Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R.

Howell

3.3 Unsteady State Heat

Conduction

For many applications, it is necessary to consider the
variation of temperature with time.

In this case, the energy equation for classical heat
conduction, eq. (3.8), should be solved.

If the thermal conductivity is independent from the
temperature, the energy equation is reduced to eq.
(3.10).

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

3.3.1 Lumped Analysis

Consider an arbitrarily shaped object with volume V,
surface area As, and a uniform initial temperature of Ti as
shown in Fig. 3.15. At time t = 0, the arbitrarily shaped
object is exposed to a fluid with temperature of T∞ and
the convective heat transfer coefficient between the fluid
and the arbitrarily shaped object is h.
h,
T(t) T∞

V As

Figure 3.15 Lumped capacitance method

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The convective heat transfer from the surface is

q = hAs (T − T∞ )
Similar to what we did for heat transfer from an extended
surface, the heat loss due to surface convection can be
treated as an equivalent heat source
q hAs (T − T∞ )
q′′′ = − =−
V V
Since the temperature is assumed to be uniform, the
energy equation becomes
∂T hA (T − T∞ ) (3.188)
ρc =− s p
∂t V
which is subject to the following initial condition
T = Ti , t = 0 (3.189)
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Introducing excess temperature, ϑ = T − T∞ , eqs. (3.188) and

(3.189) become dϑ hAs
=− ϑ
dt ρVc p (3.190)
ϑ = ϑi , t = 0 (3.191)
Integrating eq. (3.190) and determining the integral
constant using eq. (3.191), the solution becomes
ϑ (3.192)
= e−t /τ t
ϑi
where
ρVc p
τt = (3.193)
hAs

is referred to as the thermal time constant.

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The cooling process requires transferring heat from the

center of the object to the surface and the heat is further
transferred away from the surface by convection. When
the lamped capacitance method is employed, it is
assumed that the conduction resistance within the object
is negligible compared with the convective thermal
resistance at the surface, therefore, the validity of the
lumped analysis depends on the relative thermal
resistances of conduction and convection. The
conduction thermal resistance can be expressed as
Lc
Rcond =
kAc
where Lc is the characteristic length and Ac is the area of
heat conduction.
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The convection thermal resistance at the surface is

1
Rconv =
hAs

Assuming As = Ac, one can define the Biot number, Bi, as

the ratio of the conduction and convection thermal
resistances R hL
Bi= cond
c
Rconv k (3.194)
If the characteristic length is chosen as Lc = V / As , the
lumped capacitance method is valid when the Biot
number is less than 0.1, or the conduction thermal
resistance is one order of magnitude smaller than the
convection thermal resistance at the surface.

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3.3.2 One Dimensional Transient

Systems
For the case that the Biot number is greater than 0.1, the
temperature distribution can no longer be treated as
uniform and the knowledge about the temperature
distribution is also of interest. We will now consider the
situation where temperature only varies in one spatial
dimension. Both homogeneous and nonhomogeneous
problem will be considered.

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Homogeneous Problems

adiabatic
h, T∞

0 L x
Figure 3.16 Transient conduction in a finite slab

Figure 3.16 shows a finite slab with thickness of L and a

uniform initial temperature of Ti. At time t = 0, the left
side of the slab is insulated while the right side of the
slab is exposed to a fluid with temperature of T∞. In
contrast to the lumped capacitance method that
assumes uniform temperature, we will present a more
generalized model that takes non-uniform temperature
distribution into account.
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The energy equation for this one-dimensional transient

conduction problem2
is
∂ T 1 ∂T
2
= , 0 < x < L, t > 0 (3.195)
∂x α ∂t
subject to the following boundary and initial conditions
∂T (3.196)
= 0, x = 0
∂x
∂T
−k = h(T − T∞ ), x = L
(3.197)
∂x
T = Ti , 0 < x < L, t = 0 (3.198)
This is a nonhomogeneous problem because eq. (3.197) is
not homogeneous. By introducing the excess
temperature, ϑ = T − T∞ , the problem can be
homogenized, i.e., ∂ 2ϑ 1 ∂ϑ
= , 0 < x < L, t > 0
∂x 2
α ∂t (3.199)
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∂ϑ (3.200)
= 0, x = 0
∂x
∂ϑ
−k = hϑ , x = L
(3.201)
∂x
ϑ = ϑi = Ti − T∞ , 0 < x < L, t = 0 (3.202)
To express our solution in a compact form so that it can be
used for all similar problems, one can define the
following dimensionless variables
ϑ x αt
θ = , X = , Fo = 2 (3.203)
ϑi L L
and eqs. (3.199) – (3.202) will be nondimensionalized as
∂ 2θ ∂θ (3.204)
= , 0 < X < 1, Fo > 0
∂X 2 ∂Fo

∂θ
= 0, X = 0 (3.205)
∂X
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∂θ (3.206)
− = Biθ , X = 1
∂X

θ = 1, 0 < X < 1, Fo = 0
(3.207)
This problem can be solved using the method of separation
of variables. Assuming that the temperature can be
expressed as
θ ( X , Fo) = Θ( X )Γ(Fo) (3.208)
where Θ and Γ are functions of X and Fo, respectively, eq.
(3.204) becomes
Θ′′( X ) Γ′(Fo)
=
Θ( X ) Γ(Fo)
Since the left hand side is a function of X only and the right-
hand side of the above equation is a function of Fo only,
both sides must be equal to a separation constant, , i.e.,
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Θ′′( X ) Γ′(Fo) (3.209)

= =µ
Θ( X ) Γ(Fo)

The separation constant µ can be either a real or a

complex number. The solution of Γ from eq. (3.209) will
be Γ = e µ Fo . If µ is a positive real number, we will have Γ → ∞
when Fo → ∞ , which does not make sense, therefore, µ
cannot be a positive real number. If µ is zero, we will
have Γ = const , and Θ is a linear function of X only. The
final solution for θ will also be a linear function of X only,
which does not make sense either. It can also be shown
that the separation constant cannot be a complex
number, therefore, the separation variable has to be a
negative real number.

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If we represent this negative number by µ = −λ 2, eqs. (3.209)

can be rewritten as the following two equations
Θ′′ + λ 2 Θ = 0 (3.210)
Γ′ + λ 2Γ = 0 (3.211)
The general solutions of eqs. (3.210) and (3.211) are
Θ = C1 cos λ X + C2 sin λ X (3.212)
2
Γ = C3e − λ Fo (3.213)
where C1, C2, and C3 are integral constants.
Substituting eq. (3.208) into eqs. (3.205) and (3.206), the
following boundary conditions of eq. (3.210) are obtained
Θ′(0) = 0 (3.214)
−Θ′(1) = BiΘ(1) (3.215)
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Substituting eq. (3.212) into eq. (3.214) yields

Θ′(0) = −C1λ sin(0) + C2 λ cos(0) = C2 λ = 0
Since λ cannot be zero, C2 must be zero and eq. (3.215)
becomes
Θ = C1 cos λ X (3.216)
Applying the convection boundary condition, eq. (3.215),
one obtains
λn
= cot λn (3.217)
Bi
where n is an integer.
The dimensionless temperature with eigenvalue λn can be
obtained by substituting eqs. (3.216) and (3.213) into eq.
(4.208), i.e., 2
θ n = Cn cos ( λn X ) e− λ Fo n
(3.218)
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where Cn = C1C3 .
Since the one-dimensional transient heat conduction
problem under consideration is a linear problem, the sum
of different θ n for each value of n also satisfies eqs.
(3.204) – (3.206). ∞
θ = ∑ Cn cos ( λn X ) e − λ Fo
2
n

n =1
(3.219)
Substituting eq. (3.219) into ∞
eq. (3.207) yields
1 = ∑ Cn cos ( λn X )
n =1
Multiplying the above equation by cos ( λm X ) and integrating
the resulting equation in∞ the interval of (0, 1), one obtains
∫0 cos(λm X )dX = ∑ Cn ∫0 cos(λm X ) cos(λn X )dX (3.220)
1 1

n =1

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The integral in the right-hand side of eq. (3.133) can be

evaluated as
 λm sin λm cos λn − λn cos λm sin λn
 2 2
, m≠n
1
 λm − λn
∫ 0
cos(λm X ) cos(λn X )dX = 
 1  λ + sin 2λm  ,
(3.221)
m=n
 2λm  m 2  

Equation (3.217) can be rewritten as

Bi = λn tan λn
Similarly, for eigenvalue λm , we have
Bi = λm tan λm
Combining the above two equations, we have
λm tan λm − λn tan λn = 0

or λm sin λm cos λn − λn cos λm sin λn = 0

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therefore, the integral in eq. (3.221) is zero for the case that
m ≠ n , and the right hand side of eq. (3.220) becomes
∞
Cm  sin 2λm 
∑ n∫ m
1
C cos( λ X ) cos( λn X ) dX = λ
 m +  (3.222)
n =1
0 2λm  2 

Substituting eq. (3.222) into eq. (3.220) and evaluating the

integral at the left-hand side of eq. (3.220), we have
1 Cm  sin 2λm 
sin λm = λ +
2λm  2 
m
λm

i.e.,
4sin λm
Cm =
2λm + sin 2λm
Changing notation from m to n, we get
4sin λn
Cn = (3.223)
2λn + sin 2λn
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The dimensionless temperature, therefore, becomes

∞
4sin λn
∑ (3.224)
2
θ= cos ( λn X ) e − λn Fo
n =1 2λn + sin 2λn

If the Biot number becomes infinite, the convection

boundary condition becomes
θ = 0, X = 1 (3.225)
which is an isothermal condition at the right-hand side of
the wall. Equation (3.217) becomes
cos λn = 0 (3.226)
and the eigenvalue is therefore
λn = ( n − π / 2 ) , n = 1, 2,3,... (3.227)

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The temperature distribution for this case is then

∞
4sin( n − π / 2)
∑
2
θ= cos [ ( n − π / 2) X ] e − ( n −π / 2) Fo
n =1 2( n − π / 2) + sin 2( n − π / 2) (3.228)
When Fourier’s number is greater than 0.2, only the first
term in eq. (3.219) is necessary and the solution
becomes 2
θ = θ1 = C1 cos ( λ1 X ) e− λ Fo 1

(3.229)

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Example 3.3
A long cylinder with radius of ro and a uniform initial
temperature of Ti is exposed to a fluid with temperature
of T∞. The convective heat transfer coefficient between
the fluid and cylinder is h. Assuming that there is no
internal heat generation and constant thermophysical
properties, obtain the transient temperature distribution
in the cylinder.

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Solution
Since the temperature changes along the r-direction
only, the energy equation is
∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T
2
+ = , 0 < x < ro , t > 0 (3.230)
∂r r ∂r α ∂t
subject to the following boundary and initial conditions
∂T (3.231)
= 0, r = 0 (axisymmetric)
∂r
∂T
−k = h(T − T∞ ), r = ro
∂r (3.232)
T = Ti , 0 < r < ro , t = 0 (3.233)
Defining the following dimensionless variables
T − T∞ r αt hr
θ= , R = , Fo = 2 , Bi = o
Ti − T∞ ro ro k (3.234)
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eqs. (3.230) – (4.233) will be nondimensionalized as

∂ 2θ 1 ∂θ ∂θ (3.235)
2
+ = , 0 < R < 1, Fo > 0
∂R R ∂R ∂Fo
∂θ
= 0, R = 0 (3.236)
∂R
∂θ
− = Biθ , R = 1
∂R (3.237)
θ = 1, 0 < R < 1, Fo = 0 (3.238)
Assuming that the temperature can be expressed as
θ ( R, Fo) = Θ( R)Γ(Fo)
(3.239)
and substituting eq. (3.239) into eq. (3.235), one obtains
1 1  Γ′ 2 (3.240)
 Θ′′ + Θ′  = = − λ
Θ R  Γ

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which can be rewritten as the following two equations

1
Θ′′ + Θ′ + λ 2 Θ = 0 (3.241)
R
Γ′ + λ 2 Γ = 0 (3.242)
Equation (3.101) is a Bessel’s equation of zero order and
has the following general solution
Θ( R ) = C1 J 0 (λ R ) + C2Y0 (λ R ) (3.243)
where J0 and Y0 are the Bessel’s function of the first and
second kind, respectively. The general solution of eq.
(3.242) is
2
Γ = C3e − λ Fo (3.244)
where C1, C2, and C3 are integral constants.

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The boundary conditions for eq. (3.241) can be obtained by

substituting eq. (3.239) into eqs. (3.236) and (3.237), i.e.,
Θ′(0) = 0 (3.245)
−Θ′(1) = BiΘ(1) (3.246)
The derivative of Θ is
Θ′( R ) = −C1λ J1 (λ R ) − C2 λY1 (λ R ) (3.247)
Since J1 (0) = 0 and Y1 (0) = −∞ , C2 must be zero. Substituting
eqs. (3.243) and (3.247) into eq. (3.246) and considering
C2 = 0 we have
−λn J1 (λn ) + BiJ 0 (λn ) = 0 (3.248)
where n is an integer.

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The dimensionless temperature with eigenvalue λn is

2
θ n = Cn J 0 ( λn R ) e− λ Fo n(3.249)
where Cn = C1C3 .
For a linear problem, the sum of different θ n for each value
of n also satisfies eqs.∞ (3.235) – (3.237).
θ = ∑ Cn J 0 ( λn R ) e − λ Fo
2

(3.250)n

n =1
Substituting eq. (3.250) into ∞
eq. (3.238) yields
1 = ∑ Cn J 0 ( λn R )
n =1
Multiplying the above equation by RJ 0 ( λm R ) and integrating
the resulting equation in the interval of (0, 1), one obtains
∞

∫ RJ (λ R)dR = ∑ C ∫ RJ (λ R) J (λ R)dR
1 1
0 m n 0 m 0 n
0 0
n =1

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According to the orthogonal property of Bessel’s function,

the integral on the right-hand side equals zero if m ≠ n
but it is not zero if m = n Therefore, we have
1

Cm =
∫ RJ (λ R) dR 2
0
0 m
=
J1 (λm )
1
λ J 02 (λm ) + J12 (λm )
∫
2
RJ ( λ
0 R ) dR
m
m
0

Changing notation from m to n, we get

2 J1 (λn )
Cn =
λn J 02 (λn ) + J12 (λn ) (3.251)
thus, the dimensionless temperature becomes
2 J1 (λn ) J 0 ( λn R ) − λn2 Fo
∞
θ= ∑
n =1
2 2
λn J 0 (λn ) + J1 (λn )
e (3.252)

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One-dimensional heat conduction in a spherical coordinate

system can be solved by introducing a new dependent
variable. Consider a sphere with radius of ro and a
uniform initial temperature of Ti. It is exposed to a fluid
with a temperature of T∞ and the convective heat transfer
coefficient between the fluid and finite slab is h.
Assuming that there is no internal heat generation and
constant thermophysical properties, the governing
equation is
1 ∂ 2 (rT ) 1 ∂T
2
= , 0 < x < ro , t > 0 (3.253)
r ∂r α ∂t
subject to the following boundary and initial conditions
∂T
= 0, r = 0 (axisymmetric) (3.254)
∂r

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∂T
−k = h(T − T∞ ), r = ro(3.255)
∂r
T = Ti , 0 < r < ro , t = 0 (3.256)
By using the same dimensionless variables defined in eq.
(3.234), eqs. (3.253) – (3.256) can be
nondimensionalized as
1 ∂ 2 ( Rθ ) ∂θ (3.257)
2
= , 0 < R < 1, Fo > 0
R ∂R ∂Fo
∂θ
= 0, R = 0
∂R (3.258)
∂θ
− = Biθ , R = 1 (3.259)
∂R
θ = 1, 0 < R < 1, Fo = 0 (3.260)
Defining a new dependent variable
U = Rθ (3.261)
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eqs. (3.257) – (3.260) become

∂ 2U ∂U
2
= , 0 < R < 1, Fo > 0 (3.262)
∂R ∂Fo
∂θ
= 0, R = 0
∂R (3.263)
∂U (3.264)
− = (Bi-1)θ , R = 1
∂R
U = R, 0 < R < 1, Fo = 0 (3.265)
This problem can be readily solved by using the method of
separation of variables. After the solution is obtained,
one can change the dependent variable back to θ and
the result is ∞
4[sin(λn ) − λn cos(λn )]
θ= ∑
1 2
sin(λn R )e − λ Fo (3.266)
n

R n =1 λn [2λn − sin(2λn )]

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where the eigenvalue is the positive root of the following

equation
1 − λn cot λn = Bi
(3.267)

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Nonhomogeneous Problems
The solution of a nonhomogeneous problem can be
obtained by superposition of a particular solution of the
nonhomogeneous problem and the general solution of
the corresponding homogeneous problem.
Consider a finite slab with thickness of L and a uniform
initial temperature of Ti as shown in Fig. 3.17.

T=T0
t→∞

t>0
T=Ti
t=0

0 L x
Figure 3.17 Heat conduction under boundary condition of the first kind

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Assuming that there is no internal heat generation in the

slab and the thermophysical properties of the slab are
constants, the energy equation is
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
2
= , 0 < x < L, t > 0 (3.268)
∂x α ∂t
subject to the following boundary and initial conditions
T = T0 , x = 0 (3.269)
T = Ti , x = L (3.270)
T = Ti , 0 < x < L, t = 0 (3.271)
By defining the following dimensionless variables
T − Ti x αt
θ= , X = , Fo = 2 (3.272)
T0 − Ti L L

eqs. (3.268) – (3.271) will be nondimensionalized as:

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∂ 2θ ∂θ (3.273)
2
= , 0 < X < 1, Fo > 0
∂X ∂Fo

θ = 1, X = 0 (3.274)
θ = 0, X = 1 (3.275)
θ = 0, 0 < X < 1, Fo = 0 (3.276)
If the steady state temperature is represented by θ s , it must
satisfy the following2 equations:
∂ θs
= 0, 0 < X < 1 (3.277)
∂X 2
θ s = 1, X = 0 (3.278)
θ s = 0, X = 1 (3.279)
which have the following solution:
θs = 1 − X (3.280)
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To obtain the generation of the problem described by eqs.

(3.273) – (3.276), a method of partial solution will be
employed. In this methodology, it is assumed that the
solution of a nonhomogeneous problem can be
expressed as
θ ( X , Fo) = θ s ( X ) + θ h ( X , Fo) (3.281)
where θh represent the solution of a homogeneous
problem. Substituting eqs. (3.273) – (3.276) and
considering eqs. (3.277) – (3.279), we have
∂ 2θ h ∂θ h (3.282)
2
= , 0 < X < 1, Fo > 0
∂X ∂Fo
θ h = 0, X = 0 (3.283)
θ h = 0, X = 1 (3.284)
θ h = X − 1, 0 < X < 1, Fo = 0 (3.285)
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which represent a new homogeneous problem. This

problem can be solved using the method of separation of
variables and the result is
∞
2 sin( nπ X ) − ( nπ )2 Fo
θh = − ∑
π n =1 n
e
(3.286)
The solution of the nonhomogeneous problem thus
becomes
∞
2 sin(nπ X ) − ( nπ )2 Fo
θ =1− X − ∑
π n =1 n
e (3.287)

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If the steady-state solution does not exist, we can use the

method of variation of parameter to solve the problem.
Consider a finite slab with thickness of L and a uniform
initial temperature of Ti. At time t = 0, the left side is
subject to a constant heat flux while the right side of the
slab is adiabatic (see Fig. 3.18).

adiabatic

0 L x
Figure 3.18 Heat conduction under boundary condition of the second kind

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
Assuming that there is no internal heat generation in the
slab and the thermophysical properties of the slab are
constants, the energy equation is
∂ 2T 1 ∂T (3.288)
2
= , 0 < x < L, t > 0
∂x α ∂t
subject to the following boundary and initial conditions
∂T (3.289)
−k = q0′′, x = 0
∂x
∂T
= 0, x = L (3.290)
∂x
T = Ti , 0 < x < L, t = 0 (3.291)
By defining the following dimensionless variables
T − Ti x αt
θ= , X = , Fo = 2
q0′′L / k L L
(3.292)
eqs. (3.268) – (3.271) will be nondimensionalized as:
3.3 Unsteady State Heat Conduction Chapter 3: Heat Conduction

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
∂ 2θ ∂θ
= , 0 < X < 1, Fo > 0 (3.293)
∂X 2 ∂Fo
∂θ
= −1, X = 0
∂X
(3.294)
∂θ
= 0, X = 1 (3.295)
∂X
θ = 0, 0 < X < 1, Fo = 0 (3.296)
We will use the method of variation of parameters to solve
this problem. This method requires the following steps:
1. Set up a homogeneous problem by dropping the
nonhomogeneous terms,
2. Solve the homogeneous problem to get eigenvalue λn
and eigenfunctions Θ n ( X )
3. Assuming the solution of the originaln nonhomogeneous
problem has the format of θ ( X , Fo) = ∑ An (Fo)Θ n ( X )
3.3 Unsteady State Heat Conduction n =1 Chapter 3: Heat Conduction

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
4. Solve for An(Fo) using orthogonal property of Θn
5. Obtain an ordinary differential equation (ODE) for An
(Fo) and solve for An (Fo) from the ODE
6. Put together the final solution.

We will solve this nonhomogeneous problem be following

the above procedure. The corresponding homogeneous
problem is:
∂ 2θ h ∂θ h
2
= , 0 < X < 1, Fo > 0 (3.297)
∂X ∂Fo
∂θ h
= 0, X = 0 (3.298)
∂X
∂θ h (3.299)
= 0, X = 1
∂X
θ h = 0, 0 < X < 1, Fo = 0 (3.300)
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
Assuming the solution of the above homogeneous problem
is
θ h = Θ( X )Γ(Fo) (3.301)
eq. (3.297) becomes
Θ′′( X ) Γ′(Fo)
= = −λ 2 (3.302)
Θ( X ) Γ(Fo)
The eigenvalue problem is
Θ′′ + λ 2 Θ = 0 (3.303)
Θ′(0) = 0 (3.304)
Θ′(1) = 0 (3.305)
Solving eqs. (3.303) – (3.305) yields the following
eigenvalues and eigen functions
λn = nπ (3.306)
Θ n ( X ) = cos( nπ X ), n = 0,1, 2,... (3.307)
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Now, let us assume that the solution of the original

nonhomogeneous problem ∞
is
θ ( X , Fo) = ∑ An (Fo) cos ( nπ X ) (3.308)
n=0
Multiplying eq. (3.308) by cos ( mπ X ) and integrating the
resulting equation in the interval of (0, 1), one obtains
∞

∑ ∫
1 1

∫θ ( X , Fo) cos(mπ X ) dX = A cos( mπ X ) cos(nπ X )dX (3.309)

n
0 0
n =1

The integral on the right-hand side of eq. (3.309) can be

evaluated as 0, m≠n
1

∫ cos(
0
mπ X ) cos( nπ X ) dX = 1/ 2, m = n ≠ 0
1,
(3.310)
 m=n=0
thus, eq. (3.309) becomes
1

3.3 Unsteady State Heat Conduction

∫
A0 (Fo) = θ ( X , Fo)dX ,
0
m=0 (3.311)
Chapter 3: Heat Conduction

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
1

∫ (3.312)
Am (Fo) = 2 θ ( X , Fo) cos(mπ X )dX , m ≠ 0
0
Differentiating eq. (3.311) with respect to Fo, one obtains:
dA0 1 ∂θ
(3.313)
= dX
dFo ∫ ∂Fo
0

Substituting eq. (3.293) into eq. (3.313) and integrating with

respect to X yield
dA0 1 ∂ 2θ ∂θ ∂θ
=
dFo 2
dX = ∫ ∂X
0
− =1 (3.314)
∂X X =1 ∂X X =0

Integrating eq. (3.314) with respect to Fo, we have

1
A0 (Fo) = Fo + C1 = ∫ θ ( X , Fo)dX
0
(3.315)
When Fo = 0, eq. (3.315) becomes
1
A0 (0) = C1 = ∫ θ ( X ,0)dX = 0
0
(3.316)
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
thus, we have
A0 (Fo) = Fo (3.317)
Differentiating eq. (3.312) and considering eq. (3.293) yield
1 ∂ 2θ
dAm 1 ∂θ
(3.318)
=2
dFo ∫ ∂Fo
cos(mπ X ) dX = 2
0 ∫ ∂X
cos(mπ X ) dX
0
2

Using integration by parts twice, the following ODE is

obtained:
dAm
= 2 − (mπ ) 2 Am (3.319)
dFo
Multiplying eq. (3.319) by an integrating factor e( mπ ) Fo , we 2

have d 
Am e( mπ ) Fo  = 2e( mπ ) Fo
2 2

dFo   (3.320)
which can be integrated to get
2 − ( mπ ) Fo2
Am = 2
+ C 2 e (3.321)
3.3 Unsteady State Heat Conduction (mπ ) Chapter 3: Heat Conduction

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

where C2 is an integral constant that needs to be

determined by an initial condition. For Fo = 0, eq. (3.312)
becomes 1 1

∫ ∫
Am (0) = 2 θ ( X ,0)cos(mπ X )dX = 2 cos(mπ X )dX = 0 (3.322)
0 0
Substituting eq. (3.321) into eq. (3.322), one obtains
2
C2 = −
(mπ )2
therefore, we have
2 2 − ( mπ ) 2 Fo
Am = − e
(mπ )2 (mπ )2
Changing m back to n for notation,
2 2 − ( nπ ) 2
Fo
An = − e (3.323)
(nπ ) 2 (nπ ) 2

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
Substituting eqs. (3.317) and (3.323) into eq. (3.308), the
solution becomes
∞
cos ( nπ X ) 2 ∞ cos ( nπ X ) − ( nπ ) Fo
θ ( X , Fo) = Fo+ 2 ∑ − 2∑
2 (3.324)
2

2 2
e
π n =1 n π n =1 n

When the time (Fourier number) becomes large, the last

term on the right-hand side will become zero and the
solution is represented by the first two terms only. To
simplify eq. (3.324), let us assume the solution at large
Fo can be expressed as
θ ( X , Fo) = Fo+f ( X ) (3.325)
which is referred to as asymptotic solution and it must
satisfy eqs. (3.293) – (3.295). Substituting eq. (3.325)
into eqs. (3.293) – (3.295), we have
f ′′( X ) = 1 (3.326)
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
f ′(0) = −1, f ′(1) = 0 (3.327)
Integrating eq. (3.326) and considering eq. (3.327), we
obtain X2
f (X ) = − X +C
2 (3.328)
where C cannot be determined from eq. (3.327) because
both boundary conditions are for the first order
derivative. To determine C, we can expand f(X) defined
in eq. (3.328) into cosine2
Fourier ∞series, i.e.
− X + C = a0 + ∑ an cos(nπ X )
X
f (X ) =
2
(3.329)
n =1
After determining a0 and an, and considering the f(X) is
identical to the second term on the right-hand side of eq.
(3.324), we have
X2
∞
cos ( nπ X )
−X + = 2∑
1 2
2
(3.330)
2 3 π n =1 n
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Substituting eq. (3.330) into eq. (3.324), the final solution

becomes
X2
∞
cos ( nπ X ) − ( nπ ) Fo
−X + − 2∑
1 2 2
θ ( X , Fo) = Fo+ e (3.331)
2 3 π n2 n =1

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Transient Heat Conduction in a Semi-Infinite

Body
Consider heat conduction in a semi-infinite body (x > 0)
with an initial temperature of Ti. The temperature near
the surface of the semi-infinite body will increase
because of the surface temperature change, while the
temperature far from the surface of the semi-infinite body
is not affected and remains at the initial temperature Ti.
The physical model of the problem is illustrated in Fig.
3.19 T=T 0

t=0 T=Ti

0 x
Figure 3.19 Heat conduction in a semi-infinite body

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The governing equation of the heat conduction problem

and the corresponding initial and boundary conditions
are: ∂ 2T ( x, t ) 1 ∂T ( x, t )
= x > 0, t > 0
∂x 2 α ∂t (3.332)
T ( x, t ) = T0 x = 0, t > 0 (3.333)
T ( x, t ) = Ti x → ∞, t > 0 (3.334)
T ( x, t ) = Ti x > 0, t = 0 (3.335)
which can be solved by using the method of separation of
variables or integral approximate solution.
Defining the following dimensionless variables
T − T0 x αt
θ= , X = , Fo = 2 (3.336)
Ti − T0 L L
where L is a characteristic length.

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Eqs. (3.332) – (3.335) will be nondimensionalized as

∂ 2θ ∂θ (3.337)
2
= , X > 0, Fo > 0
∂X ∂Fo

θ = 0, X = 0 (3.338)
θ = 1, X → ∞ (3.339)
θ = 1, X > 0, Fo = 0 (3.340)
Assuming that the temperature can be expressed as
θ ( X , Fo) = Θ( X )Γ(Fo) (3.341)
and substituting eq. (3.341) into eq. (3.337), one obtains
Θ′′( X ) Γ′(Fo) (3.342)
= = −λ 2
Θ( X ) Γ(Fo)

whose general solutions are:

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Θ = C1 cos λ X + C2 sin λ X (3.343)

2
Γ = C3e − λ Fo
(3.344)
where C1, C2, and C3 are integral constants.
Substituting eq. (3.341) into eq. (3.338), the following
boundary condition of eq. (3.343) is obtained
Θ′(0) = 0 (3.345)
Substituting eq. (3.343) into eq. (3.345) yields and eq.
(3.343) becomes
Θ = C2 sin λ X (3.346)
Substituting eqs. (3.346) and (3.344) into eq. (3.341), the
solution becomes
2
θλ = C (λ )sin ( λ X ) e− λ Fo (3.347)
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where C = C2C3 . The general solution for the problem can

be obtained by using linear combination of eq. (3.347)
for all possible λ , i.e.,
∞
θ = ∫ C (λ )sin ( λ X ) e − λ Fo d λ
2

0
(3.348)
Substituting eq. (3.348) into eq. (3.340), one obtains
∞
1 = ∫ C (λ )sin ( λ X ) d λ
λ =0

If we solve the problem by using Laplace transformation,

we have ∞
2 ∞ 
1 = ∫ sin ( λ X )  ∫ sin ( λ X ′ ) dX ′ d λ
λ =0 π
X ′=0 
Comparing the above two equations, an expression of C is
obtained:
2 ∞
C (λ ) = ∫ sin ( λ X ′ ) dX ′
X ′=0 π

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The temperature distribution, eq. (3.348), becomes

2 ∞ ∞

∫ ∫
2
θ= e − λ Fo sin ( λ X ′ ) dX ′ sin ( λ X ) d λdX ′
π X ′=0 λ =0
which can be rewritten as
2 ∞ ∞

π∫ ∫
− λ 2 Fo
θ=
X ′= 0 λ =0
e [cos λ ( X − X ′) − cos λ ( X + X ′)]d λdX ′
Evaluating the integral with respect to yields
∞  ( X − X ′) 2 
π
∫
− λ 2 Fo
e cos λ ( X − X ′)d λ = exp  − 
λ =0 4Fo  4Fo 
∞  ( X + X ′) 2 
π
∫
− λ 2 Fo
e cos λ ( X + X ′)d λ = exp  − 
λ =0 4Fo  4Fo 
thus
1  ∞  ( X − X ′) 2  ∞  ( X + X ′)2  
θ=
4π Fo 
 ∫ X ′=0
exp  −
 4Fo 
 dX ′ − ∫ X ′=0
exp  −
 4Fo 
 dX ′  (3.349)


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Let us define a new variable

X − X′
η=
4Fo
The first integral in eq. (3.349), becomes
∞  ( X − X ′) 2  ∞

∫ X ′=0
exp  −
 4Fo 
 dX ′ = 4Fo ∫
− X / 4Fo
exp(−η 2 )dη

Similarly, the second integral can be evaluated by following

a similar procedure:
∞  ( X + X ′)2  ∞

∫ X ′=0
exp  −
 4Fo 
 dX ′ = 4Fo ∫ X / 4Fo
exp(−η 2 )dη

Substituting the above two equations into eq. (3.349), we

have
1  ∞ ∞
 2 X / 4Fo

∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
θ= exp(−η )dη − exp(−η )dη  = exp(−η 2 )dη
π  − X / 4Fo X/ 4Fo  π 0
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which can be written as

  X
θ = erf   (3.350)
 4Fo 
where erf in eq. (3.350) is the error function defined as:
2 z −z
∫ e dz
2
erf ( z ) = (3.351)
π 0

Equation (3.350) can also be rewritten as dimensional

form:
T − T0  x 
= erf   (3.352)
Ti − T0  4α t 
The surface heat flux can be obtained by applying the
Fourier’s law
∂T k (T0 − Ti )
q0′′(t ) = −k = (3.353)
∂x x =0 πα t

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Periodic boundary conditions can be encountered in

various applications ranging from heat conduction in a
building during day and night to emerging technologies
such as pulsed laser processing of materials. Let us
reconsider the problem described by eqs. (3.332) –
(3.335) but replace eq. (3.333) by
T = Ti + f (t ) = Ti + A cos(ω t − β ), x = 0, t > 0 (3.354)
where A is the amplitude of oscillation, ω is the angular
frequency, and β is the phase delay. Introducing excess
temperature ϑ = T − Ti , the governing equation and
corresponding boundary and initial conditions become
∂ 2ϑ ( x, t ) 1 ∂ϑ ( x, t )
2
= x > 0, t > 0 (3.355)
∂x α ∂t
ϑ ( x, t ) = f (t ) = A cos(ωt − β ) x = 0, t > 0 (3.356)
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ϑ ( x, t ) = 0 x → ∞, t > 0 (3.357)
ϑ ( x, t ) = 0 x > 0, t = 0
(3.358)
. Instead of solving eqs. (3.355) – (3.358) directly, we will
start with a simpler auxiliary problem defined below:
∂ 2 Φ ( x, t ) 1 ∂Φ ( x, t ) (3.359)
= x > 0, t > 0
∂x 2 α ∂t
Φ ( x, t ) = f (τ ) = A cos(ωτ − β ) x = 0, t > 0
(3.360)
Φ ( x, t ) = 0 x → ∞, t > 0 (3.361)
Φ ( x, t ) = 0 x > 0, t = 0 (3.362)
where τ in eq. (3.360) is treated as a parameter, rather
than time.

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The Duhamel’s theorem stated that the solution the original

problem is related to the solution of auxiliary problem by
∂ t
ϑ ( x, t ) = ∫
Φ( x, t − τ ,τ )dτ
∂t τ =0
(3.363)

which can rewritten using Leibniz’s rule

t ∂
ϑ ( x, t ) =∫τ = 0 ∂t
Φ ( x, t − τ ,τ )dτ + Φ ( x, t − τ ,τ ) τ =t
(3.364)
The second term on the right hand side is
Φ ( x, t − τ ,τ ) τ =t = Φ ( x,0,τ ) = 0 (3.365)
therefore, eq. (3.364) becomes
t ∂ (3.366)
ϑ ( x, t ) = ∫
τ = 0 ∂t
Φ( x, t − τ ,τ )dτ

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The solution of the auxiliary problem can be expressed as

  x   2 f (τ ) ∞
∫
dη (3.367)
2
−η
Φ( x, t ,τ ) = f (τ ) 1- erf  =  e
  4α t   π x / 4α t

The partial derivative appearing in eq. (3.366) can be

evaluated as
∂ x  x2  (3.368)
Φ ( x, t − τ ,τ ) = f (τ ) exp  − 
∂t 4πα (t − τ )3/ 2  4α (t − τ ) 

Substituting eq. (3.368) into eq. (3.366), the solution of the

original problem becomes
x t f (τ )  x2 
ϑ ( x, t ) = ∫ 3/ 2
4πα
exp
τ =0
 −  dτ
(t − τ )
(3.369)
 4α (t − τ ) 

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Introducing a new independent variable

x
ξ=
4α (t − τ )

eq. (3.369) becomes

2 ∞  x2 
ϑ ( x, t ) =
π ∫x / 4α t
f t −
 4αξ 
2 
exp(−ξ 2 )dξ
(3.370)
For the periodic boundary condition specified in eq. (3.356),
we have
2A ∞   x2  
∫
2
ϑ ( x, t ) = cos ω  t − 2  − β  exp( −ξ )d ξ (3.371)
π x / 4α t   4αξ  
which can be rewritten as
2A ∞   x2  
∫
2
ϑ ( x, t ) = cos ω  t − 2 
− β  exp(−ξ )d ξ
π 0
  4αξ  
  
(3.372)
2A x / 4α t x2 
∫
2
− cos ω  t − 2  − β  exp(−ξ )d ξ
π 0
  4αξ  
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Evaluating the first integral on the right hand side of eq.

(3.372) yields
  ω 1/ 2    ω 
1/ 2

ϑ ( x, t ) = A exp  − x    cos ωt − x   − β 
  2α     2α  
  
(3.373)
2 A x / 4α t x2 
− ∫
π 0
cos ω  t −
  4αξ 
2 
− β  exp( −ξ 2 )d ξ

It can be seen that as t → ∞ , the second term will become
zero and the first term represents the steady oscillation.
  ω 1/ 2    ω 
1/ 2

ϑs ( x, t ) = A exp  − x    cos ωt − x   − β 
  2α     2α 
(3.374) 
where A exp  − x (ω /(2α ) )  represents the amplitude of
1/ 2

1/ 2
oscillation at point x, and − x (ω /(2α ) ) in the cosine
function represents the phase delay of oscillation at point
x relative to the oscillation of the surface temperature.
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It is useful here to introduce a concept similar to the

thermal boundary layer for convective heat transfer –
thermal penetration depth. Assuming the thickness of the
thermal penetration depth at time t isδ , the temperature
of the semi-infinite body at x > δ will be affected but the
temperature at will remain unchanged (see Fig. 3.20).
According to the definition of the thermal penetration depth,
the temperature at the thermal penetration depth should
satisfy
∂T ( x, t )
=0 x = δ (t ) (3.375)
∂x
T ( x, t ) = Ti x = δ (t ) (3.376)
Integrating eq. (3.332) in the interval (0,δ ) one obtains
∂T ∂T 1 δ ( t ) ∂T ( x, t )
− =
∂x x =δ ( t ) ∂x x = 0 α 0 ∫ ∂t
dx (3.377)
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T

T0

Ti

δ(t) x

Figure 3.20 Heat conduction in a semi-infinite body with constant wall temperature.

The right-hand side of eq. (3.377) can be rewritten using

Leibnitz’s rule, i.e.,
∂T ∂T 1d  δ  dδ  (3.378)
∂x
− =
x =δ ( t )
 Tdx 
∂x
− T
x =0 α  dt  ∫ 0  x =δ
dt 

which represents the energy balance within the thermal

penetration depth.

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Substituting eqs. (3.375) and (3.376) into eq. (3.378) yields

∂T d (3.379)
−α = (Θ − Tiδ )
∂x x = 0 dt
where
δ (t )
Θ(t ) = ∫ T ( x, t )dx (3.380)
0
Assume that the temperature distribution in the thermal
penetration depth is a third-order polynomial function of
x, i.e.,
T ( x, t ) = A0 + A1 x + A2 x 2 + A3 x3 (3.381)
where A0, A1, A2, and A3 and are four constants to be
determined using the boundary conditions.
The surface temperature of the semi-infinite body, T0, is not
a function of time t, so
∂T ( x, t )
=0 x=0 (3.382)
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∂t Chapter 3: Heat Conduction

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Substituting eq. (3.332) into eq. (3.382) yields

∂ 2T ( x, t ) (3.383)
=0 x=0
∂x 2

Substituting eq. (3.381) into eqs. (3.333), (3.375), (3.376)

and (3.383) yields four equations for the constants in eq.
(3.381) . Solving for the four constants and substituting
the results into eq. (3.381), the temperature distribution
in the thermal penetration depth becomes
3
T ( x, t ) − Ti 3 x  1 x  (3.384)
=1− +    
T0 − Ti 2δ  2δ 

where the thermal penetration depth, δ , is still unknown.

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Substituting eq. (3.384) into eq. (3.379), an ordinary

differential equation for δ is obtained:
dδ (3.385)
4α = δ t >0
dt

Since the thermal penetration depth equals zero at the

beginning of the heat conduction, eq. (3.385) is subject
to the following initial condition:
δ =0 t =0 (3.386)
The solution of eqs. (3.385) and (3.386) is
δ = 8α t (3.387)
which is consistent with the result of scale analysis, δ ∼ α t

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

3.3.2 Multidimensional Transient

Heat Conduction Systems
Consider transient heat conduction in a rectangular bar
with dimensions of 2L1×2L2 and an initial temperature of
Ti (see Fig. 3.21). At time t = 0, the rectangular bar is
immersed into a fluid with temperature T∞.
y
L2 h2,T∞

h1,T∞ h1,T∞

– 0 L1 x
L1

-L2 h2,T∞

Figure 3.21 Two-dimensional transient heat conduction

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

The energy equation for this problem is

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂T
2
+ 2 = , 0 < x < L1 , 0 < y < L2 , t > 0 (3.388)
∂x ∂y ∂t

with the following boundary and initial conditions:

∂T
= 0, x = 0, 0 < y < L2 , t > 0 (3.389)
∂x
∂T
−k = h(T − T∞ ), x = L1 , 0 < y < L2 , t > 0
∂x (3.390)
∂T
= 0, y = 0, 0 < x < L1 , t > 0
∂y (3.391)
∂T
−k = h(T − T∞ ), y = L2 , 0 < x < L1 , t > 0 (3.392)
∂y

T = Ti , 0 < x < L1 , 0 < y < L2 , t > 0 (3.393)

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Defining the following dimensionless variables

T − T∞ x y αt αt
θ= , X = , Y = , Fo1 = 2 , Fo 2 = 2 (3.394)
Ti − T∞ L1 L2 L1 L2

where both Fo1 and Fo2 are Fourier numbers but based on
different characteristic lengths. The dimensional time will
be related to both Fourier numbers, i.e.,
t = t (Fo1 , Fo 2 ) (3.395)
therefore, the right-hand side of eq. (3.388) becomes
∂T ∂θ  ∂θ ∂Fo1 ∂θ ∂Fo 2 
= (Ti − T∞ ) = (Ti − T∞ )  + 
∂t ∂t  ∂Fo ∂t ∂Fo ∂t 
1 2
(3.396)
 ∂θ α ∂θ α 
= (Ti − T∞ )  2
+ 2 
 ∂Fo L
1 1 ∂Fo 2 L2 

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Nondimensionalizing the left-hand side of eq. (3.388) and

considering eq. (3.396), the dimensionless energy
equation of the problem becomes
2 2
2
∂θ  L  2
∂θ ∂θ  L  ∂θ (3.397)
+ 1  = + 1 
∂X 2 L
 
2 ∂Y 2
∂Fo1  L2  ∂Fo 2

The boundary and initial conditions, eqs. (3.389) – (3.393)

are nondimensionalized as
∂θ
= 0, X = 0, 0 < Y < 1, Fo1 > 0, Fo 2 > 0 (3.398)
∂X
∂θ
− = Bi1θ , X = 1, 0 < Y < 1, Fo1 > 0, Fo 2 > 0
∂X (3.399)
∂θ (3.400)
= 0, Y = 0, 0 < X < 1, Fo1 > 0, Fo 2 > 0
∂Y
∂θ
− = Bi 2θ , Y = 1, 0 < X < 1, Fo1 > 0, Fo 2 > 0
∂Y (3.401)
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

θ = 1, 0 < X < 1, 0 < Y < 1, Fo1 = Fo 2 = 0 (3.402)

where h1 L1 hL
Bi1 = , Bi 2 = 2 2
k k (3.403)
are Bio numbers for different surfaces.
The idea of product solution is that the solution of the two-
dimensional problem can be expressed as the product of
two one-dimensional problem, i.e.,
θ = ϕ ( X , Fo1 )ψ (Y , Fo 2 ) (3.404)
where ϕ is the solution of the following problem
∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ (3.405)
2
=
∂X ∂Fo1
∂ϕ
= 0, X = 0, Fo1 > 0 (3.406)
∂X

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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell
∂ϕ
− = Bi1ϕ , X = 1, Fo1 > 0 (3.407)
∂X
ϕ = 1, 0 < X < 1, Fo1 = 0 (3.408)
and ψ satisfies
∂ 2ψ ∂ψ
=
∂Y 2 ∂Fo 2 (3.409)
∂ψ
= 0, Y = 0, Fo 2 > 0 (3.410)
∂Y
∂ψ
− = Bi 2ψ , Y = 1, Fo 2 > 0
∂Y (3.411)
ψ = 1, 0 < Y < 1, Fo 2 = 0 (3.412)
It can be demonstrated that eqs. (3.397) – (3.402) can be
satisfied by eq. (3.404) if ϕ and ψ are solutions of eqs.
(3.405) – (3.408) and (3.409) – (3.4120), respectively.
The solution of eqs.∞
(3.405) – (3.408) is:
4sin λn
ϕ =∑
2
cos ( λn X ) e − λ Fo (3.413) n 1

2λ + sin 2λ
n =1 n n Chapter 3: Heat Conduction
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 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer by Amir Faghri, Yuwen Zhang, and John R. Howell

Where λn
= cot λn
Bi1 (3.414)
and the solution of eqs. (3.409) – (3.412) is
∞
4sinν n
ψ= ∑
m =1 2ν m + sin 2ν m
cos (ν mY ) e −ν m2 Fo 2
(3.415)
where
νm
= cotν m (3.416)
Bi 2
Substituting eqs. (3.413) and (3.415) into eq. (3.404), the
solution of the two-dimensional problem is obtained.
∞ ∞
16sin λn sinν m cos ( λn X ) cos (ν mY ) − ( λ Fo +ν Fo ) (3.417)
θ = ∑∑
2 2
e n 1 m 2

n =1 m =1 (2λn + sin 2λn )(2ν m + sin 2ν m )

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