1st Malaysian Geotechnical Society (MGS) and Geotechnical Society of Singapore (GeoSS) Conference 2019, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia,

24-26 June 2019

Recent Advancements in Fundamental Studies of Particulate Interaction and

Mechanical Behaviour using 3-D Printed Synthetic Particles
M.I. Peerun1, D.E.L. Ong2, C. Desha3, E. Oh4 and C.S. Choo5
1,2,3,4
School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
5
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Kuching, Malaysia
E-mail: irfaan.peerun@griffithuni.edu.au; d.ong@griffith.edu.au

ABSTRACT: Study of granular soil behaviour has been an ongoing challenge in the geotechnical engineering field due to variabilities in the
attributes of the soil particles such as morphology, size, gradation and physical state. Many researchers have used simulations such as
discrete element modelling (DEM) technique to study the behaviour of coarse-grained soil at the particulate level. With current technological
advancements, the use of 3D printing has demonstrated the ability to synthetically print quantifiable particle attributes (e.g. size, shapes or
roughness) for fundamental study of particulate interaction and mechanical behaviour. The use of synthetic particle will allow independent
study of particulate responses for various materials based on controlled particle stiffness and angularity which are important considerations
for applications, such as bearing capacity, seepage and soil-structure interaction. This paper aims to critically review the current relevant
techniques used for printing synthetic particles. The process generally consists; (i) particle geometry extraction from real granular materials
using microCT imaging; (ii) conversion of the images into Standard Tessellation Language (STL) file for 3D printing; (iii) quality control
and printing of synthetic particle using Selective Laser Sintering (SLS); (iv) post-processing results derived from oedometer, compression
and shear tests. The particulate interaction and mechanical behaviour of the granular media can then be assessed and related to fundamental
theories related to interface friction between different materials, Terzaghi’s concept of apparent cohesion, as well as dilatancy.

KEYWORDS: 3D printing, Synthetic particles, X-ray microCT, Selective Laser Sintering, Particle morphology

1. BACKGROUND 2. CHALLENGES FROM PAST STUDIES OF PARTICLE

There has been an ongoing interest on the understanding of
micromechanical behaviour for granular materials across various
engineering fields. Better insight is required between the
relationship of particle morphology, mechanical, hydrological and
rheological performance of such granular materials like soils,
minerals, sand rocks and sediment particles (Hanaor et al. 2016).
This could lead to better usage of natural resources and better
accuracy in geotechnical and environmental applications (Scheel et
al. 2008, Salot et al. 2009). More studies have been conducted in the
recent years to gain better understanding on such relationships by
means of numerical modelling and experimental testing (Cho et al.
2006a, Cavarretta et al. 2010, Brisard et al. 2012, Mollon and Zhao
2013).
Discrete element modelling (DEM) has produced
significant contributions during the fundamental study of soil
behaviours through the influence of particle morphology onto the
mechanical properties of granular soils (Mahmood and Iwashita
2009, Wang and Gutierrez 2010, Zhou et al. 2013, Fu et al. 2017,
Wei et al. 2018). Similarly, Shin and Santamarina (2013) used two
types of sand with different grain shapes to examine the influence of
particle shape during shearing. A substantial contrast between the
shear strengths was found although similar testing condition was
maintained for both sands. Matuttis et al. (2003) used differing
arrangements of spherical and elongated particles to numerically
examine the effect of mechanical response while focusing on inter-
particle friction. Nouguier-Lehon et al. (2003) studied how initial
anisotropic specimens are initially influenced by physical
characteristics such as angularity using DEM simulations. For
arrangement with elongated grains, the initial anisotropic specimen
and frictional angle were found to be relatively higher as opposed to
isotropic ones. Cho et al. (2006) studied the influence of particle
shapes on packing density and small-to-large strain mechanical
properties of sandy soils. It was found that with an increase in
particle irregularity, the critical state friction angle and
compressibility under zero lateral strain loading would both
increase. The aforementioned studies highlight the ongoing efforts
to understand the influence of particulate properties on the
constitutive behaviour of soils. The current challenges in this field
together with the use of 3D printing to overcome such obstacles are
reviewed, hereinafter.
BEHAVIOUR
Since Coulomb's (1773) studies, a direct comparison between the
mechanical response and particle morphology for granular soils has
yet to be achieved. The main issue when trying to assess this
relationship is due to shape being an infinite parameter, which leads
its systematic exploration unattainable (Jaeger et al. 1996, Peña et
al. 2007, Zuriguel and Mullin 2008, Haji-Akbari et al. 2009,
Torquato and Jiao 2009, Liu and Nagel 2010, Schreck et al. 2010,
Van Hecke 2010, Miskin and Jaeger 2013).
Distinct or discrete element modelling has contributed to
improvements of micro-mechanical modelling methods by
integrating more influences of microstructures in numerical
modelling (Cundall and Strack 1979). However, such models at the
granular scale are usually calibrated and validated against limited
experimental data (Ng 2006, Liu et al. 2016). Consequently, the
material properties are usually modified such that the stress-strain
curves and state path from the macroscopic experiments matches
with the calibration and validation models. The selection process for
the material parameters is said to be usually not properly established
when adopting such methods (Wang et al. 2016). A
micromechanical model would generally implement more details
during the calibration phase as opposed to macroscopic models
where one of the various parameters is expressed by strain histories.
Such details can be relevant to particle morphology (particle
arrangement, size, shape, fabric orientation and packing) and micro-
mechanics material behaviours (fracture energy and surface
roughness) (Gupta et al. 2018). It is often noted that due to
unavailability of data, only some of these parameters are used
during the calibration process which would lead to a highly flexible
curve-fit to match the constitutive responses by combining
microstructures and constitutive laws in various ways. Friedman
(1997) described such arbitraries as the curse of dimensionality,
where the calibrated DEM model lacks true prediction ability (Wang
et al. 2016a, Gupta et al. 2018).
3. USE OF 3D PRINTING TO STUDY PARTICLE
BEHAVIOR
3D printing technology is about 30 years old but has only gained
popularity lately in the fabrication of prototypes, customised
products and one-time creations (Rangel et al. 2013). This
 1st Malaysian Geotechnical Society (MGS) and Geotechnical Society of Singapore (GeoSS) Conference 2019, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 24-26 June 2019
technology can be used as a research tool which combines micro
computed tomography (microCT) information and real building
models to reproduce complex microcosms using the heterogenerity
found with microCT at micro levels. However, the physical and
chemical conditions should be segregated, the latter of which
controls the biogeochemical and microbial processes in the soil
(Otten et al. 2012, Ju et al. 2014, Bacher et al. 2015, Ringeisen et al.
2015). The various soil geometries can now be cloned at
micrometers level using 3D printing materials such as resins,
plastics, ceramics and metals (Ferro and Morari 2015).
Replicating such complex soil geometries requires high
resolution 3D imaging which can be obtained from X-ray microCT
scanning. X-ray microCT has made great advancement in providing
microscopic views of the dimensional arrangement of complex
structures during the study of porous media (Cnudde and Boone
2013). It is now possible to obtain qualitative and quantitative
interior details of multiphase porous materials by using non-
destructive investigation method (Tippkötter et al. 2009, Mooney et
al. 2011). Better insight on single and multiphase flow dynamics has
been achieved through digital imaging and modelling, also known as
‘digital rock physics’, during the study of pore scale processes
(Blunt et al. 2013, Ferro and Morari 2015).
Currently there are only a few standardised materials
available in geotechnical laboratories such as soils from a specific
source or mineral sands like Ottawa sands (Tarnawski et al. 2009).
This constraint can be overcome by creating more standard and
homogeneous particles with controlled properties using 3D printing
technology. The idea of 3D printed granular particles could be used
as standardise soil specimen in geotechnical testing for calibration
and quality control purposes (Hanaor et al. 2016). The key criteria
for fabricating synthetic granular particles using 3D printing are
such that the simulated particle should pragmatically reflect the
actual specimen and all the properties used for producing the
simulated granules should be obtained from the real specimen
(Hanaor et al. 2016).
Knowing that there are various challenges related to the
diversity of soil microscale and its influences on microscopic
dynamics (Baveye et al. 2011), there has been only a few attempts to
enhance such understanding by coupling 3D imaging and 3D
printing together. Ferro and Morari (2015) used X-ray microCT and
3D multijet printing technique to replicate the complex soil
structures in a cylindrical form at a resolution of 80 µm and
conducted triaxial tests onto the printed soil-like structures to
compare the hydraulic properties against real soil specimens. The
printed soil-like structure exhibited similar porosity and pore shape
but due to the testing limitation, the results showed a reduction in
pore connectivity due to blocked pores within the triaxial specimens.
Wei et al. (2018) applied spherical harmonic descriptors
and fractal dimension on X-ray microCT images of natural sand
particles to produce a methodology on replicating realistic
morphological features from the real sand particles. Two types of
sand assemblies were generated using 3D printing and were
compared with the actual sand particles in terms of shape
parameters. The shape parameters such as sphericity, convexity,
roundness and elongation index of the 3D printed particles were
comparable with the real sand particles when inspected visually. The
particle morphology parameters were added to a granular column
collapse simulation using DEM. An improvement in the interlocking
effect and anisotropy degree was observed which improved the
slope stability through particle flow resistance.
Miskin and Jaeger (2013) used an evolutionary
algorithm to generate more than 2000 best shape granular particles.
An object 3D printer with less than 40 µm resolution was used to
print the simulated particles using ultraviolet-cured plastic materials.
The printed sphere particle size ranged from 3 to 5 mm which is of
similar scale as the simulated ones. The printed particles were tested
under triaxial compression up to 4 % strain and DEM simulation
results were compared with the actual triaxial compression test. The
measurement errors obtained were due to statistical variation within
the random materials.
Hanaor et al. (2016) used three different approaches to
simulate morphology of realistic granular materials. The simulation
approaches are fractal surface overlay, contour rotation interpolation
and directed polyhedral aggregation for generating complex
particles. The particle morphologies obtained from these three
methods were analysed and contour rotation interpolation method
which was deem most suitable, was used to create 3D printed
particles and DEM simulations for triaxial testing. The triaxial test
results showed that 3D printed materials exhibit shear behaviour and
influence of shape onto bulk material behaviour. 3D printing
technology would allow segmentation of particle morphology and
particle material during the study of particle behaviour. However,
the current limitations stated are printing resolution and available
printing materials.
Gupta et al. (2018) produced an open-source prototype
test which extract particle morphologies from real sand particles
using microCT images and input the shape features to 3D printing
for producing sand particles replica. This method is compared
against shape descriptors used in discrete element modelling
(DEM). Oedometric compression tests were conducted to calibrate
and validate the prototype test against the discrete element models.
By altering the properties of the synthetic particles to the various
geo-mechanical models, there will be more opportunities to test,
falsify and check the suitability of these models.
From the mentioned literature, 3D printed particles have
shown potential enhancement during the study of particle
behaviours for various geotechnical applications. To ensure that the
synthetic particles reflect the actual particles with similar properties,
a printing process with details up to micro levels needs to be
identified.
3.1 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
The most suitable method for printing synthetic granular particles
would be selective laser sintering (SLS) as it uses resin powders as
base material to achieve printing resolutions up to micrometres.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) has the same design concept as
electro optical system (EOS) laser sintering machines as shown in
Figure 1 (Noorani 2006 ). The fabrication process includes
deposition of powder, powder solidification, lowering of build
platform by individual layer thickness. These processes are repeated
until the final product is sintered. A CAD file of the 3D object is
used as input and a laser source is applied to powder bed where the
laser optic will scan through the contours of 3D object layer by
layer. The heat absorbed from the laser radiation softens, melts and
solidifies the neighbouring particles (Tolochko et al. 2000, Kumar
2003, Ligon et al. 2017).
Figure 1 Setup for selective laser sintering consisting of (a)
vertically movable build platform, (b) powder bed with embedded
sintered model layers, (c) laser source and (d) laser optics, (e)
powder feedstock and deposition hopper and (f) blade for powder
distribution (Ligon et al. 2017)
The powder particles are supplied using a hopper or a
separate platform for powder feed and a blade is used for
 1st Malaysian Geotechnical Society (MGS) and Geotechnical Society of Singapore (GeoSS) Conference 2019, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 24-26 June 2019

distributing the powders across the building envelope during reproduce a realistic particle model. Gupta et al. (2018) used
sintering of adjacent layers. To reduce the processing time and microCT images with single-distance function to replicate 3D grains
amount of thermally induced internal stress, the temperature of the with similar geometry of real sand particles without the need of
chamber is maintained at few degrees below the processed incorporating statistical descriptors.
material’s softening point. This will also avoid the occurrence of Once the 3D particle surface model is obtained, the
curl distortion during solidification of layers. Nonetheless, an inert following process is required for printing the 3D replica granular
gas atmosphere must be consistent within the chamber by means of particles (as shown in Figure 2). The 3D model is converted to a
constant thermal load to prevent the material from oxidative standard tessellation language (STL) file format which will define
degradation during the process. The loose powder particles remain the external closed surfaces of the original model. A slicing software
within the powder bed during the process and act as support to the is used to segment the object model into various layers from the
objects being sintered. This allows the fabrication of complex and STL file which will store the data for each layer. The STL file is
delicate structures to be made without the need for support then fed to the 3D printer with pre-build settings such as energy
structures or materials. Additionally, the powder bed endorses a source, layer thickness, etc. Once set, then the object is printed by
stabilizing effect which helps in the production of stacks of models, the automatic process of the 3D printer (Shiwpursad and Jianbin
hence minimizing interruptions made from removal of parts. Once 2018).
the manufacturing process is complete, the loose powders are easily
recycled to be used for the next sintering runs (Ligon et al. 2017).
3.2 Geometry extraction
It is essential to replicate a realistic geomaterial grain morphologies
for both DEM models and 3D printing of granular particles
(Matsushima et al. 2003). Simplified geometries have usually been
assumed for such methods, such as spherical or circular elements Figure 2 Process of 3D geometry model to 3D object printing
(Cundall and Strack 1979, Persson and Frenning 2012), discs or (Shiwpursad and Jianbin 2018)
clustered spheres (Thomas and Bray 1999), polygons (Alonso-
Marroquín et al. 2008), polyhedral (Langston et al. 2013) and 3.3 Synthetic Materials
sphero-polygons (Alonso-Marroquín 2008, Alonso-Marroquín and
Various materials with different bulk properties can be used for
Wang 2009). More detailed methodologies are required for the aim
SLS. Furthermore, SLS powders consisting of similar bulk material
of describing, predicting or explaining material morphology
can also differ in their morphology, sintering and melting behaviour
influencing hierarchical origins of surface-localised physical
while the powder properties would have a high impact on the
behaviour of geomaterials, despite using the simplified geometries
characteristics of the part like accuracy, distortion, internal stresses
on case-by-case basis could be used effectively (Alonso-Marroquín
and mechanical load response (Ligon et al. 2017). Currently there
et al. 2013, Hanaor et al. 2013). Surface structures having self-
are few options for SLS powders available commercially while a
similarity geometries with features along the length scales range in
larger range of option is used for scientific publications and patents.
naturally occurring geomaterials mainly influences the friction
There are continuous efforts by researchers to widen the choices of
properties and contact stiffness along particles when examined
powders for SLS. The production of such high demand SLS
microscopically (Hanaor et al. 2014, Russell 2014, Hanaor et al.
powders consisting of complex procedures like fabrication,
2016).
characterisation, processing of powders has led to minimal success
Previously, particle morphologies were described and
for commercialisation. A various range of polyamide powders are
classified by measuring sphericity, convexity, roundness and
commercially available and mainly supplied by SLS machines
roughness which were defined by various methods and have been
manufacturers, EOS and 3D Systems and others like Advanced
reviewed (Barrett 1980, Pourghahramani and Forssberg 2005, Blott
Laser Materials (ALM), CRP Technology (Windform powders) and
and Pye 2007). For the past decades, classification of geomaterials
Stratasys (Nytek powders) (Ligon et al. 2017).
has been done using traditional charts produced by Krumbein and
Sloss (1951). However, this technique of morphological
characterisation is based on user convenience rather than the
physical definition. Such geometric descriptor is not the only means
of characterising geomaterials and, even though it has been easier to
obtain these parameters from image analysis (Liao et al. 2010,
Altuhafi et al. 2013), they are insufficient for numerical simulation
and printing of granular particles (Hanaor et al. 2016).
The past 20 years has shown advancement in the study
of micromechanical behaviours of sand particles in 3D visualisation
and characterisation, for instance particle kinematics (Lim et al.
2015, Alshibli et al. 2017) and formation of local shear band (Oda et
al. 2004, Alshibli and Hasan 2008, Kawamoto et al. 2018) with the
aid of X-ray micro-computed tomography (µCT). In the recent
years, the ability to view microstructure and micromorphology of
natural sand particles has been made possible with the use of high-
resolution X-ray CT scanning (Wang et al. 2007, Zhao et al. 2015).
To incorporate particle geometries into DEM simulations, an image Figure 3 Stiffness versus toughness-balance of commercially
processing technique known as marching cubes algorithm which available SLS materials (Ligon et al. 2017).
creates polygonal mesh of an isosurface from 3D scalar voxels
obtained from the X-ray CT scanning, to recreate the 3D particle Figure 3 shows the plot for a selection of commercially
surface (Lorensen and Cline 1987, Lindblad 2005, Wei et al. 2018). available materials with their mechanical properties versus the
Hence, the use of statistical shape descriptors like fractal surface stiffness/toughness balance. PA-12 which is distributed as Duraform
overlay (FSO), contour rotation interpolation (CRI), directed PA12 and PA2200 by 3D systems and EOS respectively, occupies
polyhedral aggregation (DPA) and the recent descriptor known as more than 90% of the polyamides market. Both items consist of
proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) are not required to similar raw product from Evonik named as PA-12 basic powder
 1st Malaysian Geotechnical Society (MGS) and Geotechnical Society of Singapore (GeoSS) Conference 2019, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 24-26 June 2019

Vestosint (Ligon et al. 2017). Other semicrystalline polyamides accurate mechanical response can be obtained for both numerical
products are PA-11 and PA-6. Diamond Materials supplies other models and laboratory testing. An increase in friction angle is
powders with lower mechanical properties such as HDPE and PP expected with greater number of angular particles. As opposed to
polymers as alternatives for objects with lower strength spheres or spherical clumps used during numerical models, the
requirements. A mixture of PA-12 grades with carbon, glass, realistic morphology obtained through the printing process of
aluminium-based fillers or utilise PEEK powder can be opted to synthetic particle would have an influence on the friction angle. It is
achieve greater material strength (Ligon et al. 2017). then speculated that with a realistic particle morphology, more
reliable geotechnical designs can be achieved such as slope stability.
4. ENGINEERING RESPONSES OF SYNTHETIC Robinson and Friedman (2002) reported the influence of particle
PARTICLES circularity on slope angles (see Figure 4). Particle circularity
Miskin and Jaeger (2013) used an Objet 3D printer with a resolution considers the surface roughness of the particle as opposed to
of less than 40 µm to print more than 2000 synthetic particles sphericity. From figure 4, it is noted that with increasing circularity,
consisting of various shapes made of ultraviolet-cured plastic high slope angles can be achieved. Hence, the importance of
material. The particle diameter ranged from 3 to 5 mm with the realistic particle morphology could contribute to a more accurate
stiffest and softest shapes having a modulus of 67 MPa and 25 Mpa slope angle through numerical modelling and physical tests while
respectively. Based on the simulation, the expected modulus was 46 conserving similar parameters for both studies.
MPa. However, an agreeable modulus of 47 ± 1 MPa was obtained
for experimental packings.
Hanaor et al. (2016) used an Objet Eden250 poly-jet 3D
printer with specification of 4 µm and 32 µm horizontal and vertical
resolutions respectively. Fullcure 720 resin (Stratasys, USA) with
specific gravity of 1.19 and elastic modulus of 2.87 GPa was used to
bulk print 8000 grains of surrogated sand particles with mean
diameter of 2 mm. However, these properties are different from
typical quartz properties (Gs = 2.64, elastic modulus ~ 90 GPa).
Triaxial testing was conducted on the surrogated sand particles with
an effective confining stress of 20 kPa which is agreeable with the
dimensionless stress stiffness ratio for quartz at 1 MPa confining
stress. The triaxial test results showed that the printed particles
exhibited shear behaviour and the influence of shape on the bulk
material behaviour.
Gupta et al. (2018) used SCULPTEO fine polyamide PA
2200 which has a Young’s modulus of 1250 ± 150 MPa, shear
modulus of 475 ± 25 MPa and tensile strength of 45 ± 3 MPa to
‘box print’ 100 granular particles. Fine printing layers were Figure 4 Slope angles versus circularity for sand and sand-sphere
achieved by adopting a resolution of 60 µm. The synthetic particles mixes (Robinson and Friedman 2002).
portrayed a typical granular behaviour during one-dimensional
compression oedometer test. The synthetic materials showed higher Another geotechnical application where synthetic particles with
ductility when compared to real sand which is due to the low bulk realistic morphology could contribute significantly is during the
and shear modulus of the plastic material, resulting into the absence prediction of jacking forces for pipe-jacking works. Soil arching is a
of particle fracture and crushing. However, during cyclic loading, a phenomenon observed during pipe-jacking which reduces the
vertical strain of 10% was observed during compression and vertical stresses acting at the pipe crown (Terzaghi 1943). The
recompression of the synthetic particle which is nearly comparable reduction in vertical load will significantly affect the jacking forces.
with real sand. Shao et al (2016) reported the relationship between friction angle
and the soil arching factor for various design standards, as shown in
5. IMPORTANCE OF SYNTHETIC PARTICLES IN Figure 5. Again, by incorporating the actual particle morphology
GEOTECHNICAL APPLICATIONS into numerical models instead of using shape descriptors, more
reliable prediction of jacking forces could be achieved. To validate
Failure parameters like shear stress, friction angle and cohesion are
the models, the synthetic particles which represent similar properties
crucial in geotechnical applications such as in defining the lateral
as in the numerical models, can be used for interface shearing to
pressure applied on retaining walls, bearing capacity of foundations
obtain its corresponding friction angle. The latter can then be used
and stability of slopes. The use of DEM simulation is a common
for prediction of jacking forces and for calibration purposes for
practice for analysing such geotechnical applications. However, the
various geologies.
input material parameters usually being generalised and the use of
particle shape descriptors could lead to discrepancies on the
mechanical responses of such materials. Hence, the constitutive
models used for granular models require an accurate characterisation
technique for the development of micromechanical interaction
among particles (Druckrey et al 2016).
Particle shape of granular materials has a significant
impact on the stress-strain and density-strain relations of the
material. Mattutis et al (2003) reported that almost double the stress
could be carried out by elongated particles with average elongation
of 1.8 as opposed to round polydisperse and mono-disperse
particles. Shin and Santamarina (2013) found that different mixtures
of angular particles reduce particle mobility, obstruct the formation
of densely packed sands which results into higher frictional angle
and lower lateral stress coefficient.
By adopting realistic geometric extraction using
Figure 5 Relationship between friction angle and soil arching factor
microCT for printing of synthetic particles, it is hoped that a more
(Shao et al 2016)
 1st Malaysian Geotechnical Society (MGS) and Geotechnical Society of Singapore (GeoSS) Conference 2019, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia, 24-26 June 2019
6. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has reviewed the current practical methods for generating
realistic granular particles based on geometric extraction obtained
from X-ray microCT. This avenue does not require the use of shape
descriptors which were previously adopted for numerical
simulations and deemed ‘generalised’ in terms of material
parameters. 3D printed synthetic particles have shown promising
results as a breakthrough technology during the study of the
micromechanical behaviour of granular soils. Comparative soil
strength and shear behaviour were achievable while preserving a
realistic particle morphology. With growing interest of 3D printed
particles, new research areas could be developed with various
applications of synthetic particles such as quality control
geomaterials, secondary construction materials and new ground
improvement technologies.
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