CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
A university canteen is a place where the students, the teachers, employees
and guests can eat there. It is also a place to hang out and rest with friends during free
time. A university canteen is a part of university life. It is very important for a
university because students can take food from there without going to the outside
restaurants or stores. Besides, it also assures safe food that is impossible to elsewhere.
All the students can take foods which are clean and safe from the university canteen.
It has other importance also. It can become a meeting place. When students become
bored, they need to relax. In the canteen, students can take part in communicating in
the period of taking food.
Students depend much on university canteen. It is the reliable source of their
taking foods during school time. Sometimes the outside restaurants or stores cannot
provide hygienic and decent-quality foods that are suitable for eating. Students have
to take foods from outside campus because of the lack of the university canteen.
Taking harmful foods from outside restaurants or shops, students can suffer from
different kinds of diseases.
The purposes of the university canteen are to provide comfort for students and
foods which are affordable to anyone within the campus. University canteens play an
important role in facility zone of the university. We consider the required area based
on the number of total students and teachers. The entire canteen area can provide
approximately about 650 people at the same time.
Having a clean, hygienic and qualified canteen has many advantages not only
for the students but also for the standard of the university. Therefore, the canteen area
for Technological University (Mandalay) is performed for this integrated project
including the six of the subjects we studied.
1.2. Objectives of the Study
The main objectives of this study are as follow;
1. To analyze soil test specifications
2. To analyze the design of the canteen
3. To determine the required drainage system
4. To determine the septic tank that is required for the project
5. To achieve better understanding of the design code specifications
6. To complete management project planning
7. To calculate the estimating and detailed cost of equipment, tools, materials
and machineries that are used in this project.
1.3. Scope of the Study
The scope of the study is as follow;
1. The proposed stadium is located in TUM campus. So, seismic zone 4 and
basic wind speed of 80 mph are considered in this study.
2. The proposed canteen is one-story building that consist of steel roof truss
and reinforced concrete columns and footings.
3. Steel roof structural elements are designed according to AISC-LRFD code.
4. The structure is analyzed and designed by ETABS Software.
5. The Stadium is managed by using CPM Method and planned the Grant
Chart with Microsoft Excel.

1.4 Outline of the Study

This study consists of five chapters. Introduction, objectives, scope and
outlines are presented in chapter one. Chapter two describes literature review. Chapter
three presents structural analysis and design of canteen by using ETABS software and
general design consideration for drains and septic tank. Chapter four consists of
scheduling of this project and the estimating processes. Discussions, conclusion, and
recommendations are presented in the last chapter.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General
For the canteen project area, two buildings will be constructed instead of one.
Thus, we will be able to build just one building if the budget is only sufficient for half
of the project. Both two building will be identical to each other. Each building
consists of four compartments which will serve as shops or cafeteria individually. For
each compartment, one room for kitchen and one small room for toilet will be
included. Slab roof type will be used for toilet room to put the water tank upon it.
Each compartment can serve up to 80 students at the same time. Thus, one building
will be able to serve about 320 students at the same time.
The canteen is composed of various types of elements for primary building
such as footings, slabs, columns, frames, roof trusses. And elements for other
functions like septic tanks, drains, and water tanks. As canteen project is included in
construction, Foundation must be designed. To design foundation, soil bearing
capacity need to be know which can be calculated from adequate soil testing results.
The structural design consists of calculating the loads and defining beam and truss
designs adequate for the required conditions. To be economic and convenience,
reinforced concrete will be used for footings, slabs, columns and steel material will be
used as trusses for roofing. To achieve a hygienic purpose, the drains will be
constructed around the building. Also, an adequate septic tank will be built to store
waste systematically from the toilets. For septic tank, concrete rectangular tank is best
choice for current conditions. Construction planning and scheduling will be
implemented to build this project systematically withing the limit time amount.
Estimating the amount for the total cost of each individual buildings and the whole
project will also be studied so that one can adjust the budget accordingly before
starting the project.
2.2 Soil
Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering projects,
and it supports structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the properties
of soil, such as its origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, load-bearing capacity and so on. The design of
foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams generally require a
knowledge of geotechnical properties of soil as-

(a) the load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to the foundation
system
(b) the requirements of the local building code
(c) the behaviour and stress-related deformability of soils that will support the
foundation system
(d) the geological conditions of the soil under consideration.
The geological properties of a soil such as its grain-size distribution, plasticity,
compressibility and shear strength can be assessed by proper laboratory testing.
However, under certain circumstances, not all the needed parameters can be or are
determined, cause of economic or other reasons. In such cases, the engineer must take
certain assumptions regarding the properties of the soil.

2.2.1. Foundation
The foundation, or substructure, is the part of a structure that is usually placed
below the surface of the ground and that transmits the load to the underlying soil or
rock. All soils compress noticeably when loaded and causes the supported structure to
settle.
In general, foundation can be divided into two categories: shallow foundations
and deep foundations. Spread footings and mat footings are referred to as shallow
foundations. A spread footing is simply an enlargement of a load-bearing wall or
column that makes it possible to spread the load of the structure over a large area of
the soil. In soil with low-bearing capacity, the size of the spread footings is
impracticably large. In that case, it is more economical to construct the entire
structure over a concrete pad. This is called a mat foundation. Piles and drilled shafts
are deep foundation.
We can calculate bearing capacity using Taraghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory,
Meyerhof’s method, Vesic’s method, or Coyle and Castello’s method. According to
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity, a foundation is shallow if its depth is less than or equal
to its width. However, later investigators have suggested that foundations with depth
equal to 3 or 4 times their width may be defined as shallow foundations.
2.2.2. Design of Footing
Footings are designed to resist wind or earthquake effects in combination
width the dead and live loads. In square isolated footing design, the items considered
are soil pressure under the footing, shear (one way or two ways), bending moment,
required steel area, development length and load transfer from column to footing.
2.3. Construction Management
Management is the science and art of planning, organizing, leading and
controlling the work of organization and of using all available organization resources
to reach stated organization goals.
Construction management deals with economical consumption of the
resources available in the least possible time for successful completion of construction
project. “Men”, “materials”, “machinery” and “money” are termed as resources in
construction management.
2.3.1. Objectives of Construction Management
The main objectives of construction management are;
(a) Completing the work within estimated budget and specified time
(b) Maintaining a reputation for high quality workmanship
(c) Taking sound decisions and delegation of authority
(d) Developing an organization as a team
2.3.2. Functions of Construction Management
The functions of construction management are;
(a)Planning
(b)Scheduling
(c)Organizing
(d)Staffing
(e)Directing
(f)Controlling
(g)Coordinating
2.3.3. Planning in Construction Management
 It is the process of selecting a particular method and the order of work to be
adopted for a project from all the possible ways and sequences in which it could be
done. It essentially covers the aspects of “What to do” and “How to do it”.

2.3.4. Importance of construction project planning

Importance of construction project planning are;
(a) Planning helps to minimize the cost by optimum utilization of
available resources
(b) Planning reduces irrational approaches, duplication of works and inter
departmental conflicts
(c) Planning encourages innovation and creativity among the construction
managers
(d) Planning imparts competitive strength to the enterprise
2.3.5. Scheduling in Construction Management
Scheduling is the fitting of the final work plan to a time scale. It shows the
duration and order of various construction activities. It deals with the aspect of “when
to do it”.
2.3.6. Importance of construction project scheduling
Scheduling of the programming, planning and construction process is a vital
tool in both the daily management and reporting of the project progress.
2.3.7. Organizing
Organizing is concerned with decision of the total construction work into
manageable departments/sections and systematically managing various operations by
delegating tasks to individuals.
2.3.8. Staffing
Staffing is the provision of right people to each section/department created for
successful completion of a construction project.
2.3.9. Directing
It is concerned with training sub ordinates to carryout assigned tasks,
supervising their work and guiding their efforts. It also involves motivating staff to
achieve desired results.
2.3.10. Controlling
It involves a constant review of the work plan to check on actual achievements
and to discover and rectify deviation through appropriate corrective measures.
2.3.11. Coordinating
It involves bringing together and coordinating the work of various departments
and sections as to have good communication. It is necessary for each section to aware
of its role and the assistance to be expected from others.
2.3.12. Importance of Construction Management
Construction management practices invariably lead to “maximum production
at least cost”. A good construction management, results in completion of a
construction project with in the stipulated budget.
Construction management provides importance for optimum utilization of
resources. In other words, it results in completion of a construction project with
judicious use of available resources.
Construction management provides necessary leadership, motivates
employees to complete the difficult tasks well in time and extracts potential talents of
its employees.
Construction management is beneficial to society as the effective and efficient
management of construction projects will avoid, escalation of costs, time overrun,
wastage of resources, unlawful exploitation of labor and pollution of environment.

2.4. Structural Analysis

The structural design consists of calculating the loads and defining beam and
truss designs adequate for the required conditions.
2.4.1. Loads
Loads that act on structure can be divided in to three board categories: dead
loads, live loads and environmental loads.
2.4.2. Dead Load
Dead loads, also known as permanent or static loads, are those predominantly
associated with the weight of the structure itself, and as such remain stationary and
relatively constant over time. Dead loads may include the weight of any structural
elements, permanent non-structural partitions, immovable fixtures such as plastered
ceilings, finish floors, built-in cupboards, and so on. They can be calculated with good
accuracy from design configuration, dimensions of the structure and density of the
materials.

2.4.3. Live Load

Live loads, also known as imposed loads, are usually temporary, changeable
and dynamic. The intensity of these loads may vary depending on the time of day.
Because of the unknown nature of the magnitude, location, and density of live load
items, realistic magnitudes and the positions of such loads are very difficult to
determine. They may be either fully or partially in place or not present at all, and also
may change in location. Live loads may be concentrated or distributed and may
involve impact, vibration, or acceleration.
2.4.4. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads consist of mainly of snow loads, wind loads, earthquake
loads (i.e. inertia forces caused by earthquake motions), soil pressures on subsurface
portions of structures, loads from possible pounding of rainwater on flat surfaces and
forces caused by temperature differentials. Like live loads, environmental loads at any
given time are uncertain both in magnitude and distribution.
2.4.5. Wind Load
Every building or structural and every portion shall be designed and
constructed to resist to wind effects determined in accordance with the requirements
of UBC-97. Wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal direction. No
reduction in wind pressure shall be taken for shielding effect of adjacent structures.
Basic wind speed is the fastest-mile wind speed associated with an annual probability
of 0.02 measured at appoint 33 feet (1000mm) above the ground for an area having
exposure category C.
Exposure B has terrain with buildings, forests of surface irregularities,
covering at least 20 percent of the ground level area extending 1 mile or more from
the site.
Exposure C has terrain that is flat and generally open, extending ½ mile or
more from the site in any full quadrant.
Exposure D represents the most severe exposure in areas with basic wind
speeds of 80 miles per hour (mph) or greater and has terrain that is flat and
unobstructed facing large bodies of water over 1 mile or more in width relative to any
quadrant of the building site. Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline ¼ mile or
10 times the building height, whichever is greater.
The design wind pressures for buildings and structures and there in shall be
determined for any height in accordance with the following formula;
P=Ce CqqsIw
Where,

P=Design wind pressure

Ce=A factor that combines the effect of height, exposure and gust factor are given in
UBC-97.
Cq=Pressure coefficient which takes into consideration whether the structural system
such as building bracing or portion of curtain wall is being designed as given in UBC-
97.
Iw=Importance factor as set forth in UBC-97.
Qs=wind stagnation pressure at the standard height.
There are two methods for obtaining Cq;
Method 1: Normal force method.
Method 2: Projected area method.
Normal force method shall be used for the design of rigid frames and may be
used for any structure.
Projected area method may be used for any structure less than 200 ft in height
expect those using gabled rigid frames.
2.4.6. Seismic load (Earthquake load)
Earthquake loading consists of the inertia forces of the building mass that
result from the shaking of its foundation by a seismic disturbance. Earthquake
resistance design concentrates particularly on the translational inertia forces, whose
effects on a building are more significant than the vertical or rotational shaking
components.
The general philosophy of earthquake resistant design for buildings is based
on the principles that they should
(1) resist minor earthquake without damage
(2) resist average earthquake without structural damage but accepting the probability
of non-structural damage.
(3) resist average earthquake with the probability of structural as well as non-
structural damage, but without collapse.
Some adjustments are made to the above principles to recognize that certain
buildings with a virtual function to perform in the event of an earthquake should be
stronger.
The following factors should be kept in consideration to determine the base
shear due to earthquake.
Seismic Zone Factor, Z
Seismic Importance Factor, I
Soil Profile Type
Seismic Source Classification
Near Source Factor, Na and Nv
Seismic Response Coefficient, Ca and Cv
Response Modification Factor, R
2.4.7. Seismic zone factor, Z;
The seismic zone factor, Z, accounts for the amount of seismic risk percent in
a building’s seismic zone based on the anticipated maximum ground acceleration at
the site. The UBC-97 provisions contain six different seismic zones, with zone 0
representing the least risk and zone 4 encompassing areas with a chance of severe
shaking. The value of Z ranges from0.075 to 0.4 for seismic zone 0 to 4. The seismic
zone represents ground motion acceleration values on rock with 10 percent
probability of being exceeded in 50 years. Another way of saying this is that the
seismic zone represents the maximum ground motion acceleration vales on rock
associated with an earthquake that is expected to occur once in every 475-years. Table
8 shows the seismic zone factors for each of the seismic zones. The values of the
seismic zone factor are developed considering historical records and geological data
and seismological information.
Occupancy categories;
When earthquake disaster strikes a community, any major structural and
nonstructural damage occur to a facility that could threaten life safety. Certain
facilities such as hospitals and police and fire stations cannot be shut down under
these circumstances. Accordingly, law requires that these facilities be designed to
remain operational after an earthquake. Occupancy categories are shown in Table.
Seismic Importance Factor, I
 The seismic importance factor is either 1.0 or 1.25, depending on the how
critical it is for the structure to survive a major earthquake with minimal
damage.UBC-97 specifies that a higher importance factor, I, is designated for
essential and hazardous facilities in order to ensure that these facilities remain
functional and operational after a severe earthquake. Seismic importance factor is
shown in Table 9.
Soil-profile types: SA through SP;
Soft soil may amplify earthquake ground motion.UBC-97 specifies site be
assigned a soil-profile type found by a properly substantiated geotechnical
investigation. Table 10 shows a detailed description on soil profiles.
Seismic source classification;
In addition to the seismic zone, site soil profile classification, and the
importance factor for establishing site seismic hazard characteristics for each site.
UBC-97 provisions require the proximity of each site to active seismic sources to be
known. There are three seismic source types that range from the most active source A
to the least active source C. Faults are classified by the maximum moment magnitude
potential, M and slip rate, SR. Table 11 shows seismic source type and description.
Near-source factors: Na and Nv
When structures are built very near or directly on the top of faults, severe
damage to structures is likely to happen. The ground acceleration that these structure
experience may be up to twice the acceleration that more distant structures
experience. The UBC-97 has adopted two near-source factors, N a (acceleration
controlled factor for long fundamental period structures) and N v (velocity controlled
factor for long fundamental period structures), to minimize this impact in seismic
zones. Near-source factors are shown in Table 12.
Seismic response coefficients: Ca and Cv
Analyzing a structure requires compactable seismic response coefficients Ca
and Cv, shown in Table 13. The coefficients account for the increased severity of the
ground motion and are influenced by the seismic zone, proximity of the site to active
seismic sources, and soil profile characteristics.
Response modification factor, R
The response modification factor, R is given in Table 14.
2.4.8. Checking for Structural Stability
 The superstructure should be checked in the following cases according to
UBC-97.
P-_ Effect
Storey Drift
Overturning Moment
Sliding Resistance
Torsional Irregularity

2.5. Septic tank

A septic tank is an underwater sedimentation tank used for wastewater
treatment through the process of biological decomposition and drainage. It is a special
form of primary sedimentation tank with a longer detention time in which digestion of
settled sludge also take place. The use of concrete septic tank is an efficient way to
contain wastewater generated from toilets which are intended for canteen areas. Many
diseases such as infectious hepatitis, typhoid and various types of diarrhea can be
occurred due to improper disposal of human wastes. Thus, safe disposal of all human
and domestic wastes is necessary. Wastes are disposed such a way that they will not
contaminate any drinking water from surrounding.
2.5.1. Tank Materials and Shapes
The use of septic tank is an efficient way to contain wastewater generated
from households. For long-term use of a tank, three types of materials have been
adequate. Those materials are concrete, polyethylene and fiberglass.
Both fiberglass and polyethylene plastic tanks are mostly round and capsule
shaped. They are very light and very strong and can resist rusting or rotting. Thus,
they make a very good choice for durability. However, using above two materials
mostly expensive.
Concrete tanks are the most popular and common type. They are strong,
durable, stable and modest in cost.
2.5.2. Concrete Septic Tank
Concrete septic tank is the most popular kind of tank as it is the easiest to
install and most economic. Concrete septic tank come in different kinds that are used
to segregate water from the solids in waste generated from households. The water is
drained using a filtering drain field, as solids stay at the bottom and are pumped out
regularly. There are two types of concrete septic tanks. They are precast septic tank
and poured septic tank.
2.5.3. Advantages of Concrete Septic Tank
The advantages of concrete septic tank are as follows:
(a) Strengthen over time and can withstand for decades.
(b) The tank cannot be able to float during wet conditions due to heavy
weight.
(c) Completely water tight and pumping out process is easy.
(d) Resistant to Damage from Heavy Machinery.
(e) Can Contain Large Volumes of Wastes.
2.5.4. Disadvantages of Concrete Septic Tank
The disadvantages of concrete septic tanks are as follow:
(a) Concrete can Crack Over Time
(b) Higher Risk of Contamination due to cracking
(c) Involves Complicated Installation
(d) The effluent is dark and foul smelling with high BOD and is often worse
than the influent.
(e) Period cleaning, removal and disposal of sludge are mostly taken long
duration.
2.5.5. Design and Construction Features
Since a septic tank is a settling-cum-digestion tank, it is designed based on
these following three functions. And the tank should be large enough to provide those
requirements:
(1) Sedimentation
(2) Sludge digestion
(3) Storage of sludge and scum
2.5.6. Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the process of settling of particles and separated from water.
Those particles are heavier than water. The terms sedimentation and settling are used
interchangeable. A sedimentation tank allows suspended particles to settle out of
water or wastewater as it flows slowly through the tank, thereby providing some
degree of purification. A layer of accumulated solids, called sludge, forms at the
bottom of the tank and is periodically removed. Unit weight of sediment may vary
from 40 to 70 lb/cu-ft.
2.5.7. Sludge Digestion
Sludge digestion is a biological process in which organic solids are
decomposed into stable substances. Digestion reduces the total mass of solids,
destroys pathogens, and makes it easier to dewater or dry the sludge.
Anaerobic digestion is the process for the reduction of sludge without the use
of air or elemental oxygen. In anaerobic digestion, organic pollutants are converted by
anaerobic micro-organisms to a gaseous product (including methane gas) that has the
potential for reuse. The time required for anaerobic digestion is depend upon the
temperature. Unit weight of sludge may vary from 65 to 75 lb/cu-ft.
2.5.8. Storage of Sludge and Scum
Sludge is the accumulation of solids at the bottom of the tank, while scum is a
partially submerged mat of floating solids that may form at or near the surface. Space
must exist in the tank to store these residues during the intervals between pumping.
Otherwise, the sludge and scum will eventually be scoured from the tank and will
clog the leach field and receiving soil.
2.5.9. Sludge Withdrawal
Wastes that are not decomposed by the anaerobic digestion must be removed
from the septic tank eventually. Otherwise the tank will be filled up. If the sludge
overflows the septic tank into the leach field, it may clog the leach field piping or
decrease the soil porosity itself which will result in requiring expensive repairs.
Sludge is withdrawn from the septic tank either ever six months or annually.
For small domestic tanks, it can be done at least once in 2 to 3 years.
2.5.10. Construction Details
A well-built septic tank will not leak and should be able to withstand earth
movements. The septic tank may be constructed of brick masonry, stone masonry or
concrete. They are provided with water tight cover, along with a ventilation pipe,
extending at least 2 m above the top of highest building. For small capacity, two
chambers are provided and three or more chambers are provided for larger capacities,
with a partition wall at a distance of about 2/3 the length from the inlet. The inlet and
outlet are located at opposite ends. Baffles are generally provided at both inlet and
outlet and should dip 25 to 30 cm into and project 15 cm above the liquid level. The
floor and walls of the tank should be made of cement concrete and slope towards the
sludge outlet. Both floor and walls should be well plastered to make them water tight.
Ventilation pipe must be installed to remove gases like Sulphide, Ammonia, Methane
from the septic tank to reduce damages caused by the pressure in the tank. The vent
pipe from septic tank is attached to the vent pipe line of building which located at the
roof top.

2.6. Drainage System

2.6.1. Stormwater Flow
The stormwater flow is the additional flow that would occur during the rainy
season. It consists of runoff available from roofs, streets, yards, open spaces, etc.,
during rainfall. The storm water flow is also known as wet weather flow. The runoff
or stormwater flow depends upon the following factors;
(1) Catchment area
(2) Ground slope
(3) Permeability of ground
(4) Extent of impervious area
(5) Extent of vegetation growth
(6) Rainfall intensity
(7) Rainfall duration
(8) Condition of ground prior to the rainfall
(9) Concentration of compactness of catchment area
(10) Climatic conditions such as wind, humidity temperature etc.
For the purpose of estimating stormwater flow for sewer desing, the methods
are commonly followed:
(1) Rational method
(2) Empirical method
(3) Unit-hydrograph method
(4) Flood frequency method
Catchments possessing some or all of the following properties are small in
hydrologic sense. These are (1) rainfall can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in
time (2) rainfall can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in space (3) storm
duration usually exceeds concentration time (4) runoff is primarily by overland flow
and (5) channel storage processes are negligible. The rational formula is only
applicable to the small-size catchments which are less than 50 km2.
2.6.2. Open Channel Flow
The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow.
Open channel flow must have a free surface which is subject to atmospheric pressure.
It is assumed that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that
the slope of the channel is small. In this case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade
line and the depth of the water corresponds to the piezometric height.
Flow conditions in an open channel are characterized as steady, unsteady,
uniform, varied, steady gradually varied, steady rapidly varied, unsteady gradually
varied, unsteady rapidly varied.

1. Types of Flow
2. Types of Channel

2.6.3. Construction types of channel

An open channel is a conduit in which water flows with a free surface. The free
surface is subjected to atmospheric pressure. For the design of channels, three types of
channels can be considered as
(1) Lined or non- erodible
(2) Unlined, earthen or erodible, and
(3) Grass-Lined.

2.6.4. Channel Flow

The channel flow in drainage occurs under open channel flow and closed
channel flow. The open channel flow occurs when the hydraulic grade line lies on the
surface of the flowing liquid which is thus exposed to the atmosphere. The size and
slope or gradient of the open channel must be adequate for the flow rate to be carried
with a velocity sufficient to inhibit deposition of solids, thereby being self-cleaning.
The rate of flow of sewage from any district varies with the season, the day, the hour
and other conditions. The maximum and minimum rates of flow are the controlling
factors in the design of open channel.
2.6.5. Friction Flow Formula
When water enters a pipe or a channel at a constant rate, and if it escapes
freely at the lower end, steady uniform flow will soon be established. Steady flow is
that in which the same volume of liquid flows past any given point in each small unit
of time. Uniform flow is that which is free from changes in velocity along the course
of the conduit or stream. Water moves downstream in pipe or channel impelled by the
force of gravity. It will move at such a velocity that available head or fall will be used
up in overcoming friction and to attain kinetic energy or velocity head. The amount of
friction will depend directly upon the roughness of the surface of the pipe or channel,
directly as the area of the contact surface, approximately as the square of the velocity,
directly as the density of the liquid. These relationships can be expressed by several
and empirical formulae that are as appropriate for normal waste as for clean water, the
two most common areas considered below.
2.6.6. Chezy Formula
Chezy formula describes the mean flow velocity of open channel flow. Chezy
gives the following formula;
1
V = C (RS)2 (2.9)

where, V = mean velocity (ft/s or m/s)

S = slope of the hydraulic grade line or slope of the water surface for uniform
flow
R = hydraulic radius (ft or m)
C = chezy's friction coefficient
2.6.7. Manning Formula
Because of its simplicity and accuracy and its applicability to open-channel
flow, the Manning formula in most widely used to compute velocities and flows in
sewers for given slopes, depths of flow and pipe properties. In its general form, the
equation is written;
1.49
Q= AR2/3 S1/2 (British / USA units) (2.10)
n
1
Q= AR2/3 S1/2 (Metric units) (2.11)
n
where, Q = discharge (ft3/s or m3/s)
R = hydraulic radius (ft or m)
n = roughness coefficient
 S = slope of the hydraulic gradient in open channel
The velocity and discharge are calculated by using Manning formula. Values of
manning roughness coefficient are listed in Appendix A, Table A.2.
2.6.8. Channel Velocity
The wastewater must flow in the channel at all times with velocity sufficient
to keep it in suspension. While calculating velocities the sloe is always referred to as
the hydraulic gradient and not the bed-fall. In the case of open channels, the hydraulic
gradients correspond to the slope of the water surface. For construction purposes,
however, the slope of channel is that of its inversion. The velocity should neither
become very small nor very great. If too small, the suspended matter gets settled
down in the sewer because of the loss of the transporting power of flow. The
transporting power depends upon the depth of flow. If too great, the suspended matter
is likely to erode the material of the channel.
In general, a mean velocity of 0.3 m/s or there about is sufficient to prevent
the deposition of sewage solids of a pulverized nature though this velocity is
insufficient to prevent deposition of mineral matter such as sand and gravel.
2.6.9. Minimum Permissible Velocity
The terminology minimum permissible velocity refers to the lowest velocity
which will prevent both sedimentation and vegetative growth. In general, average
velocity of 0.61 to 0.91 m/s (2 to 3 ft/s) will prevent sedimentation when the silt load
of the flow is low. A velocity is 0.76 m/s (2.5 ft/s) is usually sufficient to prevent the
growth of vegetation which could significantly affect the conveyance of the channel.
2.6.10. Maximum Permissible Velocity
The maximum velocity of flow chiefly depends upon the character of the
suspended matter because of its active erosion. O account of the climatic conditions
and habits of people, more elusive substances are liable to be carried in channels. The
maximum velocity will also depend upon the quality of channel materials as shown in
Table 2.3. The maximum permissible velocity is thus limited to about 3 m/s though in
practice it should preferably not exceed 2.5 m/s.

Table 1. Maximum Permissible Velocities and Channel Materials

Type of Material Maximum Permissible Velocity (m/s)
Earthen Channel 0.6-1.2
Brick-Lined 1.5-2.4
Concrete 2.4-3.0
Stoneware 3.0-4.5