFOC based on PWM Voltage & PSO block diagram
3.5 DTC Based on Hysteresis Control (HC)
DTC has been developed to achieve the control system for the electrical machines. Recently, DTC is
widely used as an alternative to field oriented control (FOC) due to its simple structure [9]. The DTC
concept is based on a direct control of the torque and stator flux using two hysteresis controllers and
switching table. As illustrated in Fig.8, a three-level hysteresis controller is used to control the torque,
while a two-level hysteresis controller is used to control the stator flux [9], [17]. These hysteresis
controllers generate the error torque state and error flux state , respectively. Then, these error states
select the proper stator voltage vector from the switching table as shown in Table 1, which keeps the
torque and stator flux within their hysteresis bands.
In addition, to implement this control strategy, there is a need to estimate the stator flux and the
electromagnetic torque of the motor in stationary reference frame. Therefore, for a conventional DTC, the
stator flux and electromagnetic torque of the motor can be estimated by:

(19)

7
 3
(20)
22

Table 1: The Switching Table for DTC

Principle
λ*s Eλ

λs

iabc , vabc
Te* ET

Te

Fig.8: Schematic diagram of DTC based on HC

The main advantage of the DTC is that it provides less dependency on machine parameters compared
to FOC. It also presents a fast dynamic response. However, the DTC based on HC has some drawbacks,
such as a variable switching frequency due to the hysteresis controllers, high challenges to control the
torque and flux at very low speeds, high switching losses and high torque and current ripples.
3.6 DTC Based on SVPWM
To overcome the drawbacks of the classical DTC, several techniques have been developed and
proposed [9], [18]. One of these techniques is DTC using SVPWM, which provides a fix switching
frequency. In DTC-SVPWM scheme, as shown in Fig.9, the two-hysteresis controllers can be replaced by
two PI controllers. It also means that a PWM is used instead of using a switching table to control the
inverter. The DTC-SVPWM determines the reference voltage space vector, which is composed of two
active space vectors , and null vectors ( , ) as shown in Fig.9.

Eq

Te* Vqs Vqse*

Kp + Ki / s KpT +KiT / s Vα*
iabc , vabc
ωr Te
λ *
s V e
ds V e*
ds V β*
Kpλ + Kiλ / s
λs
E de

Fig.9: Schematic diagram of DTC-SVPWM

4. Simulation Analysis and Experimental Results

To obtain a clear comparative study of different IM control strategies, these motor control strategies
are designed and simulated by using Matlab/Simulink. The simulations are carried out on 19 kW three-
phase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor (WRIM). The parameters of the WRIM that were measured by
using open test, blocked rotor test, and retardation test are mentioned in Appendix. Furthermore, the
battery parameters used in this study are reported in Appendix. Figure 10 illustrates the dynamic
performance of the WRIM when applying the DTC based on hysteresis torque and flux. It is noticed that
there is a good matching between the reference speed and its actual value. Furthermore, DTC can provide
a fast dynamic torque response. However, at low speeds, it is sensitive to the stator resistance. DTC based

8
on hysteresis torque and flux has a variable switching frequency, which may result in high inverter/motor
losses.

(a) The line-line voltage and stator currents the motor (b) The speed and torque of the motor
Fig.10: The dynamic response of the motor when applying DTC based on HC
Figure 11 shows the dynamic response of the WRIM when applying IFOC based on HCC. As can be
noticed from Fig.11, the motor torque has a high torque ripple. Meanwhile, line-line voltage and the stator
current have a high total harmonic distortion (THD) due to the variable switching frequency. Furthermore,
the switching losses are increased.

(a) The line-line voltage and stator currents the motor (b) The speed and torque of the motor
Fig.11: The dynamic response of the motor when applying IFOC based on HCC
Figure 12 illustrates the dynamic performance of the motor when applying a hybrid IFOC and PWM
voltage.

(a) The line-line voltage and stator currents the motor (b) The speed and torque of the motor
Fig.12: The dynamic performance of the motor when applying a hybrid IFOC and PWM voltage
Figure 13 shows the dynamic performance of the motor when applying the IFOC based on SVPWM,
while Fig.14 and Fig.15 present the dynamic response of the motor when applying the DTC based on
SVPWM and IFOC based on PWM voltage and PSO, respectively. Furthermore, Fig.16 gives an example
of the optimization process at 20% load torque and rated speed. Finally, the comparative study of the
overall efficiency between different motor control strategies is presented in Fig.17.

9
(a) The line-line voltage and stator currents the motor (b) The speed and torque of the motor
Fig.13: The dynamic performance of the motor when applying the IFOC-SVWM

(a) The line-line voltage and stator currents the motor (b) The speed and torque of the motor
Fig.14: The dynamic performance of the motor when applying the DTC-SVWM

(a) The line-line voltage and stator currents the motor (b) The speed and torque of the motor
Fig.15: The dynamic performance of the motor when applying the IFOC based on PWM voltage &PSO

Fig.16: Total losses against iterations (at TL=0.2 Fig.17: Comparative efficiency of different motor
PU & Nr=1460 rpm) control strategies

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 It is important to point out that the IFOC based on PWM voltage & PSO is more efficient that other
motor control strategies, as shown in Fig.17. Table 2 summarizes the performance comparison between
the motor control strategies.
Table 2: Performance Comparison between the Motor Control Strategies
IFOC- IFOC-PWM IFOC- DTC- IFOC-PWM
Characteristics DTC-HC
HCC Voltage SVPWM SVPWM Voltage & PSO
Dynamic torque
Medium Fast Medium Medium Fast Medium
Response
Torque Ripples High High Low Low Medium Low
Current Ripples High High Low Low Medium Low
Switching frequency Variable Variable Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed
Steady state Response Good Good Very Good Very Good Good Very Good
Rotor flux level Rated Rated Rated Rated Rated Optimal
Low speed operation Very Good poor Very Good Very Good poor Very Good

A real-time controller based on TMS320F2808 DSP is developed to implement the proper motor
control strategy. It means that the proposed control strategy, IFOC-PWM voltage &PSO, is
experimentally validated. The experimental results are shown in Fig.18, Fig.19, Fig.20 and Fig.21. These
figures present the steady- state operations of the WRIM, such as line voltages and currents, motor speed
and torque, and harmonic spectrums, respectively.

Fig.18: The line-to-line output voltage (500V/div) Fig.19: The stead state speed (1V/500 rpm) and
and phase current (10 mV/A) waveforms for the IM torque (1V/100 N.m) of the WRIM at rated condition

Fig.20: The harmonic spectrum of the line-to-line Fig.21: The harmonic spectrum of the phase current
output voltage (500V/div) of the IM (10 mV/A) of the IM

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Conclusion
In this paper, different motor control strategies have been designed and analyzed. The dynamic
modeling of the induction motor is described including the core losses. Furthermore, a simulation
comparative study of different motor control strategies is provided. The advantages and drawbacks of
these control strategies are presented. It is shown that IFOC based on PWM voltage and PSO is more
efficient than other motor control strategies, especially at low load and speed.
In addition, the real-time controller based on TMS320F2808 DSP is developed to implement the
proper control strategy experimentally. As is clear from results, the IFOC can provide a better steady
state performance, whereas the DTC can provide a fast dynamic torque response. These observations are
significant for future research in drivetrain for clean vehicles technologies.

Appendix
The parameters of 19 kW wound-rotor induction motor

Rated power 19 kW Stator leakage inductance (Lls) 0.0018 H

Rated line voltage 400 V Rotor leakage inductance (Llr) 0.0018 H

Rated frequency 50 Hz Rated Speed (Nr) 1460 rpm

Stator resistance (Rs) 0.0629 Ω Moment of Inertia (J) 0.2799 kg.m2

Rotor resistance (Rr) 0.1091Ω Friction Coefficient (B) 0.0129 N.m.sec/r

Mutual inductance (Lm) 0.0408 H Pole Number (P) 4

Kinv1 0.413 Kinv2 0.0250

Rfe 213.2 Ω ξ 0.90

Li-Ion Cell Parameters

Rated Capacity 10 Ah Initial SoC 70%

Nominal voltage (V) 3.3 V Min. Voltage 2.9 V

Max. discharging Current 250 A Charging Current 36 A

Number of series cell (Ns) 155 Number of parallel cell (Np) 2

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