UNIT II - AIR QUALITY MEASURES

Objectives - Filters, gravitational, centrifugal multiple type cyclones, prediction of collection

efficiency, Pressure drop, wet collectors, Electrostatic Precipitation theory, Particle
charging collection - ESP design procedure. Ambient air quality monitoring - respirable dust
sampler and fine dust sampler.

There are many ways to measure air pollution, with both simple chemical and
physical methods and with more sophisticated electronic techniques. There are four main
methods of measuring air pollution.

Passive sampling methods provide reliable, cost-effective air quality analysis, which
gives a good indication of average pollution concentrations over a period of weeks or months.
Passive samplers are so-called because the device does not involve any pumping. Instead the
flow of air is controlled by a physical process, such as diffusion. Diffusion tubes are simple
passive samplers, which provide very useful information regarding ambient air quality. They
are available for a number of pollutants, but are most commonly and reliably used
for nitrogen dioxide and benzene. The tubes, which are 71mm long with an internal diameter
of 11mm, contain two stainless steel gauzes placed at one end of a short cylinder. The steel
gauzes contain a coating of triethanolamine, which converts the nitrogen dioxide to nitrite.
The accumulating nitrates are trapped within the steel gauze, ready for laboratory analysis.
The tube is open to the atmosphere at the other end, which is exposed downwards to prevent
rain or dust from entering the tube. To ensure that all the nitrogen dioxide originates from the
test site, the tubes are sealed before and after exposure. The tubes are manually distributed
and collected, and are analysed in a laboratory.

Active sampling methods use physical or chemical methods to collect polluted air,
and analysis is carried out later in the laboratory. Typically, a known volume of air is pumped
through a collector (such as a filter, or a chemical solution) for a known period of time. The
collector is later removed for analysis. Samples can be collected daily, providing
measurements for short time periods, but at a lower cost than automatic monitoring methods.

Automatic methods produce high-resolution measurements of hourly pollutant

concentrations or better, at a single point. Pollutants analysed include ozone, nitrogen
oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulates. The samples are analysed using a
variety of methods including spectroscopy and gas. The sample, once analysed is downloaded
in real-time, providing very accurate information.

Remote optical / long path-analysers use spectroscopic techniques, make real-time

measurements of the concentrations of a range of pollutants including nitrogen
dioxide and sulphur dioxide.

The amount of pollution in the air, however sampled, is usually measured by its
concentration in air. The concentration of a pollutant in air may be defined in terms of the
proportion of the total volume that it accounts for. Concentrations of pollutant gases in the
atmosphere are usually measured in parts per million by volume (ppmv), parts per billion by
volume (ppbv) or parts per trillion (million million) by volume (pptv). Pollutant
concentrations are also measured by the weight of pollutant within a standard volume of air,
for example microgrammes per cubic metre (µgm-3) or milligrammes per
cubic metre (mgm-3).

Air Filtration Systems:

Air filtration systems are set up to block air pollution, which can be invisible to the
eye. Air pollution in industrial environments is not uncommon and ranges from dust and
pollen particles to microbes, gasses, and chemicals. Although widespread, air pollutants can
trigger serious allergic reactions in humans and animals as well as promote the spread of
airborne disease and clog electronic or mechanical apparatus causing reduced productivity or
even equipment failure in extreme cases.

Electronic, clean room, laboratory, medical, pharmaceutical, and food and chemical
processing industries utilize precision air pollution control such as high-efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) and ultra low particulate air filters (ULPA) which remove
particles as small as 0.3 nanometers. While manufacturing, automotive, aerospace and other
industrious applications may utilize these same filters, large particle removal will often
suffice and prevent equipment clogging while promoting a healthy and safe work
environment for both workers and machinery. Not only an industrial form of filtration, air
filters are often installed in commercial and residential ventilation systems as well.

In general, most air filter systems use an electronic blower to push or pull air through
a filter, or several. The impurities and contaminants, such as dust, pollen, mold, bacteria,
metallic powder, gases and chemicals can be collected for proper disposal or recycling as
needed while the air is returned to circulation or exhausted into the atmosphere. Specific
types of air filters include bag filters, box filters, fan filters, panel and cartridge filters. Each
type uses some sort of filter media. As air or gas passes through the filter, a mat or barrier, the
impurities become trapped, or in some cases dissolved per chemical reactions. Common
materials employed in the construction of the aforementioned filters include acrylic, activated
carbon, aluminum wire, electrostatic fabric, fiberglass, paper, polyurethane foam, polyester,
cotton and non-woven materials. The choice of material should take into account the intended
use of a filtration system. Common considerations include porosity, efficiency, flow rate,
filter length, pressure drop and ply. Each filter may be used alone or in conjunction with
others for optimal air purification. While some filters are reusable through repeated washing,
others are designed for limited use followed by replacement.

Alternatives to traditional air filtration systems include ion diffusers, which neutralize
air and ozone air filtration, which destroy rather than trap particles. Available in many types
and configurations, air filtration systems are available in standard and custom configurations
for easy installment and optimal efficiency.
Air Filters: The Necessity in Proper Air Pollution Control
Since the mid-century, air pollution has become a hot topic for social and environmental
movements throughout the world. Air pollution causes risks that can affect everything from
the buildings we live in, our health, and the environment around us. Air pollution commonly
contains:

Toxic fumes and gasses

Dust particles such as fiberglass and metal dust

Other particles resulting from chemical processes, such as oil mist
With expanding knowledge of air pollution and the harmful effects it can have, it is
important to have an air filtration system to reduce the harmful risks. Air filtration requires
complex machinery that can filter out even the smallest dangerous particulates floating in the
air.
Mechanisms of air filteration
Air filteration involves the removal of unwanted particles due to collision of particles with
the filter. Such removal of particles due to collisions are governed by forces called as

Impingement

Diffusion

Interception
Impingement: It is also called as Inertial impaction. Particle inertia causes it to leave the
flow streamlines and impact on the fiber. This is called as spraining effect. This is not
suitable for particles of size <5microns.

Diffusion: This is also known as Brownian Movement resulting in the movement of particles
from molecular collisions. Efficient method for particles of size <1microns.

Interception: The particle/droplet collides to the one of the filter’s fibre after coming close
enough to it. Oil metal plates/mesh are used. Affects the particles above 4 microns.
 Air filters are made up of fibre glass, sinter glass, charcoal, glass wool, dry fabric, oil
wetting fabric.
Arrangement: sandwich, flat, disk, pleated, box
Purpose: final filter, post filter, fine filter, intermediate filter
Types of air filters:
1) Ultra low penetration and high efficiency particulate air filters (ULPA & HEPA)
2) Packed towers
3) Membrane filter cartridges
4) Hydrophobic filters

HEPA Filtration: High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) is one of the most

important technologies for regulating air quality. It uses layering of several filters to ensure
that all particles are caught and the only air that leaves is of the purest quality. This process of
filtration is best used for even the tiniest types of pollutants. This type of air filter can remove
at least 99.97% of dust, pollen, mould, bacteria and any airborne particles with a size of 0.3
micrometres (µm)
Packed towers: Packed towers are custom designed to provide removal efficiencies
in the range of 95% to 99% for acid and toxic gases with a low pressure drop.
Membrane filter cartridges: These replaceable filters offer a shorter-term solution to
air pollution control as they regulate the immediate vicinity. Furthermore, they are easily
replaceable, meaning their downtime is reduced significantly so the production line is secured
for longer periods of time. These are compact, easily handled and can be manufactured as
fully disposal form. These are available as either pre filter (particulate and liquid aerosol) or
sterilizing filter (bacterial contaminants).
Hydrophobic filters: These are generally used as vent filters. They protect the
contents of the containers against contamination in the air which enters or leaves them.

Fabric Filters:
Fabric filtration is one of the most common techniques to collect particulate matter
from industrial waste gases. The use of fabric filters is based on the principle of filtration,
which is a reliable, efficient and economic methods to remove particulate matter from the
gases. The air pollution control equipment using fabric filters are known as bag houses.
Bag Houses:
A bag house or a bag filter consists of numerous vertically hanging, tubular bags, 4 to
18 inches in diameter and 10 to 40 feet long. They are suspended with their open ends
attached to a manifold. The number of bags can vary from a few hundreds to a thousand or
more depending upon the size of the bag house. Bag houses are constructed as single or
compartmental units. In both cases, the bags are housed in a shell made of rigid metal
material. Occasionally, it is necessary to include insulation with the shell when treating high
temperature flue gas. This is done to prevent moisture or acid mist from condensing in the
unit, causing corrosion and rapid deterioration of the bag house.
Hoppers are used to store the collected dust temporarily before it is disposed in a
landfill or reused in the process. Dust should be removed as soon as possible to avoid packing
which would make removal very difficult. They are usually designed with a 60 degrees slope
to allow dust to flow freely from the top of the hopper to the bottom discharge opening.
Sometimes devices such as strike plates, poke holes, vibrators and rappers are added to
promote easy and quick discharge. Access doors or ports are also provided. Access ports
provide for easier cleaning, inspection and maintenance of the hopper.
A discharge device is necessary for emptying the hopper. Discharge devices can be
manual (slide gates, hinged doors and drawers) or automatic trickle valves, rotary airlock
valves, screw conveyors or pneumatic conveyors)
Operating Problems:
Various problems during the operation of a bag house are:
1) Cleaning: At intervals the bags get clogged up with a covering of dust particles that the
gas can no longer pass through them. At that point, the bags have to be cleaned by rapping,
shaking or by reverse air flow by a pulse jet.
2) Rupture of the cloth: The greatest problem inherent in cloth filters is the rupture of cloth,
which results from shaking. It is often difficult to locate ruptures and when they're found the
replacement time is often considerable.
3) Temperature: Fabric filters will not perform properly if a gross temperature overload
occurs. If the gas temperature is expected to fluctuate, a fiber material that will sustain the
upper temperature fluctuation must be selected.
Also, whenever the effluent contains a reactive gas like SO2 which can form an acid
whenever the temperature in the bag house falls below the dew point it can create problems.
Sometimes it may even be necessary to provide an auxiliary heater to make sure that the
temperature in the bag house does not fall below acid gas dew point.
4) Bleeding: This is the penetration of the fabric by fine particles, which is common in fabric
filtration. It can occur if the weave is too open or the filter ratio is very high. The solution is
to use a double layer material or a thick woven fabric.
5) Humidity: This is a common and important problem, especially if the dust is hygroscopic.
It would therefore be advisable to maintain moisture free conditions within the bag house, as
a precautionary measure.
6) Chemical attack: This is another problem associated with fabric filters. The possibility of
chemical attack due to corrosive chemicals present in the effluent. A proper choice of fabric
filter will avoid this problem.
Filter cleaning mechanisms:
The following mechanisms are used for cleaning the filters in a bag
house:
i) Shaking
ii) Reverse air flow (back wash)
iii) Pulse jet
The advantages of a fabric filter are:
i) High collection efficiencies for all particle sizes, especially for particles smaller than 10
micron in diameter.
ii) Simple construction and operation.
iii) Nominal power consumption.
iv) Dry disposal of collected material.
The disadvantages of a fabric filter are:
i) Operating limits are imposed by high carrier gas temperatures, high humidity and other
parameters.
ii) High maintenance and fabric replacement costs. Bag houses are difficult to maintain
because of the difficulty in finding and replacing even a single leaking bag. Also as general
rule, about 1/4th of the bags will need replacement every year.
iii) Large size of equipment.
iv) Problems in handling dusts which may abrade, corrode, or blind the cloth.
The applications of a fabric filter are:
Fabric filters find extensive application in the following industries and operations:
i) Metallurgical industry
ii) Foundries
iii) Cement industry
iv) Chalk and lime plants
v) Brick works
vi) Ceramic industry
vii) Flour mills

Cost:
A bag filter is comparatively expensive to install. Its power consumption is moderate.
In most cases, the maintenance cost is high because the bags have to be repaired or replaced
regularly. The nature of the gas and the dust decide the frequency of such maintenance work.
Gravity Settling Chambers:

This is a simple particulate collection device using the principle of gravity to settle the
particulate matter in a gas stream passing through its long chamber. The primary requirement
of such a device would be a chamber in which the carrier gas velocity is reduced so as to
allow the particulate matter to settle out of the moving gas stream under the action of gravity.
This particulate matter is then collected at the bottom of the chamber. The chamber is
cleaned manually to dispose the waste.
The gas velocities in the settling chamber must be sufficiently low for the particles to
settle due to gravitational force. Literature indicates that gas velocity less than about 3 m/s is
needed to prevent re-entrainment of the settled particles. The gas velocity of less than 0.5 m/s
will produce good results.
Curtains, rods, baffles and wire mesh screens may be suspended in the chamber to
minimize turbulence and to ensure uniform flow. The pressure drop through the chamber is
usually low and is due to the entrance and exit losses.
The velocity of the particles in the settling chamber can be obtained by Stokes' law as
follows:
Vs = (g(rp -r ) D2 ) /18 µ

Where,
D = Diameter of the particle.
g = acceleration due to gravity
rp = density of the particle
r = density of the gas
µ = viscosity of the gas

The advantages of settling chambers are:

i) low initial cost,

ii) simple construction,
iii) low maintenance cost,
iv) low pressure drop,
v) dry and continuous disposal of solid particles,
vi) use of any material for construction, and
vii) temperature and pressure limitations will only depend on the nature of the construction
material.
The disadvantages of this device are
i) large space requirements and
ii) only comparatively large particles (greater than 10 micron) can be collected.
Because of the above advantages and disadvantages, settling chambers are mostly used
as pre-cleaners. They are sometimes used in the process industries, particularly in the food
and metallurgical industries as the first step in dust control. Use of settling chambers as pre-
cleaners can also reduce the maintenance cost of high efficiency control equipment, which is
more subject to abrasive deterioration.
Cyclone:

Control devices for capturing Particulate air pollutants

 Settling chambers discussed above are not effective in removing small particles.
Therefore, one needs a device that can exert more force than gravity force on the particles so
that they can be removed from the gas stream. Cyclones use centrifugal forces for removing
the fine particles. They are also known as centrifugal or inertial separators.
The cyclone consists of a vertically placed cylinder which has an inverted cone
attached to its base. The particulate laden gas stream enters tangentially at the inlet point to
the cylinder. The velocity of this inlet gas stream is then transformed into a confined vortex,
from which centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended particles to the walls of the
cyclone. The vortex turns upward after reaching at the bottom of the cylinder in a narrower
inner spiral. The clean gas is removed from a central cylindrical opening at the top, while the
dust particles are collected at the bottom in a storage hopper by gravity.
The efficiency of a cyclone chiefly depends upon the cyclone diameter. For a given
pressure drop, smaller the diameter, greater is the efficiency, because centrifugal action
increases with decreasing radius of rotation. Centrifugal forces employed in modern designs
vary from 5 to 2500 times gravity depending on the diameter of the cyclone. Cyclone
efficiencies are greater than 90% for the particles with the diameter of the order of 10 µ. For
particles with diameter higher than 20 µ, efficiency is about 95%.
The efficiency of a cyclone can be increased by the use of cyclones either in parallel
or in series. A brief explanation of both arrangements is given below:
a) Multiple Cyclones: A battery of smaller cyclones, operating in parallel, designed for a
constant pressure drop in each chamber. The arrangement is compact, with convenient inlet
and outlet arrangements. They can treat a large gas flow, capturing smaller particles.
b) Cyclones in series: Two cyclones are used in series. The second cyclone removes the
particles that were not collected in the first cyclone, because of the statistical distribution
across the inlet, or accidental re-entrainment due to eddy currents and re-entrainment in the
vortex core, thus increasing the efficiency.
Types:

Vertical Cyclone Separator

Single-cyclone separators

Multi Cyclone separator
Vertical cyclone separators are used to remove 99% of free liquids and solids 5 microns
and larger. These separators are particularly effective for the removal of solids, such as iron
sulphides. The high efficiency of these separators is due to the unique design which enables
the separator to be approximately 1/3 the diameter of a conventional separator.

Single cyclone separators create a dual vortex to separate course from fine dust. The
main vortex spirals downward and carries most of the coarser dust particles. The inner vortex
created near the bottom of the cyclone, spirals upward and carries finer dust particles.
 Multiple cyclone separators consist of a number of small diameter cyclones, operating
in parallel and having a common gas inlet and outlet. Multi-clones operate on the same
principle as cyclones creating a main downward vortex and an ascending inner vortex. Multi
clones are more efficient than single cyclones because they are longer and smaller in
diameter. The longer length provides longer residence time while the smaller diameter creates
greater centrifugal force. These two factors result in better separation of dust particulates.

Design Procedure:
The design parameters for the cyclone separator are as follows:
Length of cylinder L1 = 2D2
Length of cone L2 = 2D2
Diameter of exit De = 0.5D2
Height of entrance H = 0.5D2
Width of entrance B = 0.25D2
Diameter of dust exit Dd = 0.25D2
Length of exit duct L3 = 0.125D2

The efficiency of collection of various particles (η) can be determine form the
empirical relation and graph developed by Lapple 1951.

Cyclone Collector Design Considerations:

1) Particle size (particles with larger mass being subjected to greater force)
2) Force exerted on the dust particles
3) Time that the force is exerted on the particles

Pressure drop
Pressure drop across the cyclone is of much importance in a cyclone separator. The
pressure drop significantly affects the performance parameters of a cyclone. The total
pressure drop in a cyclone will be due to the entry and exit losses, and friction and kinetic
energy losses in the cyclone. Normally most significant pressure drop occurs in the body due
to swirl and energy dissipation. There have been many attempts to predict pressure drops
from design variables. The idea is that having such an equation, one could work back and
optimize the design of new cyclones. The empirical equation given by Stairmand (1949) can
be used to estimate the pressure drop.

The advantages of cyclones are:

i) low initial cost,
ii) simple in construction and operation,
iii) low pressure drop,
iv) low maintenance requirements,
v) continuous disposal of solid particulate matter, and
vi) use of any material in their construction that can withstand the temperature and pressure
requirements.
The disadvantages of cyclones include:
i) low collection efficiency for particles below 5 - 10 µ in diameter,
ii) severe abrasion problems can occur during the striking of particles on the walls of the
cyclone, and
iii) a decrease in efficiency at low particulate concentration.
Typical applications of cyclones are:
i) For the control of gas borne particulate matter in industrial operations such as cement
manufacture, food and beverage, mineral processing and textile industries.
ii) To separate dust in the disintegration operations, such as rock crushing, ore handling and
sand conditioning in industries.
iii) To recover catalyst dusts in the petroleum industry.
iv) To reduce the fly ash emissions.
The operating problems are:
i) Erosion: Heavy, hard, sharp edged particles, in a high concentration, moving at a high
velocity in the cyclone, continuously scrape against the wall and can erode the metallic
surface.
ii) Corrosion: If the cyclone is operating below the condensation point, and if reactive gases
are present in the gas stream, then corrosion problems can occur. Thus the product should be
kept above the dew point or a stainless steel alloy should be used.
iii) Build - up: A dust cake builds up on the cyclone walls, especially around the vortex
finder, at the ends of any internal vanes, and especially if the dust is hygroscopic. It can be a
severe problem.

Electrostatic Precipitators:
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) are particulate collection devices that use
electrostatic force to remove the particles less than 5 micron in diameter. It is difficult to use
gravity settlers and cyclones effectively for the said range of particles. Particles as small as
one-tenth of a micrometer can be removed with almost 100% efficiency using electrostatic
precipitators.
The principle behind all electrostatic precipitators is to give electrostatic charge to
particles in a given gas stream and then pass the particles through an electrostatic field that
drives them to a collecting electrode.
The electrostatic precipitators require maintenance of a high potential difference
between the two electrodes, one is a discharging electrode and the other is a collecting
electrode. Because of the high potential difference between the two electrodes, a powerful
ionizing field is formed. Very high potentials - as high as 100 kV are used. The usual range
is 40- 60 kV. The ionization creates an active glow zone (blue electric discharge) called the
'corona' or 'corona glow'. Gas ionization is the dissociation of gas molecules into free ions.
As the particulate in the gas pass through the field, they get charged and migrate to
the oppositely charged collecting electrode, lose their charge and are removed mechanically
by rapping, vibration, or washing to a hopper below.
In summary, the step by step process of removing particles using ESPs is:
i) Ionizing the gas.
ii) Charging the gas particles.
iii) Transporting the particles to the collecting surface.
iv) Neutralizing, or removing the charge from the dust particles.
v) Removing the dust from the collecting surface.
The major components of electrostatic precipitators are:
i) A source of high voltage
ii) Discharge and collecting electrodes.
iii) Inlet and outlet for the gas.
iv) A hopper for the disposal of the collected material.
v) An outer casing to form an enclosure around the electrodes.
The ESP is made of a rectangular or cylindrical casing. All casings provide an inlet
and outlet connection for the gases, hoppers to collect the precipitated particulate and the
necessary discharge electrodes and collecting surfaces. There is a weatherproof, gas tight
enclosure over the precipitator that houses the high voltage insulators.
Electrostatic precipitators also usually have a number of auxiliary components, which
include access doors, dampers, safety devices and gas distribution systems. The doors can be
closed and bolted under normal conditions and can be opened when necessary for inspection
and maintenance. Dampers are provided to control the quantity of gas. It may either be a
guillotine, a louver or some such other device that opens and closes to adjust gas flow.
The safety grounding system is extremely important and must always be in place
during operation and especially during inspection. This commonly consists of a conductor,
one end of which is grounded to the casing, and the other end is attached to the high voltage
system by an insulated operating lever.
The precipitator hopper is an integral part of the precipitator shell and is made of the
same material as the shell. Since ESPs require a very high voltage direct current source of
energy for operation, transformers are required to step up normal service voltages to high
voltages. Rectifiers convert the alternating current to unidirectional current.
Types of electrostatic precipitators:
Electrostatic precipitators can be classified according to a number of distinguishing
features in their design. These features include

Efficiency:
Generally, the collection efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator is very high,
approaching 100%. Many installations operate at 98 and 99% efficiency. Some materials
ionize more readily than others and are thus more adapted to removal by electrostatic
precipitation.
Acid mists and catalyst recovery units have efficiencies in excess of 99%. However,
for materials like carbon black, which have very low efficiencies due to very low collection
capacity, by proper combination of an ESP with a cyclone, very high efficiencies can be
achieved. The gas entering the ESP may be pre-treated (i.e., removing a portion of
particulate) by using certain mechanical collectors or by adding certain chemicals to the gas
to change the chemical properties of the gas to increase their capacity to collect on the
discharge electrode and thus increase the efficiency.
The advantages of using the ESP are:
i) High collection efficiency.
ii) Particles as small as 0.1 micron can be removed.
iii) Low maintenance and operating cost.
iv) Low pressure drop (0.25-1.25 cm of water).
v) Satisfactory handling of a large volume of high temperature gas.
vi) Treatment time is negligible (0.1-10s).
vii) Cleaning is easy by removing the units of precipitator from operation.
viii) There is no limit to solid, liquid or corrosive chemical usage.
The disadvantages of using the ESP are:
i)High initial cost.
ii)Space requirement is more because of the large size of the equipment.
iii)Possible explosion hazards during collection of combustible gases or particulate.
iv)Precautions are necessary to maintain safety during operation. Proper gas flow
distribution, particulate conductivity and corona spark over rate must be carefully
maintained.
v) The negatively charged electrodes during gas ionization produce the ozone.
The important applications of ESPs in different industries throughout the world are
given as below:
i) Cement factories:
a) Cleaning the flue gas from the cement kiln.
b) Recovery of cement dust from kilns.
ii) Pulp and paper mills:
a) Soda-fume recovery in the Kraft pulp mills.
iii) Steel Plants:
a) Cleaning blast furnace gas to use it as a fuel.
b) Removing tars from coke oven gases.
c) Cleaning open hearth and electric furnace gases.
iv) Non-ferrous metals industry:
a) Recovering valuable material from the flue gases.
b) Collecting acid mist.
v) Chemical Industry:
a) Collection of sulfuric and phosphoric acid mist.
b) Cleaning various types of gas, such as hydrogen, CO2, and SO2.
c) Removing the dust from elemental phosphorous in the vapor state.
vi) Petroleum Industry:
a) Recovery of catalytic dust.
vii) Carbon Black industry:
a) Agglomeration and collection of carbon black.
viii) Electric Power Industry:
a) Collecting fly ash form coal-fired boilers.

Wet collectors / Wet Scrubbers:

Scrubbers are devices that remove particulate matter by contacting the dirty gas
stream with liquid drops. Generally water is used as the scrubbing fluid. In a wet collector,
the dust is agglomerated with water and then separated from the gas together with the water.
 A wet scrubber or wet scrubber system is one type of scrubber that is used to
remove harmful materials from industrial exhaust gases known as flue gas before they are
released into the environment.. It was the original type of scrubbing system, and utilizes a wet
substance to remove acidic gases that contribute to acid rain.
When using a wet scrubber, flue gas is funneled through an area and sprayed with a
wet substance. Water is used when dust and particulate matter is to be removed, but
other chemicals can be added. These chemicals are chosen to specifically react with certain
airborne contaminants generally acidic gases. This process adds significant amounts
of vapour to the exhaust which causes the release of exhaust that appears as white smoke
when vented.
One reason for the development of dry scrubbing was because the sprayed water
added considerable weight and volume to the waste, which led to difficulties in storing and
disposing of the waste material.
Wet scrubbers are a special device used to remove a variety of pollutants from
exhaust gas from furnaces or other devices. These devices use a scrubbing liquid to remove
the pollutants. The exhaust gas is moved through the scrubbing liquid (usually through a
chamber) and the liquid is misted through the gas. Then, the gas emerges without the
contaminants
nants and pollutants that existed before exposure to the scrubbing liquid. When the
gas is sprayed with the fluid,, the heavier pollutants are pulled out of the gas and attach to the
liquid
uid because of its chemical composition. As the gas is passed through the cleaning mist,
the contaminants are attracted to the mist and left behind.
 Although misting is a common method of cleaning exhaust gas in wet scrubbing, a
different design forces the gas to bubble through a pool of scrubbing fluid. The method for
removing the contaminants is mostly the same, however, as the contaminants bind to the fluid
as the gas is filtered through the pool. This leaves the gas clean as it comes out and leaves the
contaminants in the pool.
Regardless of which method of introducing the scrubbing fluid is used, most wet
scrubbers are similar in design. A typical scrubber is composed of ductwork and a fan system
to force gas through its chambers. There is also a pump, and a collection area for used
scrubbing liquid and some method to bring the used fluid away from the cleaned gas. The
liquid sprayed through the exhaust collects at the bottom of the chamber where the spraying
occurs. This liquid is funneled away and collected for specialized disposal because of the
potentially harmful materials contained in it. This liquid cannot simply be thrown away or
reused because of its chemical content. These scrubbers are used frequently in manufacturing
plants that process propane and other types of natural gas.
The mechanism of particulate collection and removal by a scrubber can be described
as a four-step process.
i)Transport: The particle must be transported to the vicinity of the
water droplets which are usually 10 to 1000 times larger.
ii)Collision: The particle must collide with the droplet.
iii)Adhesion: This is promoted by the surface tension property.
iv)Precipitation: This involves the removal of the droplets, containing
the dust particles from the gas phase.
The physical principles involved in the operation of the scrubbers are:
i) impingement, ii) interception, iii) diffusion and iv) condensation.
A brief description is given below:
i) Impingement: When gas containing dust is swept through an area containing liquid
droplets, dust particles will impinge upon the droplets and if they adhere, they will be
collected by them. If the liquid droplet is approximately 100 to 300 times bigger than the dust
particle, the collection efficiency of the particles is more, because the numbers of elastic
collisions increase.
ii) Interception: Particles that move with the gas stream may not impinge on the droplets,
but can be captured because they brush against the droplet and adhere there. This is known as
interception.
iii) Diffusion: Diffusion of the particulate matter on the liquid medium helps in the removal
of the particulate matter.
iv) Condensation: Condensation of the liquid medium on the particulate matter increases the
size and weight of the particles. This helps in easy removal of the particles.
The various types of scrubbers are:
i) Spray towers.
ii) Venturi scrubbers.
iii) Cyclone scrubbers.
iv) Packed scrubbers.
v) Mechanical scrubbers.

The simpler types of scrubbers with low energy inputs are effective in collecting
particles above 5 - 10 µ in diameter, while the more efficient, high energy input scrubbers
will perform efficiently for collection of particles as small as 1 - 2 µ in diameter.
The advantages of scrubbers are:
i) Low initial cost.
ii) Moderately high collection efficiency for small particles.
iii) Applicable for high temperature installations.
iv) They can simultaneously remove particles and gases.
v) There is no particle re- entrainment.
The disadvantages of scrubbers are:
i) High power consumption for higher efficiency.
ii) Moderate to high maintenance costs owing to corrosion and abrasion.
iii) Wet disposal of the collected material.
The scrubbers are used in a variety of applications. Some are:
i) They're particularly useful in the case of a hot gas that must be cooled for some reason.
ii) If the particulate matter is combustible or if any flammable gas is present, even in trace
amounts, in the bulk gas phase, a scrubber is preferred to an electrostatic precipitator.
iii) Scrubbers can be used when there are waste water treatment systems available on the site,
with adequate reserve capacity to handle the liquid effluent.
iv) Scrubbers are also used when gas reaction and absorption are required simultaneously
with particulate control.

Dust:
Dust: Small, dry, solid particles projected into the air by natural forces, such as wind,
volcanic eruption, and by mechanical or man-made processes such as crushing, grinding,
milling, drilling, demolition, shovelling, conveying, screening, bagging, and sweeping. Dust
particles are usually in the size range from about 1 to 100 µm in diameter, and they settle
slowly under the influence of gravity.

Inhalable particulate fraction is that fraction of a dust cloud that can be breathed
into the nose or mouth. Examples of dusts for which any inhalable particle is of concern
include certain hardwood dusts (which may cause nasal cancer), and dusts from grinding
leadcontaining alloys (which can be absorbed and cause systemic poisoning).
Thoracic particulate fraction is that fraction that can penetrate the head airways and
enter the airways of the lung. Examples of dusts for which this fraction is of particular
concern include cotton and other dusts causing airway disease.
 Respirable particulate fraction is that fraction of inhaled airborne particles that can
penetrate beyond the terminal bronchioles into the gas-exchange region of the lungs.
Examples of dusts for which the respirable fraction offers greatest hazard include quartz and
other dusts containing free crystalline silica; cobalt-containing and other hard metal dust
produced by grinding masonry drill bits; and many others

Respirable Dust Sampler:

The Respirable Dust Sampler is meant for monitoring the Total Suspended Particles
(TSP) in ambient air conditions. It also simultaneously used for sampling the pollutant gases
like SO2, NOX, CL2 H2S, and CS2. These gases are analyzed to determine the concentration
of specific pollutant.

Working : The high volume sampler separates the particles larger than 10 microns
that are present in air stream. These coarse particles are separated before filtering the air on
0.5 micron size filter and allows the measurement of TSP and Respirable fraction of the
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM). The sampler draws the air with the help of high flow
rate blower at a nominal flow rate of 1.4 cubic meters per minute.

The air passes through the cyclone inside the sampler, the coarse and non-respirable
dust is separated from the air stream using the centrifugal force and is collected inside a
sampling bottle. This dust size varies from 10 to 100 microns. The fine dust with a diameter
of less than 10 microns will pass through the filter paper.

Features
Particle Collection: The sampler serves as particle collector that collects the particles less
than 10 microns on filter paper and bigger than 10 microns in a sampling bottle with the helps
of a cyclone separator.
Bower Motor: The sampler features bower motor instead of high speed blower. This is a
brushless and noiseless motor with no carbon brushes.
Programmable Timer & Relay: The sampler possess programmable relay that helps in
setting ON time and protects the motor in case of high or low voltage conditions.
Fine Dust Sampler:

Fine dust is a potential cause for respiratory diseases and increases the risk of cancer.
Health Effects.

Nowadays, dust is held responsible for the effects of air contamination on human
health.

These effects range from respiratory diseases such as cough to asthmatic attacks

The PM 2.5 Fine Dust Sampler is an advanced sampler conforms to the USEPA and
CPCB norms. The flow is controlled by microprocessor based flow controller for maintaining
the flow rate constant at 16.67 LPM. All parameters are available at an interval of every 5
minutes and can be downloaded using a USB interface.
Ambient air monitoring:
Ambient air monitoring is an integral part of an effective air quality management system.
Reasons to collect such data include to:

Assess the extent of pollution;

Provide air pollution data to the general public in a timely manner;

Support implementation of air quality goals or standards;

Evaluate the effectiveness of emissions control strategies;

Provide information on air quality trends;

Provide data for the evaluation of air quality models; and

Support research (e.g., long-term studies of the health effects of air pollution).
The recommended criteria: Selecting site for monitoring stations:

The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of the monitoring programs.

The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of compliance of air quality
standards.

Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing air pollution sources.

Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due to accidental release of
chemicals.

Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.
Type of ambient monitoring stations:

Station type Description

Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in
congested areas, surrounding by buildings, many pedestrians, average
Type A
traffic flow > 10000 vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from
curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Downtown neighborhood exposure stations- In central business districts

but not congested areas, less high rise buildings, average vehicles < 500
Type B
vehicles per day. Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas etc.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Residential population exposure station – In the midst of the residential

areas or sub-urban areas but not in central business districts. The station
Type C
should be more than 100 m away from any street.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.
 Mesoscale stations – At appropriate height to collect meteorological and air
quality data at upper elevation; main purpose to collect the trend of data
Type D
variations not human exposure.
Location – roof top of tall buildings or broadcasting towers.

Non-urban stations – In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no industrial

Type E activity. Main purpose to monitor trend analysis.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Specialized source survey stations – to determine the impact on air quality

Type F at specified location by an air pollution source under scrutiny.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Frequency of data collection:

Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring

Particulates: once every three days
Number of stations:

Minimum number is three.

The location is dependent upon the wind rose diagram that gives predominant wind
directions and speed.

One station must be at upstream of predominant wind direction and other two must at
downstream pre dominant wind direction.

More than three stations can also be established depending upon the area of coverage.
Components of ambient air sampling systems:
Four main components are:
1) Inlet manifold
2) Air mover
3) collection medium
4) flow measurement device

Inlet manifold transports sampled pollutants from ambient air to collection medium or
analytical device in an unaltered condition.

The manifold should not be very long. Air mover provides force to create vacuum or
lower pressure at the end of sampling systems. They are pumps.

The collection mediums are liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters or
chamber for air analysis (automatic instruments).

The flow device like rotameters measure the volume of air sampled.
Characteristics for ambient air sampling systems:
Five important characteristics are:
1) collection efficiency
2) sample stability
3) recovery
4) minimal interference
5) understanding the mechanism of collection

The first three must be 100% efficient. For e.g. for SO2, the sorbent should be such
that at ambient temperature it may remove the SO2 from ambient atmosphere 100%.

Sample must be stabled during the time between sampling and analysis.

Recovery i.e. the analysis of particular pollutant must be 100% correct.
Basic considerations for sampling:

Sample must be representative in terms of time, location, and conditions to be studied.

Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis.

The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of collection.

Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the fluctuations in pollution levels i.e.
whether 1-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling.

Continuous sampling is preferred.

Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection.
Selection of sampling location:

The sampling point should be as far as possible from any disturbing influence, such as
elbows, bends, transition pieces, baffles.

The sampling point, wherever possible should be at a distance of 5-10 cm diameters
down-stream from any obstruction and 3-5 cm diameters up-stream from similar
disturbance.
Size of sampling point: The size of the sampling point may be made in the range of 7-10 cm,
in diameter.

Traverse points: For the sample to become representative, it should be collected at various
points across the stack. The number of traverse points may be selected with reference to
Table below.

Cross-section area of stack sq. m No. of points

0.2 4
0.2 to 2.5 12
2.5 and above 20
Air Quality Index:

Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool to showcase air quality status. It transforms complex
air quality data of various pollutants into a single number and colour. AQI has six categories
of air quality. These are: Good, Satisfactory, Moderately Polluted, Poor, Very Poor and
Severe. Each of these categories is decided based on ambient concentration values of air
pollutants and their likely health impacts. As the AQI increases, an increasingly large
percentage of the population is likely to experience health effects.

The measurement of air quality is based on eight pollutants, namely

1) Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or (PM10)

2) Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or (PM2.5)
3) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
4) Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
5) Carbon Monoxide (CO)
6) Ozone (O3)
7) Ammonia (NH3)
8) Lead (Pb)
The AQI values and their associated health impacts are as follows: