Investigating the development of shear bands in Triaxially

loaded sand bands using X-Ray computed tomography

ENG4701 Project Proposal
Author(s): Farzana Alam Eshita (29397510),

Supervisor(s): Asadul Hoque

1 Introduction
Unlike metals, polymers, cementitious concrete, rocks, and other materials, which derive their strength
and deformation characteristics primarily from chemical cementation. The constitutive behavior of
uncemented granular materials, such as strength, stiffness modulus behavior, dilatancy, localization of
deformation, shear band formation, and instability behavior, is largely derived from interparticle friction.
Particle bonding by short or long-term Coulombic forces and van der Waal-type forces may also play a
role to some extent; however, interparticle friction, which is highly dependent on gravitational body
forces at low confining effective stress levels, is the main source of constitutive relations and stability
properties of cohesionless granular materials. Examples include erosional processes and off-road mobility.

Gravity-driven particle convection causes material in-homogeneities and anisotropies in granular

materials during experiments, especially at low confining pressures, altering the specimens' original fabric
and hence their constitutive relations. As a result, from an engineering standpoint, unknown magnitude
uncertainties are introduced on the real behavior of big masses in the field that the specific experiments
are supposed to replicate.

Typical macroscopic responses of sands under the triaxial compression test as shown in Figure 1.1 are
very familiar to the researchers. For dense sands, the deviator stress increases up to a peak value (strain
hardening stage) and then decreases (strain-softening stage) to reach the critical state condition. The
associated volumetric responses are an initial contraction followed by the dilation. For loose sands, the
deviator stress increases prior to reaching the asymptotic peak value and critical state. The corresponding
volumetric response is a continuous contraction until it becomes asymptotic as well(Mitchell & Soga,
2005) . One notable feature of this test is the formation of shear bands that can initiate both before and
after the peak stress in the overall stress-strain curve. The specimen can fail through a single well-defined
shear band or diffuse bifurcation (e.g., bulging) depending on the initial density, confining stress, particle
gradation and morphology, end restraint, specimen type and size etc. (Masanobu Oda, 1972); (Tatsuoka
& Ishihara, 1974); (Hettler & Vardoulakis, 1984); (Desrues et al., 1996); (Peters et al., 2009); (Yamamuro
& Lade, 1996); (Lade, 2002)

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Figure 1.1: Typical macroscopic responses of sands tested under the CD triaxial compression condition [modified from (Mitchell
& Soga, 2005)]

The overall stress-strain pattern, as seen in Figure 1.1, is established from global boundary measurements
of both stresses and strains. Many academics, however, have challenged the accuracy of estimating crucial
void ratio using global volumetric data. The global and local void ratios of thick sands have been found to
vary wildly. It's also well known that the crucial void ratio, which can't be determined from global data,
can only be obtained within the shear bands. For loose sands, on the other hand, global and local void
ratio measurements are quite identical (Desrues et al., 1996). The critical state may never be found from
global volumetric measurements under very low confining stress (Alshibli et al., 2003)

All of these data show how important localization is in geotechnical testing. The microscale behavior of
soils, which may be examined via microstructure, has a big impact on this localization. Microstructure and
fabric are often confused, however they are not the same thing. The fabric is made up of particles, particle
groups, and pore spaces, whereas the structure is made up of fabric, composition, and inter-particle
bonding force (Oda, 1972b) (Mitchell & Soga, 2005).

While microstructural measurements provide a preliminary understanding of geomaterial deformation

mechanics, design applications take a strong constitutive model that may be used in appropriate
numerical tools (e.g., FEM, DEM etc.). The ideas of critical state soil mechanics, or CSSM, have given
possibly the greatest and important foundation for studying soil shear deformation and strength
characteristics. Modern scientific and practical methods to the solving of geotechnical field problems rely

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heavily on critical state-based models. The behavior of basically regenerated isotropic materials was the
basis for the initial critical state notions. Further empirical evidence has shown that the behavior of natural
soils with extensive fabric anisotropy deviates greatly from critical state soil mechanics' core premises,
notably the uniqueness of the Critical State Line in the e-p space.

Macroscale responses of sands depend on microscale behavior, where soil fabric plays an important role.
As global measurements cannot describe internal behavior of sands, only fabric evolution with
subsequent straining can expose correlation between micro and macroscale responses. However, the
study of fabric is not as easy as the macroscale investigation. (Oda et al., 1985)

In the past, researchers studied the fabric evolution of sands under different loading conditions using 2D
petrographic microscopes and photo elastic images. Alternatively, the discrete element method (DEM)
has been used to study the micromechanics of soils for a significant time.(Oda et al., 1985) (Cheng et al.,
2003)(Cil & Alshibli, 2014). DEM simulations usually compromise the naturally occurring grains with grains
of idealized shape, pre-set distributions and arrangements that play a significant role in governing the
mechanical behavior of soils.

Nowadays, different technologies are available for studying the evolution of sands experimentally under
different loading conditions. X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) is one of the most powerful
techniques, which uses photons to pass through the material and measures the attenuation to explore
internal structures. One of the most significant advantages of X-ray CT is that the specimen is preserved
for subsequent testing, allowing one to link microstructure to observable mechanical responses. X-ray CT
has been effectively employed by several studies to explore the microscale behavior of sands under
various loading circumstances. Spatial variation of void ratios (Desrues et al., 1996)(Higo et al.,
2013)(Fonseca et al., 2013), strain localization (Alshibli et al., 2003)(Hall et al., 2010)(Higo et al., 2013),
evolution of various scalar and directional parameters (Fonseca et al., 2013)

The study of granular fabric evolution requires a comprehensive understanding of image processing
algorithms, which are usually kept outside the syllabus of the conventional civil engineering curriculum.
Such mandatory subtasks have resulted in the X-ray CT-based experimental observation as a
multidisciplinary job. As a result, any study of granular fabric evolution necessitates a thorough grasp of
the required image processing methods, which are typically outside the scope of a traditional civil
engineering program. As a result, researchers interested in this field should be exposed to a variety of
image-related algorithms. It may be essential to create new algorithms for mining the appropriate fabric
entities on occasion. As a result of these essential subtasks, X-ray CT-based experimental observation has
become a multidisciplinary job. However, it is envisaged that such experimental findings will answer the
central question of probable connection between fabric, micro, and macroscale sand behavior.

The same arguments might be made regarding the impact of gravitational body forces on a wide range of
difficulties involving granular materials under extremely low effective stress levels. Such issues include
determining the critical porosity or void ratio in granular materials and their relationship to the maximum
porosity of the same materials, both with and without shear-band formation; bifurcation instability and
associated shear-band formation and strain softening at persistent and controlled effective stress states;
and bifurcation instability and associated shear-band formation and strain softening at persistent and

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controlled effective stress states. The invention of two unique micro X-ray CT load-stages for triaxial
loading; in-house development and validation of several particle-level image analysis algorithms for
comprehensive shear band investigation are the three important parts of originality in this research. and
the use of microscale fabric findings to explain macroscale soil behavior.

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2 Aims and Objectives

2.1 Aim
The inside grain structure and strain localization of axisymmetric triaxial sand specimens are examined
quantitatively. In microgravity and terrestrial facilities, a computed tomography approach was employed
to get comprehensive three-dimensional pictures of a series of Ottawa sand specimens subjected to
Conventional Triaxial Compression (CTC) settings at very low effective stresses. To measure the
distribution of local void ratio, follow the onset, propagation, thickness, and inclination angle of shear
bands, and compute void ratio fluctuation inside and outside shear bands, analysis tools were built. Shear
bands appear in CTC specimens during the post-peak strength regime, where a relatively complicated
pattern of shear bands emerges, with behavior heavily controlled by the specimen's large-scale
kinematics.

2.1 Objectives
The following key objectives were hypothesized to be achieved effectively based on the associated
context, motivation, and definition of the problem as briefly mentioned in the preceding section:

• To design, build, and calibrate a tiny triaxial cell enabling in-situ X-ray CT imaging of the entire
specimen with extremely high spatial resolution;
• To develop, construct, and validate a set of methods and codes for quantifying particle and void
fabric parameters;
• To explore the strain-dependent development and development of shear band of sand under
triaxial compression loading quantitatively;
• To locate and extract shear bands in order to investigate correlations between fabric evolution
and shear band generation.

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3 Literature Review

3.1 General
The constitutive behavior of soils is strongly influenced by their microfabric properties
(structure), limits and loading conditions as the arrangement of particles, particle groups and the
associated pore space which define the structure of a soil (K. A. Alshibli & Hasan, 2008; Mitchell
& Soga, 2005). In typical macroscopic cases, the overall stress-strain property is established
basing upon the global boundary measurements of the stress and strains. In this scenario, for the
dense granular soil, to reach the critical state, the deviator stress increases to a peak and the
decreases while for the loose sands, the deviator stress increases prior to reaching the asymptotic
peak value and crucial state (Alam et al., 2018).
However, the validity of using the global volumetric measurement for deducing the critical void
ratio has been challenged by a significant number of researchers. A significant difference
between the global and local void ratio of dense sands has been observed whereas for loose
sands the difference is very low (Alam et al., 2018). Under very low confining stress, the critical
state might never be found from the global volumetric measurements (Khalid A Alshibli et al.,
2003). When a soil mass is sheared, shear strains usually localize into narrow intensive shearing
zones called shear bands, which are generally described by their inclination angles (or surface
shape) and thicknesses (K. A. Alshibli & Hasan, 2008). This localization is highly influenced by the
microscale behavior of soils, which can be studied using the microstructure. Also, most analysis
efforts have been centered on simply describing shear bands by measuring or predicting their
inclination angles and comparison them with the classical Mohr–Coulomb and Roscoe (1970)
solutions for the difficulty of measuring the shear band thickness experimentally. Also, the
classical non-local continuum theories do not include the internal length parameters and fail to
predict the shear band thickness. Also they lose the suitability in the post-bifurcation regime
where the ellipticity is lost (K. A. Alshibli & Hasan, 2008). Micro-rotations or higher strain
gradients should be included in the yield condition, when using flow and deformation theories of
plasticity, in order to predict shear band thickness (K. A. Alshibli & Hasan, 2008; Mühlhaus &
Vardoulakis, 1987; Vardoulakis & Aifantis, 1991). Therefore, experimental measurements of
shear bands can be found if micro-structural analysis process is adopted.

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3.2 Micro-structural Analysis Technologies
In present days, different micro-analysis techniques have been introduced by researchers. In the
mid- 1950s, the investigation of the unknown soil fabric used to be simulated using the suitable
optical, electron microscope or by X-ray diffraction techniques. After that, with the development
of and improvement of the micromechanics theories various homogenization techniques were
established (Mura, 2013; Nemat-Nasser et al., 1996). With the passage of time, many more
numerical methods comprising discrete element method, contact dynamics and smoothed
particle hydrodynamics became popular because of the increased computational speeds (Alam,
2019; Bardet, 1998; Bui et al., 2008; Gingold & Monaghan, 1977; Lucy, 1977; Moreau, 1994;
Moreau & Jean, 1996; Morgan & Boettcher, 1999; Niemunis & Herle, 1997). In the past two
decades, the prompt improvement of the material measurement techniques and their
interpretation using computers (e.g., environmental scanning electron microscope, complex
digital image analysis, nanoindentation and probing, magnetic resonance imaging, X-ray CT
imaging, neutron imaging etc.) have led to the experimental investigation of the fabric of soils
(Alam, 2019). Few of the established methods of studying the fabric are concisely discussed
below.

3.2.1 Photoelasticity
Granular particles consisting of photo elastically sensitive polyurethane investigation had been
conducted (Oda et al., 1982, 1985). Although most of the earlier investigations using the photo
elastic property of the material were based on the 2-dimensional analysis, the studies provided
valuable information regarding the granular micromechanics.

3.2.2 Environmental scanning electron microscope

Environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) can capture images of wet, natural and
nonconductive samples, whereas the conventional scanning electron microscopes are suitable
for the dry, vacuum compatible and electrically conductive materials (Alam, 2019). One of the
primary advantages of the ESEM is its capability to perceive liquids inside the materials (Alam,
2019). Dynamic changes in the samples like drying, wetting, melting, absorption, crystallization,
and corrosion can be studied using the ESEM by changing the pressure and temperature in the
specimen chamber (Mitchell & Soga, 2005).

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3.2.3 X-ray computed tomography
Hounsfield et al. (1972) and (1973) firstly developed the X-ray computed tomography in the field
of Medicine. With the progress of time and theories, this method is now widely used in the field
of engineering to observe specimens in a non-invasive (Cnudde & Boone, 2013; Desrues et al.,
1996; Han & Vardoulakis, 1991; Mees et al., 2003; Otani et al., 2000, 2002; Peyton et al., 1992;
Taina et al., 2008; Wildenschild et al., 2002). X-ray CT is a powerful nondestructive scanning
technique capable of accurately mapping the internal structure of geomaterials (Batiste et al.,
2004). The X-ray CT system that provides the 3D images of the density distribution of specimens,
consists of a source of X-ray creating polychromatic cone beam, a detector to X-ray, a precision
rotary stage, a data acquisition unit, and a processing unit. During the rotation of the stage along
with the specimen in several steps between the Xray source and detector, the detector captures
the intensity of the transmitted X-ray resulting in the projected image of the specimen at each
step, known as a digital radiograph. These digital radiographs are used to reconstruct the CT
image slices using necessary reconstruction algorithms (Kak & Slaney, 2001; Razavi et al., 2007;
Alam, 2019).

3.3 Different Scaler and Vector Parameters

One of the most important tasks in the comprehensive study of the granular fabric is to
define parameters with proper mathematical expressions, which are termed as fabric parameters
(Alam, 2019). The fabric parameters can be defined in two major groups: scaler and vector
parameters. The scaler parameters include the estimation of the void ratio (e), porosity (η),
specific volume (ν), coordination number (CN), contact index (CI) etc. Also, the vector parameters
would include the particle orientation, void orientation, contact normal vector, branch vector
etc. In addition, the particle size and shape also play an important role in the analysis of the shear
bands in tri-axially loaded sands.

3.4 Previous Studies on X-ray Computed Topography

Fonseca et al., (2012) employed X-Ray CT to record high-resolution grain-scale level
pictures and reconstituted sand samples undergoing compression. During the process of
reconstruction and shearing of the soil, image analysis revealed fractured sand breakage and a

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subsequent change in particle size distribution (PSD). Such a change in operational PSD is
impossible to acquire using invasive techniques such as sieving or laser diffraction. The study also
suggests that fundamental differences exist between the two materials, and hence different
reactions should be expected between the intact and reconstituted soil.
Cil & Alshibli, (2014) used 3D Synchrotron Microtomography (SMT) and a discrete-element
approach to explore the evolution of particle fracture and deformation behavior of a granular
assembly subjected to one-dimensional force (DEM). A series of actual laboratory one-
dimensional compression experiments on sand samples of various aspect ratios
(Height/Diameter) were reproduced in this work utilizing a 3D DEM model by mapping particle
positions from SMT pictures collected from the original experiments. As proposed by Robertson
(2000) and Cheng et al., (2003)., crushable sand particles were simulated in DEM using
agglomerates of spherical sub particles.
Desrues et al., (1996) carried out one of the first imaging-based experimental investigations on
sand strain localization. At various strain levels, drained triaxial compression tests were
performed in conjunction with X-ray CT imaging (spatial resolution: 2 mm/pixel). The CT imaging
tomograms demonstrated that the constraints favoring symmetry breakdown resulted in
distinctive and severe localization patterns, whereas the constraints favoring symmetry resulted
in many localization modes.
Otani et al., (2002) developed a new triaxial compression test apparatus to acquire the CT images
of the specimens in a nondestructive manner for investigating the failure characteristics of the
Toyoura Sand with the strain localization under the CD triaxial compression condition. Performing
a series of CD triaxial tests, only the results of the specimen tested under the confining stress of
49 kPa were reported. Cross-sectional CT images of the tested specimen at different strain levels
were acquired using an industrial CT scanner. The specimen was unloaded until the deviator
stress reached zero at each target axial strain for the subsequent scanning purpose. The CT
images and CT-values revealed that the local shear bands started to appear before the peak stress
(at 7% axial strain) condition, which were not visible from the outside of the specimen. Also, the
shear bands spread from the bottom to the top of the specimen. The appearance of the total

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failure surface occurred after the peak stress, which was geometrically an irregular curved
surface in contrast to a plane surface (Alam, 2019).Summary:
The interior strain localization and distribution of density of sand in triaxial setup are studied
quantitatively. In microgravity and terrestrial facilities, a computed tomography approach was
employed to get comprehensive 3-dimensional pictures of a series of a sand amplesle of Ottaws
specimens which were subjected to Triaxial compression settings at low effective stresses.
Analysis tools were developed to quantify the distribution of local void ratio, track the onset,
propagation, thickness, and inclination angle of shear bands, and track the onset, propagation,
thickness, and inclination angle of shear bands to calculate the variation of void ratio within and
outside shear bands. To measure the distribution of local void ratio, follow the onset,
propagation, thickness, and inclination angle of shear bands, and compute void ratio fluctuation
inside and outside shear bands, analysis tools were built. Shear bands appear in CTC specimens
during the post-peak strength regime, where a relatively complicated pattern of shear bands
emerges, with behavior heavily controlled by the specimen's large-scale kinematics.
A granular soil's mechanical behavior is influenced by its particle shape and fabric. This study
examines the formation of share bands in a uniformly graded sand sample exposed to triaxial
stress. The microstructural alterations associated with increased stresses were recorded using in
situ high-resolution X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) imaging. The variations in various
fabric qualities were examined using the separated particle volumes. New methods for
evaluating particle morphology and crushability were presented, as well as a detailed strategy
for determining coordination number, branch, and contact normal vectors. The findings of all
fabric parameters were analyzed and discussed in light of the observed alterations. Potential
processes were identified, and if necessary, meaningful connections were established.

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4 Materials and methodology:
Imaging-based experimental exploration of granular fabric is a multidisciplinary field that
necessitates a thorough understanding of associated advanced imaging theories, diversified
image processing techniques, statistical-tensorial mathematics, and at the very least a
programming language. These necessities from several fields might be thought of as the wheels
of a vehicle that propel the research toward novel micromechanics consequences. Any of these
types of research might be roughly separated into four key subtasks, which include laboratory
testing, imaging, extracting required fabric properties, and analyzing, according to the complete
literature study reported in previous section. The internal structure of fabric study is made up of
all of these subtasks. As the title suggests, this chapter describes the numerous approaches
employed in the above-mentioned subtasks to carry out the current inquiry into the development
of shear band under triaxial stress conditions on sand sample, and then particle size distribution
will be examined using the Avizo software. Avizo is a image analysis software that works with a
number of 3D imaging formats. Its main advantages are its capacity to execute a wide range of
analytical operations on a given data set and its ability to visualize those analytical stages using a
graphical workflow. The sand particles are scanned by X ray computed tomography. And particle
size distribution will examined and analyzed by the matlab coding and then void ratio,
morphology of void ratio, particle shape sand size also examined. The basic concepts of X ray CT
are outlined in that Primer, as well as the methods for acquiring a CT scan utilizing X-ray tubes
and synchrotron sources, as well as the many contrast modes that may be used. We describe
how to compute three-dimensional (3D) pictures from two-dimensional (2D) radiographs and
how to segment the 3D images for display and quantification. While CT is commonly utilized in
medical and heavy industrial settings at low resolutions.

4.1 Basics of X -Ray computed tomography Technology

X-Ray CT, which was first developed in the early 1970s for use in the medical field, is one of the
most extensively used procedures on which significant work has been done in recent years to
enhance its performance. Unlike traditional medical CT scanning, today's high-resolution

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industrial or even laboratory-grade X-Ray CT can discern features as fine as one millimeter in size,
even when imaging objects are comprised of dense materials. Researchers in the field of
geomechanics now have the ability to operate at the grain-scale level using genuine 3-D
microstructural imaging data of geomaterials. Unlike scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-Ray
CT is a non-invasive technology that has provided researchers with a wealth of information on
the relationship between geomaterial microstructure and observable mechanical response. In a
nutshell, industrial CT varies from medical CT in three areas (du Plessis et al., 2017):

(i)In medical CT, the item is stationary while the X-Ray source and detector move around it owing
to the application, but in industrial CT, the X-Ray source and detector are fixed around a revolving
sample.
(ii) When compared to medical CT, industrial CT is more adaptable in terms of voltage and
current, allowing the setup to be tailored to a variety of materials (for example, higher voltage
for dense materials).
(iii) Industrial CT scanners have substantially greater picture resolution than medical CT scanners.

In comparison to medical CT scanners, which have optimum resolutions of 70 m, industrial CT

scanners have resolutions in the range of 5–150 m. Most nano-CT scanners, on the other hand,
have resolutions as low as 0.5 m.

The X-Ray CT concept is based on X-Ray radiography, in which rays are attenuated as they pass
through matter. Radiograms of the scanned sample are captured across a full rotation and
algorithmically rebuilt into a 3D X-Ray attenuation map of the sample (Cnudde & Boone, 2013).
To build a map showing density at each position, intensity measurements are utilized to compute
the distribution of the linear attenuation coefficient. Darker regions correlate to low-density
things like voids or pore-fluid, whereas brighter regions belong to dense particles like grains. The
ability to describe a wide range of materials, including bone, ceramics, metals, lumber, asphalt,
porous concrete, and soft tissue, is enabled by sensitivity to density fluctuations as tiny as 1% or
fewer (Dennis, 1989).

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 Figure 4.1: (a) sample holder setup. (b) C Ray computed Tomography (X Ray CT) machine setup. (Al Mahbub & Haque, 2016)

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 Laboratory experiments and
CT scans

Sample Initial CT Tests and scans for Tests and scans for
characterisation scans developing and direct application
validating fabric of fabric related
related algorithms algorithms
Dry and wet ■ Three
sieving for particle Series-1: 1D CD triaxial
aluminium
size distribution compression compression
blocks in
test- tests:
contact
■ Scans at 0, 8, ■ Confining
■ Three
Specific gravity and 80 MPa stresses of 100,
individual sand
test 200, 400 and
particles
800 kPa
■ A sample of
■ Scans in both
Maximum and uniformly Series-2: 1D
pre-peak and
Minimum density graded compression
post-peak
test. sands test-
regimes
■ Scans at 0, 8,
16, 32, 64, and
80 MPa

Table 4.1: Synopsis of laboratory experiments and X-ray CTscans for the current investigation

4.2 Materials and Sample Preparation

Clean sand samples from a natural deposit location in near the campass, will be utilized in this
investigation.
The sand particles will first dried for 24 hours at 105 to 110°C in an oven. The particles will then
sieved through sieves of 250, 212, and 150 microns. Sand particles will passed through 250
microns and kept on 212 and 150 micron sieves in this experiment. Then coefficient of curvature
and coefficient of uniformity will be calculated and the particle size distribution cure will be
plated. Also the average particle size will be determined.

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4.3 Sample preparation:
The specimen prepared for testing would be artificial sandstone cylinder having a strength of 2-
3 Mpa. The mixture for the specimens would be prepared with the designed proportions of the
materials stated on Table 3.1 for laboratory testing. The quantity of all the materials would be
scaled and hand-mixed in a plastic bag carefully and thoroughly. The mixing machine cannot be
used as the required amount of mixture is very small. After mixing the mixture would be poured
in layers into an aluminum cylinder. The mixture must be poured in such a way that no voids
are found. After that, each of the layers should be compacted carefully and scanned. The
scanned CT image volumes were used to achieve the image processing algorithms and
developing the necessary particles level related algorithms.
Table 3.1 Proportions of Martials for Artificial Sandstone

Materials Proportions
Quartz sand (Grrade 30/60) 100%
Cement (Grade GP), C 10% * (Q)
Eckalite 2, K 15% * (Q + C)
Water, W 15% * (Q + C + K)

4.4 Triaxial Test procedure:

Four sets of triaxial compression tests (ASTM D7181-11) with four equal confining forces will be
undertaken in the current study. Confining stresses of 100, 200, 400, and 800 kPa will be chosen.
The small triaxial cell containing the prepared specimen will initially put on the load frame's
bottom platen. The cell pressure pump, LVDT, and cell pressure measurement transducer will be
connected to the cell after that. The calibrated load cell (capacity = 2 kN) will be attached to the
GDS data logger, which was then connected to the desktop GDS program (GDSLAB).
To achieve typical stress-strain behavior of sands, the latter sections of the data will be rectified
by deleting the initial load cell values described above, as well as extra load cell values found via
eye inspection. During CT scanning, the decreases in load-deformation data show stress
relaxation. The volume change measurements would not be obtained since the experiments will
do on dry sands. The volume change, on the other hand, will be determined using processed CT
scans. In the next portions of this chapter, the details of the mathematical processes for
estimating the stress-strain and volume change behavior will be discussed.

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4.5 Image Acquisitions:
The load-stage will be rotated 360 degrees around its vertical axis to get image projections. The
projections have a frame size of 1024 by 1024 pixels. A total of 801 projections with a pixel size
of 14.28 microns (0.062d50) will be taken in this investigation, which took roughly half an hour
to complete. Using the XRM Reconstructor program, the 2D projections will rebuilt into 3D
volumes.

4.6 Image processing:

Avizo, a commercially available image processing program, will post-process the reconstructed
raw pictures from the X-Ray CT equipment. The non-local means filter of Avizo will employ in this
investigation to reduce noise. Despite being GPU accelerated, this filter has an extremely long
runtime when compared to other filters.
The non-local filter, on the other hand, will be shown to be very successful in reducing noise while
preserving particle edges, which is crucial for particle separation in uncemented sand. After
filtering, the greyscale picture will be converted to binary using the interactive thresholding
module, which allows the user to interactively select the grey level intervals while receiving visual
feedback. An intensity range partitioning tool that can automatically predict thresholds
separating various densities of materials was utilized as a preliminary identification of intensity
ranges dividing solids from voids.
In every load condition, three to four iterations of watershed will be required to obtain the
requisite degree of segmentation (>90 percent particles separation), depending on the amount
of related voxels caused by increasing loading. To avoid over segmentation, the algorithm will be
performed again for just the particles that couldn't be separated in the first trial.

4.7 Image Analysis:

The image analysis approaches will be used in this work to determine the evolution of various
microstructural parameters may be classified into two types: analysis for microstructural scalar

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parameters and analysis for microstructural directional parameters. Scalar characteristics such
as particle size distribution, anisotropy distribution, particle breakage, void size distribution, and
void ratio distribution will be calculated for uncemented sand. Scalar characteristics such as void
sphericity distribution, void size anisotropy distribution, and void volume distribution will be
estimated for cemented samples. AVIZO software (V 9.1.1, V9.5) will be used to calculate the
scalar parameters.
However, the direction of the principal axis of the separated void particles will be regarded as a
directional parameter in this study for both uncemented and cemented sand. AVIZO image data
will be exported to a MATLAB-compatible format. Based on (Ken-Ichi, 1984)premise on two-
dimensional and three-dimensional distribution of directional data and fabric tensors, a MATLAB
code will be built. Appendix B contains the source code. The algorithm will be used to plot the
distribution of fabric tensors of voids for both uncemented and cemented samples under various
loading situations. Fabric Anisotropy Variable A (FAV A) (Li & Dafalias, 2012) will be also
calculated as a scalar parameter for each loading instance, accounting for both the amount of
the fabric anisotropy and its orientation relative to the loading direction.

Directional

Parameters
Scalar
(Using Avizo)

Loading &
Sample Image Image
scanning of
Preparation processing Analysis
samples
(Using Matlab
Parameter
Directional

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 Figure 4.2: Methodology Flowchart.

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 Figure 4.3: Flow chart depicting operations of image processing for (a) sand particles in uncemented sand (b) voids in sand

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 5 Scope, Project Plan & Timeline

5.1 Project Scope

This project investigates the development of shear bands in triaxially loaded sands using the X-Ray
computed tomography. Experimental studies will be conducted on triaxial loaded sand achieve the aims
of this project. The samples image analysis will be conducted by Avizo software, then sample level analysis
will be done. Matlab algorithms will be used to explore the fabric of dense-very dense specimens under
four triaxial compression tests using a new miniature triaxial cell.

5.2 Project Plan & Timeline

The project will be continue for 31 weeks, including mid-semester vacations and the period between
semesters. Figure 5.1 depicts the timetable of the major tasks, as well as their durations, that will be
completed to complete the project. Weekly meetings with the project supervisors will also be held to
ensure that the project stays on track and to address any concerns or doubts that may develop.

Weeks
Task
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Project bri ef a na l ys i s
La b i nduction
Ri s k a s s es ment
Revi ew of Li tera ture
Project Propos a l
Experi mental Studi ed & Da ta
Col l ection
1.Sa mpl e Ima ge a na l ys i s -
Avi zo
2.Sa mpl e Level a na l ys i s
3. Ma tla b Pl otti ng
4. Sa nd dens i ty ma ppi ng
5. Ma teri a l a nd s a mpl e
prepa ra tion
6.Experi ments - Tri a xi a l
compres s i on tes t tri a l i n
di fferent confi ni ng pres s ure
Progres s Report
Fi na l Report

Figure 5.1 Project Timeline

ENG4701 Project Proposal 20

6 Risk Management Plan
This project's risk management strategy will evaluate a variety of non-OHS and OHS hazards, with a focus
on project risks linked with lab work and research components.

The primary actions that will be conducted in this project are listed in Figure 5.1 under section 5.2. The
risk assessment table in Table 6.1 summarizes the non-OHS project risks that were developed based on
the primary activities in Figure 5.1. The main activity that will cause the project to be delayed is
experimental work. Each experiment will last 30 days, and after one is over, the next one can begin. The
experiment must be redone if it is not carried out properly and a mistake arises. As a result, the finishing
time may be longer than expected. The experiment will also create a substantial amount of data, and
contact with the supervisors is essential for recognizing any doubts or severe mistakes in data
interpretation. There is a chance that equipment will break down when undertaking research.
Communication with supervisors is essential to ensure that the equipment is used appropriately and that
any questions about its use are answered.

ENG4701 Project Proposal 21

 Table 6.1 Risk Management Plan

Project Risk Likelihoo Consequenc Risk Mitigation Residual Risk

Risk d e Leve
l

Completio Delays in Possible Serious M .

n time performing
exceeds tests or 1. Consult
the making a with
deadline mistake in a supervisors to
trial verify that the
test that proper
which experimental
requires a protocol is
repetition followed.

2.Ensure that
experiments
are Experiment needs t
completed on o be repeated
schedule and when U\unexpecte
according to d delays occur, or
plan by something goes
communicatin wrong or making
g with some mistake. This
supervisors. is quite unlikely to
happen because all
3.First time tests will be well
conducting organize
experiment
work under
the
supervision of
supervisors;
seek
assistance
when unsure.

ENG4701 Project Proposal 22

 Analysis of Uncertaintie Unlikely Serious M Discuss the None of the
significant s and best strategy members of the
data significant to analyze the study team, the
errors in data with the supervisor, or the
data supervisors. technical personnel
analysis were able to give
Inquire about input.
the data
analysis with
your
supervisors.

Equipmen Unable to Possible Serious M Discuss the Equipment failure is

t Failure perform best strategy still possible, causing
experiments to analyze the delays in
.Delay in data with the experimental
project supervisors. operations.
completion
and Inquire about
performing the data
experiment analysis with
your
supervisors.

Electricity All the Possible Serious M Discuss the Electricity failure is

risk machineries best strategy still possible, causing
work on to analyze the delays in
Electricity. data with the experimental
So Technician operations.
Electricity and other
connection staffs.
problems
and Inquire about
breakdown the data
will cause analysis with
delay of the your
project supervisors.

Significant Errors in Unlikely Serious M Ensure that None of the

Data analysis of both members of the
Analysis data members of study team were able
the team to offer input. This is
analyze all extremely
improbable to occur.

ENG4701 Project Proposal 23

 relevant study
data.

Before moving
on to the next
level, get
comprehensiv
e comments
from your
supervisor.

Request
comments
from an
experienced
member of
the
supervisor's
research
team.

ENG4701 Project Proposal 24

7 References
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Mechanics and Its Applications, 377(2), 545–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2006.11.090
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ENG4701 Project Proposal 25

 Acta Geotechnica, 9(5), 831–846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-013-0289-5
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Mechanics, 115(1), 89–104.

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Oda, M., Nemat-Nasser, S., & Konishi, J. (1985). Stress-Induced Anisotropy in Granular Masses. Soils and
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9410(1996)122:2(109)

ENG4701 Project Proposal 27

8 Appendices

8.1 Appendix A: Project Risk Assessment

ENG4701 Project Proposal 28