Applications of Power Electronics

Graph of Depletion Function of Fuels

18
x 10
1.2

Coal
1.0
Depletion Function:
Energy Production in Joules

0.8
, , are constants
for a particular type of fuel.
0.6

0.4

0.2
Oil
Natural Gas
Uranium
0
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300
Years
Hazards Caused by Burning of Fossil Fuels

Ozone layer Acid rain Photochemical

depletion oxidants (Visibility)

Volatile Organic
Compounds
Fine Inorganic
Particles

Combustion
Global warming of fossil fuels Health effects

We need to reduce consumption of fossil fuels because it

causes environmental pollution and health hazards.
Therefore we have to harness energy needed for
development from other sustainable sources like solar and
wind.
Higher Energy Efficiency Saves Fuels
Efficiency Power Power
100 % Loss Left
Steam Turbine % %

65 35

Generator G

2.5 34.1
Step-up Voltage
to Transmission
Level
Overall efficiency:

1.2 33.7
Step-down
Voltage to Sub-
transmission Level

1.6 33.2
Step-down
Voltage to This shows that every kW
Distribution
of output power saved results
Level
in a savingof 6 kW of fuel
2.5 32.4 power at the generating site.
Switchgear
2.0 31.7

Induction Motor IM

12.0 27.9

Pump
40.0 16.7
What is Power Electronics?

Power electronics is the technology associated with

efficient conversion and control of electric power by using
power semiconductor devices.
Power electronics encompasses the use of electronic
components, the application of circuit theory and design
techniques, and the development of analytical tools toward
efficient electronic conversion, control, and conditioning of
electric power. — Definition given by IEEE Power
Electronics Society.
Goal of Power Electronics

Efficient conversion, conditioning, or processing and

control of electric power using solid-state semiconductor
devices in order to supply high quality power to the load
causing minimum pollution of environment and the utility
supply circuit.
Block Diagram of a Power Processor

Output
Raw Electrical
Electrical Converter Power
Power in the Form
Required by
Control Load
Signals
Feedforward

Control Circuit
or
Reference Triggering Circuit Feedba ck

Converter has power switching semiconductor devices and

energy storing elements like inductors and capacitors.
Resistive elements are avoided in converters because they
cause power loss and reduce efficiency.
Controller switches on/off the switching devices present in
the converter.
Example of a Power Processor

Power processor

+
A.C. A.C. A.C.
Converter 1 D.C. C Converter 2
motor

−
A.C. supply A.C. supply
fixed voltage
variable voltage
at 50 Hz
Controller Controller and frequency
or 60 Hz

A power processor may have more than one stage of

power conversion.
Types of Converters

Converter Type Input Output Symbol

A.C. at constant
D.C. at
Rectifier voltage and
variable voltage
frequency

A.C. at
D.C. at desired voltage
Inverter
constant voltage
and frequency

D.C. at D.C. at
Chopper
constant voltage desired voltage

A.C. at constant A.C. at desired

Cycloconverter voltage and voltage and
frequency frequency

A.C. at constant A.C. at

A.C. Voltage
voltage and desired voltage
Controller
frequency and input frequency
ACVC
Power Electronics Vs Signal Processing

In Power Electronics —
The focus is on power conversion at the highest possible
efficiency using very small control signals.
Semiconductor devices work as switches.
Power handled may range from a few watts to several
mega-watts.
In Signal Processing —
Semiconductor devices generally work as controlled
sources in the linear region of their characteristics.
The focus is on information processing with minimum loss of
information.
Power handled will be of the order of few milli-watts or few
watts.
Multidisciplinary Nature of Power Electronics

Solid State Simulation and

Physics Computing Signal
Circuit Processing
Theory
Analog
Electronics
Power
Power
Systems
Electronics Digital
Electronics
Electrical
Machines
Microcontrollers
Systems and
Control Theory Electromagnetics
Major Areas of Application of Power Electronics

Motor Drives and Actuators

Illumination Engineering
Energy Efficient Power Supplies
Sustainable Energy Systems
Vehicle and Transportation Systems
Power and Control Core Technologies
Why A.C. Drive?

Most of the industrial pumps and fans are driven by

three-phase induction motors.
The rotor speed of three-phase induction motor is given by

120f1
N2 = (1 − s)
P1
where f1 is the stator supply frequency, P1 is the number of
poles in the stator rotating magnetic field, and s is the slip.
This shows that the speed can be controlled smoothly by
changing the frequency of the supply given to the stator.
Block Diagram of A.C. Drive

3-ph Diode Bridge PWM

Supply IM
Rectifier Inverter

Output Voltage
Control Circuit and Frequency
Speed
Control Signals
Reference

Variable speed induction motor drives are now used to

drive compressors and fans in industries to improve energy
efficiency.
Other Advantages of A.C. Drive

Limits inrush current at the time of starting preventing utility

supply voltage dips and thereby prevents maloperation of
other equipment connected to the same power supply.
Soft start reduces stress on the insulation of the motor
winding and the power cable and prolong their life.
In an induction motor we have Φm ∝ |V1 |/f1 where Φm is the
airgap flux, |V1 | is the supply voltage per phase, and f1 is the
supply frequency.
Using an A.C. drive we can adjust the motor voltage and
frequency to ensure that iron loss is equal to the copper
loss at all loads so that the motor runs at the highest
efficiency at any load.
Static Kramer Drive for Slip Ring Induction Motor

Three-phase
Power Supply

Input Starting
Power Rheostats Transformer Feedback
Power

Wound Rotor
Induction Bridge Bridge
Motor Rectifier Inverter

Slip
Power

This method of speed control is also known as slip-power

recovery scheme.
D.C. Motor Drive

Control Diode 3-ph

Speed S upply
Circuit Rectifier
Reference
+ -
Output Voltage
Control Signals
+
3-ph Controlled
M
Supply Rectifier
Field Coil
-

D.C. motors are now being replaced by squirrel-cage

induction motors driven by A.C. drives because they are
more rugged and need lesser maintenance.
Domestic Fan Speed Regulators

Power electronic fan regulators, shown above right are

very compact and more energy efficient than inefficient
resistive old fan speed regulatorsshown above left.
Brushless D.C. Motor Drive

Brushless D.C. motors (BLDC) are special type of D.C.

motors which are now being increasingly used in
applications where speed variation is needed as in the
case of electric vehicles.
Brushless D.C. Motor Drive

D.C. + Bridge BLDC

Source - Inverter Motor

Control
Signals
Feedback
Microcontroller from senso rs
or DSP Based
Speed
Control Circuit
Reference

A BLDC motor cannot run without power electronic drive circuit.

Compact Flourescent Lamp Controllers

Rectifier Half
1-Ph Power EMI with C Bridge L-C Tank CFL
50 or 60 Hz Filter Filter Inverter Circuit Tube

Brightness
Control
Signals
Brightness
User Feedback
Control Current
Brightness
Set Point Circuit Sensor

Compared to incandescent lamps, though CFLs are

costlier, they give the same amount of visible light, use 20-
30% lesser electric power, and last 8-15 times longer.
A CFL can save about five times its purchase price in
electricity costs during the lamp’s lifetime.
LED Lamp Driver

Power Factor
1-Ph Power EMI Bridge Correction Current
50 or 60 Hz Filter Rectifier Circuit Regulator

The power factor correction circuit – which is a power

electronic circuit – maintains high power factor on the
supply side.
The current regulator – which is another power electronic
circuit – maintains constant current through the series
connection of several LEDs.
Some of the modern LED driving circuits also provide
dimming facility.
Power Electronics in D.C. Power Supplies

Power electronics helps in realizing switched mode power

supplies (SMPS), shown on the right side above, which are
compact and more energy efficient than conventional
regulated power supplies shown on the left side.
Problems in Present Day Power Systems

Growing consumer’s demand for power.

Increasing system complexity due to inter-connections
between different grids.
Constraints on installation of new generators and
transmission lines due to economic and environmental
issues.
Loss of system stability due to unregulated active and
reactive power flow in transmission lines.
Higher transmission power losses.
Loop power flow in large integrated power systems.
Voltage instability.
Inability to utilize power transmission capability of the
transmission line up to its thermal limit.
Inflexible Power Flow in Transmission Lines

S T R

The power flow in a transmission line is entirely governed

by the voltage across the line and the line impedance.
If the impedances of lines are not similar then, a
transmission line operating in parallel with others may not
be loaded up to its thermal capacity.
FACTS Controller Controls Power Flow in Lines

S T R

FACTS
Controller

Using FACTS controllers – which are power electronic

controllers – we can utilize the full capacity of the
transmission lines.
Using FACTS controllers we can also route power flow in
the desired path of transmission lines in a complex power
system network.
Steady-state Stability Limit of a Line

S R

Theoretical steady-state stability limit of a line is

Pm = |VS | · |VR |/X corresponding to δ = 90◦ .
But in practice, δ is kept in the range 30◦ -40◦ as otherwise
the synchronous machines will become unstable and lose
synchronism, especially when there is a fault on the
transmission line.
STATCOM Increases Steady-state Stability Limit

STATCOM

With
Compensation

Without
Compensation

With STATCOM – which is a power electronic controller

that supplies only reactive power – at the middle of the line,
more power can be transmitted over existing line for a
given δ without instability problems.
Reactive Power Compensation using Capacitor

Inductive
Load

Inductive load, which is very common, causes drop in VR .

To improve VR , traditionally, a capacitor – which supplies
reactive power – is connected in parallel with the load.
But if the inductive load increases further, then, VR drops
again causing a decrease in the reactive power Q.
Then, we need to change C in order to increase Q to
improve VR . But C can be varied only in steps and not
smoothly.
SVC Delivers Q Independent of VR

SVC Inductive
Load

Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is a power electronic

compensator.
When VR drops, SVC can be made to deliver reactive
power to improve VR .
Under very light load conditions, when VR tends to rise
above rated value, SVC can be made to absorb reactive
power to bring down VR to the rated value.
With SVC, smooth variation of Q is possible.
Problems of Long Transmission Lines

Typically very long transmission lines carry power from

remote generating stations to the urban areas where user
loads are concentrated.
But very long lines have high inductive reactance due to
which the maximum power transmission capacity of the
line decreases which may lead to instability.
High impedance of long lines also causes low voltage at the
receiving end due to higher voltage drop in the line.
HVDC Transmission

A B
Load Load

50 Hz Converter 1 Converter 2 60 Hz

Load Load

Requires only two conductors.

No voltage drop due to inductance of line due to D.C.
flowing through the lines.
Bidirectional power flow is possible. For example, to make
power flow from A to B, we should make Converter 1 work
as rectifier and Converter 2 as an inverter.
No instability problem as in the case of a long A.C.
transmission line.
Typical Stand-alone PV System

Charge
Controller Batteries Inverter Loads
PV
Module

Charge controller is a power electronic interface which

feeds energy captured from PV module into the batteries.
Inverter is a power electronic interface which converts D.C.
power stored in battery to A.C. power required by the load.
Typical Grid Connected PV System

D.C-to-D.C.
Converter Inverter
PV
Module
A.C. Grid

D.C.-to-D.C. converter is used to boost the PV array

voltage and extract maximum solar power from the PV
module.
The inverter takes D.C. power from D.C.-to-D.C. converter
and converts it to A.C. power that is fed to the utility grid.
Power Electronics in Wind Energy Systems

Synchronous
Gear Generator
Transformer
Box
Rectifier Inverter Grid

Wind
Turbine
Rectifier

Frequency and magnitude of voltage generated by

synchronous generator varies due to changes in wind
speed.
The grid supply is rectified to supply D.C. to the field coils
on the rotor of the alternator.
The inverter produces A.C. from D.C. link voltage and
feeds to the grid through a step-up transformer.
Power Electronics in Fuel Cell Energy Systems

Stack of D.C-to-D.C.
Converter Inverter Filter
Fuel Cells

A.C. Grid

In a fuel cell energy is produced when hydrogen reacts

with oxygen to form water.
Typically a stack of hydrogen fuel cells produces D.C.
power at low voltage.
D.C.-to-D.C. converter boosts up the D.C. voltage to the
level required by the inverter.
The inverter converts D.C. power to A.C. and feeds it to the
grid at the voltage and frequency required by the grid.
Filter is an L-C circuit which removes unwanted harmonics
from the inverter output.
Power Electronics Tries to Achieve These

In power electronics we always strive to achieve these —

High energy efficiency.
Compactness and light weight of hardware.
High reliability.
Economy.