RISE OF FASCISM: A HISTORICAL STUDY.

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Submitted by

Name: Sonika Sekhar

ID: SF0117049

2017-2018, Semester 3

Faculty Advisor: Dr. Mayengbam Nandakishwor Singh

National Law University, Assam

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 Content

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………….....……….3
1.1 Objectives….…………………………………………………………..……...4
1.2 Review of Literature……...………………………………...…………..……..4
1.3 Research Questions………………………....……………….…………….…..5
1.4 Research Method……………………………………………………………....5
2. The Concept of Fascism…….………...………….………………………………..6
3. Factors leading to Fascism in Italy.………………………………………..……..10
4. Factors leading to Fascism in Germany….………………………….....................14
5. The Loopholes of Fascism………………………………………………………..18
5.1 Historical Loopholes…………………………...…………………………......18
5.1.1 Decline of Fascism in Italy…………………………………………....18
5.1.2 Decline of Nazism in Germany……………………………………….19
5.2 Philosophical Loopholes……………………………………………………....21
6. Conclusion…...…………………………………………………………………....25
7. Bibliography………...……………………………………………………….…....26

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Fascism stands for a doctrine, ideology or set of principles underlying the movement founded
in Italy by Benito Mussolini and his followers in 1919.1

Fascism is a term that was first prominent in Italy as a result of the heavy changes that happened
in the country during World War I and was a response to the heavy socialism and communism
that was present during the years after the first World War. The Fascist Party was made up of
charismatic speakers, mainly Benito Mussolini, war veterans and people who believed they
needed a strong government to fight for their rights.

Another apt example of Fascism was Nazi Germany. Nazism is considered a form of fascism
with a few differences but extremely similar. It is a narrower form of Fascism. With the signing
of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the end of World War I, German citizens were angry,
became desperate for relief and were disillusioned of the promises that the current government
was trying to sell them. An alternative was needed, and it came in the form of fascism.

As Adolf Hitler gained more power in government, he and his Nazi party members built their
fascist government with two goals, namely, establish a government with a single leader and
build Germany to heights never seen before. The desperation of the German people following
World War I, in addition to their desire for a new, secure direction was the perfect environment
for a fascist government to grow.

The people who believed in the Fascist Party put their trust wholly in a leader who was
excellent at twisting words and making promises that seemed like they would be best for the
country. Benito Mussolini led Italy in a similar way to how Adolf Hitler ran Germany. The war
veterans and people who were being affected by a poor economy put their trust in Mussolini
because they realized that a more traditional government system was not working for the
country.

This project analyses in depth all the aforementioned statements, that is, the meaning of the
idea of Fascism, its rise in Italy and Germany, and its historical and philosophical loopholes.

1
OP GAUBA, AN INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL THEORY 56 (6th Edi. 2013).

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1.1 OBJECTIVES

The objective of this project is:

1. To understand the concept of Fascism.

2. To analyse the factors leading to Fascism in Italy.
3. To analyse the factors leading to Fascism in Germany.
4. To study the historical and philosophical loopholes of Fascism.

1.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

1. An Introduction to Political Theory, O.P. Gauba: This book contains a wide range of
topics that fall under the discipline of Political Science. It explains in a comprehensive
manner the ideology of Fascism, beginning with the meaning and development of the
ideology. Furthermore, it elaborates explains the theory in a simple way, with a focus
on the basic facts behind the ideology, backed with quotes. It explains under various
categories, the critique of the book, which enables a systematic understanding of the
topic.
O.P. Gauba has written this book with great precision and conciseness, covering all the
major topics in political theory. The book gives the readers a clear picture of all the
topics covered, complete with critical discussions. Flowcharts and diagrams have been
inserted for an improved interpretation. The book is therefore reader friendly and crisp
in the style of writing.
2. International Relations, V N Khanna: This book gives thorough information on a wide
range of topics, dealing with both theoretical and historic perspectives. The book
includes topics like Fascism and Nazism in great detail, complete with the concepts and
leaders and their rise and fall. In addition to this, the historic relations between these
countries and other countries have also been elaborated.
This book gives a detailed study of the significant events and ideologies of the world.
It is comprehensible and helps readers of all ages to develop a keen insight into matters
of global importance and recognition. An ample number of quotes in the book better
the understanding of the reader along with a well-compiled index.
3. A History of the Modern World, Ranjan Chakrabarti: This book provides a well-
rounded, historical account of the processes of the modern world, including Fascism in
Europe. The work assesses major moments and transitions in European and world

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 history. A detailed account of Fascism in Italy and Germany has been given, describing
all the courses of history during this period.
The book helps the readers understand the complex world that surrounds us today. It is
written in simple language which makes it easy to register and retain.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What is the essence of Fascism?
2. What are the factors leading to Fascism in Italy?
3. What are the factors leading to Fascism in Germany?
4. What are the historical and philosophical loopholes of Fascism?

1.4 RESEARCH METHOD

The methodology used for this research is doctrinal as sources collected were library based.
Secondary data in the form of articles, web excerpts, and available books were heavily
relied upon.

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 2. THE CONCEPT OF FASCISM

The word “fascist” comes from “fasces”, a bundle of sticks tied to an axe. The fasces was
carried by the bodyguard of a Roman imperial magistrate, as a symbol of his authority. A
bundle of rods with a protruding axe head represents Fascism.2 The rods represent the many
groups who supported Fascism. In the 20th century the fasces was resurrected to represent both
the glory of the ancient past and unity through strength - rods tied together are far harder to
break than rods that stand on their own.

Fascism believes in the superiority of the nation. The nation refers to a collection of people
bound together by race, ethnicity, or culture. Germans and Italians are examples of nations.
The way to achieve national superiority is through the state. The ultimate goal of the major
fascist regimes that have existed, like the regimes of the Italian Fascist Party and the German
Nazi Party, was to pursue national greatness. Mussolini intended to guide the material and
moral progress of the community whereas Hitler planned to return the German nation to its
position as “the culture-founder of this earth.”3 Hitler and Mussolini wanted to place the nation
above all other bases of loyalty, including class relations and religion.

The type of state needed to fulfil this goal of Fascism is anti-democratic and totalitarian. Such
a state is anti-democratic because it eliminates democratic institutions, like the electoral,
parliamentary, and multiparty systems, that frustrate this goal of national greatness.
Democratic elections are considered problematic because the masses elect candidates who
appeal to the masses’ self-interest. This does not guarantee that the candidates have the nation’s
interest in mind. This weakens the state and, ultimately, the nation.

Parliament is deemed problematic because the parties in it spend more time arguing than
implementing policies. Other parties are problematic because, by competing with fascist parties
to gain power, they prevent fascist parties from pursuing the ultranationalist goal. The state is
totalitarian because it controls aspects of citizens’ lives, such as their leisure time, education,

2
Sheldon Richman, Fascism, ECONLIB (Oct. 28, 2018, 12:01 AM),
https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Fascism.html.
3
Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, 293 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971) [1925].

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and political activity, to ensure that the citizens support the regime’s goal. Hence Fascism, is
the ideology of nationalism upheld by an anti-democratic and totalitarian state.

Fascism generally flourishes in countries with strong nationalism and weak democracies.
Strong nationalism attracts people to fascism’s ultranationalist goals. Weak democracy has two
meanings, both of which enable fascism to flourish.4 A democracy is weak in that it is
incompetent and unresponsive. Consequently, citizens become disenchanted with it and are
willing to abandon it for another regime type. A weak democracy also refers to a democratic
tradition that is fairly new and not strongly entrenched. This also enables fascism to flourish
because it is easier to replace this type of democracy with another regime.

Fascism requires some basic allegiances, such as to the nation, to national grandeur, and to a
master race or group. The core principle is to make the nation stronger, more powerful, larger
and more successful. Since fascists see national strength as the only thing that makes a nation
"good,"5 fascists will use any means necessary to achieve that goal. As a result, fascists aim to
use the country's assets to increase the country's strength.

Fascist regimes excel at propaganda and make use of grand gestures, such as parades and
leaders' dramatic entrances. Fascists scapegoat and demonize other groups, though those
groups differ by country and time. That is why the German Nazi regime demonized Jews and
others, while Mussolini's Italian regime demonized Bolsheviks.

There are certain feelings that act as mobilizing passions for fascist regimes. They are:
1. The idea of primacy of the group. Supporting the group feels more important than
maintaining either individual or universal rights. Common crimes like theft and burglary
usually have no place in a fascist government. Since the government is in full control of
everything, it can decree heavy punishment for these crimes, discouraging people from
committing them and maintaining peace and order in the country.
2. The feeling of belief that one's group is a victim. This justifies any behaviour against the
group's enemies as the group must protect itself from any wrong inflicted upon the group,
defence is important.

4
Katharine A. Mackel, Fascism: A Political Ideology of the Past, VOL. 2 NO. 11, INQUIRIES JOURNAL, PG.
1/1, 2010.
5
Jessie Szalay, What is Fascism?, PURCH (Oct. 28, 2018, 1:45 AM), https://www.livescience.com/57622-
fascism.html.

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3. The belief that individualism and liberalism enable dangerous decadence and have a
negative effect on the group. Fascism aims to unite the people by getting rid of socio-
economic classes and creating equality among everybody. Since the government is in full
control of everybody, it can demand that the rich give up their wealth so it can be distributed
among the poor. Theoretically, this will result to the dissolution of the upper class and
lower class and make everyone in the country equal to each other.
4. A strong sense of community or brotherhood. This brotherhood's "unity and purity are
forged by common conviction, if possible, or by exclusionary violence if necessary."
5. Individual self-esteem is tied up in the grandeur of the group. This is called an "enhanced
sense of identity and belonging."
6. Extreme support of a "natural" leader, who is always male. This results in one man taking
on the role of national saviour. This could be a cult of personality around a charismatic
leader.6
7. The idea of a naturally superior group or, especially in Hitler's case, biological racism, fits
into a fascist interpretation.

The basic unifying principles of Fascism can be enumerated as follows:

1. Hatred of Democracy: Power should be held by those strong and clever enough to seize it,
preferably a dictator.
2. The necessity of violence: Force is a legitimate way to achieve power and war is good
because it binds us together.
3. Biology as Destiny: Men are born to work, women to have lots of babies. Europeans are
inherently superior thanks to a mix of breeding and education.
4. National Identity: People are better off sticking to their own, and competition between
nations is inevitable and even a constructive force in history.
5. Politics is Everything: There is no aspect of society that is separable from political theory
and action, a view that climaxed in totalitarianism, as depicted in George Orwell's novel
1984.7

6
Chip Berlet, What is Fascism?, NLG CIVIL LIBERTIES COMMITTEE (Oct. 28, 2018, 2:00 AM),
http://remember.org/hist-root-what.html.
7
Tim Stanley , What Is Fascism and Are There Any Fascists Today?, TELEGRAPH MEDIA GROUP
LIMITED (Oct. 28, 2018, 2:00 AM), https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/0/fascism-fascists-today/.

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The economics of fascism are complicated. Fascist governments' purported goal was autarky,
or national self-sufficiency. In the 1920s and 1930s, fascist leaders pitched this as an effective
middle ground between bourgeois, profit-oriented capitalism and revolutionary Marxism that
would dismantle many social institutions and persecute the bourgeoisie.

Once in power, fascist dictatorships suppressed individual liberties, imprisoned opponents,

forbade strikes, authorized unlimited police power in the name of national unity and revival,
and committed military aggression.

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 3. FACTORS LEADING TO FASCISM IN ITALY

Fascism did not rise spontaneously nor was its growth prompted by one single event. Its roots
grew from actions of people and groups over many years and of course one unique man, Benito
Mussolini. Although Mussolini took power in 1922 the conditions allowing the germination of
Fascism came from the years around 1914. Mussolini was quick to sense any political
opportunity that came about over the following years.

The pre-war years were an insecure time in Italy. Although unification had taken place in 1870,
no real national identity existed. This was due to the individuality of region, since they had
been independently governed for so long, this included regional languages. There was also the
problem of the north-south divide which was further increased by the industrial developments
of the north. Whilst the north was beginning to prosper due to the introduction of modern
methods in all of its business, the ancient agricultural techniques of the south barely sustained
its population.

At this time, a limited number of men had the right to vote, many, however, passed this
opportunity as they saw they governments as corrupt, this grew from the system
of trasformismo. Faith in the governing bodies was also waning, as the life span of
governments was extremely short. The people were dismayed at the fact that the governments
had gotten the country into huge debts, which they attempted to solve by placing high taxes
upon the poor. The governments’ lack of initiative in foreign policy angered certain sections
of the Italian community.

The lower ranks of the army had always been avid supporters of Fascism, to the extent that
they diverted equipment to them. The officer class to tended support Fascism but could not
openly show their allegiance as to keep discipline. The Police openly showed their support by
standing back whilst the Fascist used extreme violence against socialists.

Some Italians unification of Italy was not yet complete and the terre irredenta, that is, the
national movement, needed to be given Italian sovereignty. These were lands that had a
majority Italian-speaking population but were still run by the Austrians.

The government had also embarked upon a war with Abyssinia, where they suffered a
humiliating defeat at Adowa. Italy suffered 15,000 casualties and the war costs further put the
country in debt. The government took a huge blow by receiving opposition from the
Church. The Pope told Catholics not to participate the new state and priests helped to stir up

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unrest amongst the peasantry. These were very insecure times for the new state. It is already
visible how people might turn to a radical solution in this bleak period. The government was
left with an inferiority complex, which would be further emphasised, along with other
problems, during the war.

Italy’s involvement in the war was an attempt by the government to solve the problem of terre
irredente and to unite the people. However, there was much debate over whether Italy should
join the war at all. The two camps were the neutralists and the interventionists.

The government felt it had no choice in the matter; it had to go to war. Its reasoning was based
on the belief that a victorious nation would look badly at Italy for not joining the war and they
also wanted to be on the winning nations side. They of course did not know who was going to
win so they decided they would join the side that offered them the best deal.

Meetings with the Austrians over the terre irredente proved fruitless after which the Allies
offered a better deal and so the “Treaty of London” was signed and Italy joined the war. The
interventionists had proven decisive in the government joining the war, after they had had street
demonstrations for a month the government gave its backing to the war.

This is an early indication of parliament not standing up to groups who opposed it. These
revolutionary groups were called “Fasci di Azione Revoluzionaria” and Mussolini was part of
one such group. Although the Italian forces were under prepared for conflict they did fight
nobly. They did, however, suffer a major defeat at Caporetto, which had a huge impact on the
course of the war. Not because it sounded a death knoll for the Italians but rather because the
news of the defeat caused such outrage in Italy it made the Italian government readdress the
current military structure.

The defeat had reinforced the tide of defeatism and social tension. The government spent vast
sums on military equipment to ensure an Italian victory. The head of the military was replaced
and the army began to make gains on the war front. This culminated in a dramatic victory at
Vittorio-Veneto, this produced a wave of hysterical nationalism. Against this background the
problems of Italy were far more exaggerated. Especially the actions of the government, who
had shown itself to be open to pressure, fickle in its support and unreliable with the nation’s
money.

The two major consequences for Italy due to the end of the war were national resentment and
social tensions. The national tensions grew from Italy not being given all the territories it had

11
been promised at the Treaty of London. This was largely due to President Woodrow Wilson
and his concept of a New World Order. Many war veterans felt particularly hurt by this feeling
as is there sacrifice had gone in vein. They were angry that the government had not secured
what it had promised for its people. These war veterans would be the early supporters of
Fascism in later years.

The eccentric poet Gabriele D’Annunzio took the resentment to the extreme when he took over
the Yugoslav port of Fiume. It took the Italian government over a year to react, showing their
indecisive nature. The social resentment lay in the declining Italian industry.

During the war the government had spent a huge amount of money on equipment for the
military and the Italian industry had prospered due to receiving these large orders. After there
was no longer the need for the equipment, therefore no orders and so the industries began to
decline. This did not only affect the business owners but the workers too. Millions of men were
retrenched from the armed forces.8

Inflation at this time meant that small worker wages could buy even less. The workers felt
outraged that they had been made to work long hours in poor conditions for the government
during the war and now this was their reward. The war had failed to unite the country nor had
it made Italy a major power, the true consequences would be seen in a disturbing display of
lawlessness and violence over the following years.

There were red flags flying over town halls post war, postage stamps showing the hammer and
sickle, and Socialist making blood-curdling speeches about revolution. This period became
known as the “two red years,” and Mussolini was out to portray himself as the only person to
stop the spread of the “red menace.” During these years there were frequent strikes, land
seizures and factory occupations by trade unionists and peasant leagues.

The reaction of Giolitti, the Prime minister, annoyed employers, as he suggested they make
concessions to the workers. Mussolini seized this opportunity to send in action squads to assist
businessmen in the northern industrial cities and landowners, estate manager and farmers in
the Po valley and Tuscany by breaking up strikes in factories and by destroying the power of
the peasant leagues in the countryside.

8
VN KHANNA, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 155 (5th Edi., 2015).

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The squads also proved to be highly effective security guards for frightened businessmen and
bankers, who rewarded their services with money for Fascist funds.9 Socialist activity
continued to play into the hands of the Fascists when they called a general strike. The
government did nothing to prevent it and Mussolini announced if the government would do
nothing then he would.

Fascist took over public transport and the postal system and obverted the effects of the strike,
which soon collapsed due to poor organisation. Conservatives were now seeing Mussolini as
someone who could be used to stop socialism. Even former socialists were beginning to turn
to Fascism since 1921. These turncoats saw socialism as a sinking ship and were quick to join
the alternative the Fascists. During these years Mussolini successfully convinced many people
that he was their defender against Communism and importantly he gained the support of the
Church for this.

The rise of Fascism was due to a concatenation of events. All the necessary elements were
there for the rise of a radical movement. Many countries in Europe had similar activities in
them, but Italy was the first to embrace these views. As it had the society, culture and political
system in place which left the country open to the birth, growth and rise of extremism.

9
Anonymous, Analyse the Factors which Prompted the Growth of Fascism in Italy, THE STUDENT ROOM
GROUP LTD. (Oct. 28, 2018, 3:15 AM), http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/history/analyse-the-
factors-which-prompted-the-growth-of-fascism-in-italy-by-1922.html.

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 4. FACTORS LEADING TO NAZISM IN GERMANY

With the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and the end of World War I the previous
year, Germany was not only held almost entirely responsible for the war, but the country was
required to pay reparations for the damages in Europe.

After the elections, the Weimar politicians faced a number of issues that demanded their
immediate attention. The peace treaty after the World War 1 known as the Treaty of Versailles.
The Paris Peace Conference began in January 1919 but the peace treaty with Germany was
only ready to be signed in June.

Most Germans were appalled when the terms of the treaty were finally presented to them. The
terms of the Treaty of Versailles were much harsher. The clauses of the Treaty of Versailles
were to have a devastating impact on the perception of democracy and the republic in Germany.
The Treaty had violated both national pride and national honour of Germany.10

As a result of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede large chunks of her territory
to France, Belgium, Poland and Denmark. Her overseas colonies were divided by the Allies in
the War among themselves. Germany was forced to pay heavy reparations to the tune of 33
billion dollars and the total strength of the German army was fixed at one lakh. The terms of
this treaty were greatly resented by the Germans who eagerly looked for an opportunity to
avenge the same. These sentiments were exploited by Hitler who openly encouraged the
Germans to consign the Treaty of Versailles into the waste paper basket, to rebuild the empire
of Germany, and to recapture the lost colonies.

There were swift political consequences for Germany. Support increased for anti-Versailles,
anti-Weimar political parties. Years later, Hitler would use this simmering resentment to
establish the Nazi Party.

After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the Communist influence in Germany increased
considerably. The Communists organised themselves effectively and succeeded in capturing a
number of seats in Reichstag. However, there was also a growing fear of communism. An
alternative ideology was much needed for the governance of Germany. Hence, Hitler used this
to his advantage, warning the people that Communists of Germany would become the servants
of their Russian masters and follow the dictates of Communists.

10
WILLIAM WOODRUFF, A CONCISE HISTORY OF THE MODERN WORLD 203 (4th Edi., 2002).

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Due to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to suffer in agricultural
production, colonies, foreign investment, trade contracts, etc. The foreign countries raised
tariffs against the German goods. The number of unemployed people increased. There was a
severe economic crisis. There were price hikes and food shortages.11

Prior to World War I, the German economy had been one of the world’s strongest. This was
based on plentiful resources such as coal and iron ore, a highly developed industrial base, a
sophisticated education system and advanced banking techniques. Germany also had a navy
second only to Britain’s.

However, four years of total war had put enormous strain on the economy. Germany was forced
to supply its allies with food and other materials, and the Allied naval blockade ensured that
Germany could not import necessary supplies or export goods for payment. The German
government paid for its war expenses by borrowing money and soon the national debt began
to soar.

As industry concentrated on military supplies rather than consumer products, prices began to
rise much faster than wages. The situation was made worse by the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles. By handing over territory to other European nations or to the League of Nations as
mandated territory, Germany lost 75 per cent of its iron-ore reserves and 26 per cent of its coal
reserves.

By 1919, the national debt was 144000 million Deutsche marks, and by December 1922 this
had reached 469000 million marks. In order to reduce the debt level and make reparations
payments without charging additional taxes, the Weimar government started printing more
money. This only made the situation worse.

The price of everyday goods, such as bread, started to rise faster than money could be injected
into the economy. A vicious cycle of inflation had set in. While the policy of passive resistance
achieved its goal of denying France access to Germany’s resources, it had a devastating effect
on Germany’s already struggling economy. Despite having almost no coal or iron ore to export,
the government pledged to pay the workers’ wages for the duration of the occupation. This
forced the government to print even more money, which led to hyperinflation. There were so
many Deutsche marks in circulation that they became worthless.

11
RANJAN CHAKRABARTI, A HISTORY OF THE MODERN WORLD 317 (4th Edi., 2017).

15
Because banknotes were worthless, people traded items they possessed for goods that they
needed. This tended to favour wealthy people, who had more possessions to barter with. The
government’s health minister noted that there was an increase in a range of ailments caused by
a poor diet. In addition, crime, suicides and attacks on minority groups, such as German Jews,
all increased.

The government realised that it had to do something to end the hyperinflation spiral. A new
chancellor, Gustav Stresemann, had been appointed in August 1923 and he was determined to
take measures to stabilise the economy and end the occupation of the Ruhr.

He called off the campaign of passive resistance and in September, Germany resumed making
reparations payments. The mark was abolished as a form of currency and replaced by the
Rentenmark (later renamed the Reichsmark), which was much more stable. In order to save
money, the government sacked 700000 civil servants. Finally, Stresemann asked the Allies for
an international conference to discuss Germany’s dire economic situation and to reassess the
reparations plan.

However, not all of the outcomes for the republic were positive. There was lasting resentment
against the Weimar government, which was blamed for the crisis, particularly by members of
the middle class who had lost all their savings. Workers who lost their jobs or were forced to
sell their possessions for necessities such as food also carried deep grievances. Amid the fury
at the government’s response, there were political uprisings from the fringes of the political
spectrum.

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany’s military force was considerably reduced and a large
number of German soldiers were thrown out of employment. Hitler roped in all these soldiers
and organised them into Volunteer Corps that served as the party army. The members of the
Volunteer Corps propagated the programme of the Nazi Party and worked for safeguarding its
interests.

The Germans preferred prestige and glory to liberty and freedom and hence could not reconcile
with the democratic parliamentary system prevailing in their country. They felt that only a
strong man could restore the past prestige of Germany and check the rising popularity of
Communism. When Hitler promised them all glory with his ideology of nationalism, they
welcomed him with open arms.

16
The Nazis described the Jews as traitors. They said that the Jews had conspired with the Allies
during the War and could again commit treason against Germany. They told Germans that their
hardship was due to the exploitation by the Jews, who dominated German economy. The Nazi
Party did not encounter any effective resistance and its popularity achieved great heights.

Hitler, a shrewd politician and a brave soldier, was a gifted orator who captivated the Germans
by his emotional speeches. The Germans nourished a feeling of resentment against the
humiliating and insulting behaviour meted out to them by the Allies and wanted to avenge the
same. Hitler fully exploited the sentiments of the Germans and openly encouraged them to
consign the Treaty of Versailles into the waste – paper basket, rebuild the German Empire and
to recapture the lost colonies. Hitler assured the Germans that if they would abide by the Nazi
ideology their economic misery would come to an end. This greatly appealed to the German
people and they extended full support to Hitler and his Nazi party.

These are the circumstances and factors that led to the rise of Nazism in Germany.

17
 5. THE LOOPHOLES OF FASCISM

The loopholes or defects of Fascism can be divided into two broad heads: Historical and
Philosophical. Each of these two categories have been described in depth in this chapter.

5.1 HISTORICAL LOOPHOLES

The ideology of Fascism and Nazism, when implemented in Italy and Germany respectively,
ultimately led to the downfall of both the nations. These were caused by situations and factors
that did not favour the ideology due to the loopholes of the ideology. These situations that
caused the decline of Italy and Germany, that is, the historical loopholes of Fascism and Nazism
are explained below.

5.1.1 Decline of Fascism in Italy

The fall of fascism was not a one-shot event - rather, it was a progression of events, starting
with Italy’s growing difficulties during World War II leading to Benito Mussolini’s overthrow
and arrest.

However, the fight wasn’t over, yet and as soon as Italy’s armistice with the Allies on
September 8th, 1943 was announced, German troops took over most of Italy, later freeing
Mussolini and installing him as ruler of a puppet-state, the so-called Repubblica Sociale
Italiana, (Italian Social Republic) while the King Victor Emmanuel II the and Government fled
south, putting themselves under the Allies’ protection.

Almost two years of bloody civil war followed, until Northern Italy’s liberation from the Nazi-
fascists troops on April 25th, 1945, and Mussolini’s capture and execution on his attempt to
reach Switzerland.

Therefore, fascism fell in three steps: the first being July 25th, 1943 where Mussolini was
deposed and arrested by the King; the second September 8th, 1943 where Italy switches sides,
leading to a civil war between the Allies-backed government and Mussolini’s pro-German
Republic; and finally, April 25th, 1945, that is, the Liberation Day.

18
A long and bloody end was witnessed for this dark phase of Italy’s history. The major
historical loopholes in the fascist leader Mussolini that led to the decline of Italy is as
follows:

1. Since 1936, Mussolini’s popularity had been in decline, that is, with the involvement
in the Spanish Civil War.12

2. His relationship with Germany was seen as sacrificing Italy’s interests to those of
Germany.

3. He had steadily lost the support of the King.

4. Italy’s defeats in the World War II undermined his prestige, as he was supported for the
very reason of great victories at war.

5. Conditions within Italy had deteriorated with the war. Italy witnessed mass starvation,
unemployment and other major problems after its loss.

6. The ideology of Fascism and one Fascist leader failed to curb the rampant corruption
within the Fascist party.

7. With a one man show, any disability of the leader leads to the decline of the State. A
similar situation occurred with Mussolini’s illness

8. The invasion of Sicily by the allies was a clear sign of Italy’s defeat and a failure of the
Fascist party as a whole.

Italy surrendered from the World War II on 8th September, 1943. Mussolini was executed on
April 28th 1945 at the hands of pro-Allied Italians.

5.1.2 Decline of Nazism in Germany

It took the largest war in human history, the World War II, to bring about the downfall of
Nazism. Nazism in Germany ended with the death of Adolf Hitler. The course that this end
taken was sparked by the invasion of Poland in September, 1939, which caused the war. In
Hitler’s mind, it was another act of expansion and was not intended to provoke a major war.

12
TSR User, Fascism in Italy, THE STUDENT ROOM GROUP LTD. (Oct. 29, 2018, 9:02 PM),
https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/revision/history/fascism-in-italy

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Hitler believed that the British were unwilling to initiate another war and that London would
instead seek a second agreement. But within a fortnight of the Polish invasion, France, Britain
and several British Empire countries had all declared war on Germany. Since neither Germany
or the Allies were prepared for a major conflict, the first months of World War II produced
little major fighting outside Poland. Instead, combatant nations prepared themselves by
recruiting and mobilising troops, ramping up military production and organising the home
front.

This ‘phoney war’, as it became known, ended in April and May 1940, when the Nazis launched
a series of invasions across western Europe. More than a million Wehrmacht and SS troops
marched into Denmark, Norway, France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The
military forces in these countries defended gallantly but were overrun by the Nazis by a form
of mechanised warfare that emphasised speed and penetration.

In mid-1941, Hitler initiated Operation Barbarossa and ordered the invasion of Soviet Russia,
less than two years after the signing of the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact. The timing of
Barbarossa, however, proved disastrous. A great number of German troops were still tied up in
western Europe and as far afield as Greece and northern Africa. The Soviet invasion not only
committed more than a million troops to the Eastern Front, it also placed added strains on the
German wartime economy. Hitler’s generals had urged him not to order the Soviet invasion
until 1943 but they were overruled.

Despite these strains in the east, the Nazi war machine remained firmly entrenched in western
Europe. Local resistance and partisan groups carried out covert operations against the Nazis
but could not displace them. Pushing the Germans out of western Europe was only achieved
by a massive British, French, American and Soviet counter-offensive, launched on June 6th
1944.

After one of the largest military build-ups in history, Allied troops were ferried across the
English Channel, where they stormed the heavily-fortified beaches of Nazi-occupied France.
Despite heavy losses, the Allies breached the German defences and began to pour into Europe.
In the east, two years of Operation Barbarossa had proved an unmitigated disaster, costing
Germany more than a million men. By the end of 1944, German forces were depleted, divided

20
and in retreat across Europe. The defeat of Nazi Germany was not only inevitable, it was also
imminent.

Hitler shared the doomed fate of his war machine.13 His disastrous decision to invade Russia
before schedule made him deeply unpopular with many of his generals. In July 1944 a group
of officers attempted to assassinate Hitler by planting a bomb at his feet during an army
briefing. Hitler was wounded but survived, however, he retreated from public view and was
rarely seen or heard thereafter.

On April 30th, as Russian troops entered the outskirts of Berlin, Adolf Hitler committed
suicide. The leadership of Germany passed to Joseph Goebbels, but within 24 hours he too took
his own life. Elsewhere, other Nazi leaders were either in Allied custody or running like
fugitives.

The German surrender came on 7th May, a week after Hitler’s death. Nazism, the proud and
boastful movement of the 1930s, was drawing its final breaths. The Nazis had promised the
German people dignity, respect and prosperity and for a time seemed to deliver on these
promises. But their ultimate legacy was a war that had claimed the lives of more than 48 million
people, a racial genocide unlike any other in history, and a Germany that was devastated,
occupied and torn apart for more than 40 years.

5.2 PHILOSOPHICAL LOOPHOLES

The philosophical loopholes of Fascism can be enumerated as follows:

1. Possibility of the Abuse of Power: Fascism hands over the control of the entire nation
to one person. This can be dangerous since, no matter how well-intentioned a person
can be, human nature can still take over and cause him to feel entitled and superior to
everybody. His inherent desire for power and his ability to have it without question can
push him to use his position to do things for his own benefit and not for the nation’s.

13
J. Llewellyn et al, “The Downfall of Nazism”, ALPHA HISTORY (Oct. 29, 2018, 9:02 PM),
https://alphahistory.com/nazigermany/downfall-of-nazism/.

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 What’s even worse is that it’s not only the dictator who will abuse power. His family,
his close friends, and his political allies can also abuse their position to fill their coffers
and get what they want.

2. Lack the Freedom of Speech: In some liberal governments, they usually allow citizens
to express freedom of speech. Thus, they are able to think or speak whatever they think
is right against the government.14 Moreover, people are even allowed to speak terribly
in opposition to the government. However, in the fascism type of governance, this is
not at all true. In fact, even the press will have to go through censorship before they can
promote the government.

As mentioned above, fascism does not tolerate criticism and opposition. Those who do
criticize and openly oppose the dictator can be imprisoned or, worse, sentenced to death.
At this point, human rights are no longer a priority and, since the entire country is under
the control of the dictator, he can do whatever he wants with those who do not support
him. This can leave ordinary people afraid to practice free speech and express their
feelings and opinions, since doing so can result to their incarceration or death.

3. It can Widen the Divide between the Rich and the Poor: Theoretically, fascism can pave
the way to equality among the people since it can erase the divisions between socio-
economic classes. However, in reality, this doesn’t always happen. Rich people will do
everything to retain their wealth and status, which can lead them to making deals with
the country’s dictator just to stay in the upper class. Poor people, meanwhile, have no
choice to follow what the government wants them to do, which can prevent them from
striving towards a better future and further ensnare them in poverty.

4. It can Damage the Country’s Economy: Many countries nowadays flourish because
foreign investors can freely enter their economy and contribute to its growth and
development. Unfortunately, this isn’t the case in fascist nations. The fact that the
government has full control over almost all industries can discourage foreigners from
investing and starting businesses in the country since they will have to abide by overly

14
Kimberly Amadeo, Fascism, Its Characteristics, Pros, and Cons with Examples, DOTDASH (Oct. 29, 2018,
11:46 PM), https://www.thebalance.com/fascism-definition-examples-pros-cons-4145419.

22
 strict rules. They may also have to pay large amounts of money to get the government’s
permission to start their company.

The central planning authority cannot get accurate, detailed, and timely information
about consumers' needs. That happens naturally in a free market economy. But central
planners set wages and prices. They lose the valuable feedback these indicators provide
about supply and demand.

As a result, there are often shortages of consumer goods. All production is geared
toward those that serve the national interest, like military equipment and public works.
To compensate, citizens create a black market to trade the things that the fascist
economy doesn't provide. This erodes public trust in the government and creates
cynicism and rebellion in the long run.

5. It can be Used to Abuse Certain Groups of People: The dictator and his allies can use
their power to abuse people they don’t like for whatever reason. This happened in
Germany during the 1930s and 1940s. Hitler, who ruled the nation during the time,
believed that Jews were “sub-humans” and saw them as socially undesirable, and he
used his power to kill millions of Jews simply to eradicate them from the country.

Fascism either ignores or attacks those who don't aid attainment of the national values.
This includes minority groups, the elderly, the developmentally challenged, and their
caretakers. It attacks groups that it blames for past economic ailments. The others are
viewed as extraneous or an unnecessary drag on prosperity. They may be viewed as bad
for the genetic pool and sterilized.

Fascism only aids those who align with the national values. They may use their power
to rig the system and create additional barriers to entry. This includes laws, educational
attainment, and capital. In the long term, this can limit diversity and the innovation it
creates.

6. It can Drain the Country’s Funds: Fascist nations can potentially end up in financial
trouble. As mentioned above, the country’s economy can take a nosedive because of
the lack of investors. Fascist dictators usually spend most of the country’s funds on

23
 military defence, leaving only a small portion for other essentials like agriculture,
healthcare, and education.
The initiative of focusing more on the improvement of the country’s defences can lead
to overspending from the government. This is because it may spend so much on
militarization that will possibly drain the funds instead of spending it on social welfare.
As a result, the country will have stronger military, which can lead to another issue of
possible violation of human rights.15

Fascism ignores external costs, such as pollution. This makes goods cheaper and more
accessible. It also depletes natural resources and lowers the quality of life in the
affected areas.

7. Lack Industrial Incentives: As the government has control over industries, it is not a
wise decision for huge producers or businesses to invest in that country and then lose
their authority to that nation’s government. Despite the fact that the government can
create its own industry, operating as privately-owned corporation will not work. This
is because ownership can affect in the development or improvement of the business.

These are the philosophical loopholes of Fascism as an ideology.

15
Crystal Lombardo, Pros and Cons of Fascism, VISION LAUNCH (Oct. 29, 2018, 11:20 PM),
http://visionlaunch.com/pros-and-cons-of-fascism/.

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 6. CONCLUSION

Through this project, the essence of Fascism has been brought out by focusing on fascism as
an ideology focusing on the improvement of the country as a whole by highlighting the nation,
national grandeur, and a master race or group. Fascism has various pros, mentioned as follows:
1. It prioritizes the welfare of the country and gives high priority to the nation. The state
is totalitarian and omnipotent with overall progress and prosperity. The State is self-
sufficient.
2. It speeds up the decision-making process due to the presence of a single ruler of the
nation. Democracy is deemed weak, inefficient and slow and a strong leader is preferred
who can lead the nation.
3. Equality among classes exists the fascist government is totally authoritarian in nature
which has a great influence over the country’s higher classes who may be made to share
wealth with the poorest.

However, these features were not enough for the success of Fascism due to the various
loopholes in its history and philosophy. The ideology of Fascism is not backed by much support
in the modern day, with an increased focus on democracy.

Despite the loopholes of Fascism, it has made immense contribution to the disciplines of
History and Political Science. The rise of Fascism in Italy and Germany has been extremely
significant in the shaping of history, leading to the biggest war in the history of civilization –
World War 2.

We cannot ignore how the peaks of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany stirred the
world, with great support of the masses. The control of the Fascist leaders like Mussolini
have made an unaltering mark in the History of the world and has shaped the development of
various theories.

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 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

• An Introduction to Political Theory, O.P. Gauba.

• International Relations, V N Khanna.
• A History of the Modern World, Ranjan Chakrabarti.
• A Concise History of the Modern World, William Woodruff.

Articles:

• Fascism: A Political Ideology of the Past, Katharine A. Mackel.

Websites:

• https://www.livescience.com.
• http://remember.org.
• www.telegraph.co.uk.
• http://www.markedbyteachers.com.
• www.thestudentroom.co.uk.
• https://alphahistory.com.
• www.thebalance.com.
• http://visionlaunch.com.
• www.econlib.org.

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