SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. 12, No.

2, June 1972
Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

THE MECHANISM OF FABRIC CHANGES DURING

COMPRESSIONAL DEFORMATION OF SAND

MASANOBU 0DA *

ABSTRACT
The previous study has shown that the geometrical arrangement of contact surfaces between
the grains could have an important bearing on the mechanical properties of granular materials.
In an attempt to represent this effect in a quantitative manner, summations of projected areas
of contact surfaces.of YZ- and XY-planes, being denoted by Sx and Sz respectively, is shown
to be an useful index. Particularly, the ratio Sz/Sx which is determined by microscopic
analyses of thin sections is believed to be one of the most important fabric features to
determine some mechanical properties of granular sands. The ratio Sz/Sx has close relations
with mobilized stress ratio as well as dilatancy rate. The maximum value of Sz/Sx at peak
stress is determined not only by initial fabric but also by some other properties of granular
particles. The process of fabric reconstruction is continuous and no gap can be observed
between granular fabrics formed at pre-peak stress and those formed at peak stress. This.
continuous reconstruction of the initial fabric with the increase of axial strain is mostly
due to the sliding along ·unstable contacts between grain particles and partly due to the
rotation of grain particles.

Key words: dilatancy, friction, microscopy, progressive deformation, sand, shear strength~
slip surface, soil structure, test procedure

IGC: D6/D3

INTRODUCTION
When deformation occurs in granular sands under unequal principal stresses, the initial
fabric must change with increase of axial strain in order to withstand a continuously in-·
creasing stress ratio (strain hardening). In this case, the relative displacement of constituting
grain particles generally occurs and these particles must come to contact with each other
by newly formed contact points or surfaces with the gradual decrease of contacts that ex-
isted previously.
The most important problems concerning the microscopic picture of the deformation of
randomly packed granular sand are (1) the mechanical role of "sliding" and "rolling" of
grains during the deformation, (2) the mechanism to form shear plane in the granular
fabric (preferred orientation of shear plane), and (3) the mechanism to control the fabric
reconstruction (increasing anisotropy of fabric). For the last decade or so, some important
papers have been published on these subjects as follows :
Newland and Allely (1957) have obtained the following equations:

* Assistant, Department of Foundation Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Saitama

University, Urawa, Saitama.
Written discussions on this paper should be submitted before April 1, 1973.

This is an Open Access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license.

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'rmax/<ln=tan (ifJI'+Ot) }
(1)
(ovfoLI)max=tan Ot

where
'Z"max=maximum shear stress on the shear plane, O"n=normal stress on the shear plane,
·¢"=angle of interparticle friction, and (:~)max= maximum rate of volume expansion.
These equations were derived from the consideration that the particles which were sliding
relative to each other could be represented by ''tangents'' at their contact points, and that
.angles (Ot) of inclination of the tangents to the shear plane were identical a tall contact points.
Although the value of Ot in equation (1) must be determined by the geometry of granular
fabric, i.e., interlocking of granular particles, true mechanical meaning of Ot has not been
darified.
From studies of .granular models composed of regular packing of rigid spheres, Rowe
{1962, 1963) proposed the following equations in regard to the behaviour of a random as-
sembly .of irregular particles.

<11/aa =tan as tan (ifJ·" + /3s)

dssfdsl =tanas tanf3s } ( 2)

where a1/as=mobilized stress ratio in effective stress, ¢"=interparticle friction angle, dsa/dsl
=incremental strain ratio, /3s=the inclination of the tangents at sliding contact to the minor
principal plane, and as the inclination of a potential slip surface to the major principal
plane. The value tanas is determined by the internal configuration of granular particles.
Equation (2) was derived from the following still unsolved hypotheses: the laws which were
derived from mechanical studies of any different fundamental type of ppcking can be applied
·explicitly to the granular materials in which different types of packing are mixed, and the·
shear deformation within granular material must be only due to sliding at grain contacts
without any rotation due to ''rolling'' of each grain particle.
Horne (1965, 1969), who discussed the mechanical behaviour of a random assembly of
rotund, rigid and cohesionless particles, presented the same equations as those proposed by
Rowe. It must be noted that Horne has first introduced the concept of "increasing anisotropy"
to explain the behaviour of sands as they were subjected continuously increasing stress
ratio; He advocated that stress ratio a1/as (in effective stress) is related to degree of
anisotropy which can be measured by the ratio mx/mz of the mean projected solid path, and
that this anisotropy must be due to the preferred direction of sliding as defined by the
critical angle.
Mogami (1965) has developed a theory for the mechanical behavior of granular materials
based on statistical considerations. In his theory, a relationship is established between the
:angle of internal friction ifJ and void ratio of a cohesionless granular material.
Notwithstanding these contributions by Newland and Allely, Rowe, Horne, and Mogami,
it seems to the author that the granular models employed by them have not been established
on the well-confirmed background knowledge about the state of configuration of granular
particles and the deformation mechanism of microscopical scale.
The main purposes of this paper are ;
(1) To find the mechanism to control the fabric reconstruction which occurs during the
progressive .deformation of granular sand,
(2) To make clear the fundamental relation between the fabric of granular sand ·and their
mechanical properties such as mobilized strength and dilatancy rate, and

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 FABRICS OF SAND 3

(3) To propose a granular model as a basis of theoretical consideration on the mechanics

of granular materials.

SOIL TESTING AND TESTING PROCEDURES

By comparing the characters of initial fabric of undeformed specimen to those of specimen
deformed under an anisotropic stress state, the author inferred what has happened in the
granular fabric during the process of progressive deformation.

Tested Material
Sand used in this study was a uniform sand (sand C in reference (6)) which was chiefly
composed of 92% of quartz-grai1;1s and 8% of feldspar-grains with rounded to subrounded
shapes (photo. 2). The size of these grains ranges from 0.84 mm to 1.19 mm.
Tested Procedure
(1) The sand was poured with a spoon into a rubber tube supported by a split mold as
shown in Fig. 1.
(2) The sand in the rubber tube was compacted to the same initial void ratio by two
method: (i) by tapping the side wall of the split mold by a hand tamper (tapping method),
and (ii) by plunging directly the hand tamper into the sand (plunging method). All specimens
were prepared so as to have the same initial void ratio (e=0.640).
(3) Sand was saturated with water-resin (Oshika resin) solution the viscosity of which
is about 10 centipoise, instead of de-aired water used in conventional triaxial compression
tests. The geltime of this solution can be controlled by the catalyzer (almost 5 hours).
(4) The cap was then placed on the sand specimen and secured to the membrane by an
0-ring. A slight negative pressure (0~1 kg/cm 2) was applied to strengthen the specimen
while the split mol<\ was removed. A triaxial chamber was filled with de-aired water and a
.confining pressure of 0.5 kg/cm 2 was applied.
(5) A drained triaxial compression test (a2=a 3=0.5 kg/cm 2) was performed by using the
Bishop-type triaxial testing machine at a strain rate of 0.1 %/min. Axial strain was meas-
ured with a dial gauge. Volume change of the specimen was measured by the volume
..of water-resin solution expelled from a saturated specimen.
(6) When the specimen was strained to the desired value, axial load was released. Axial
·strain c1, stress ratio a1/aa and dilatancy rate ( -dvjdc1), which the specimens have under-
_gone, are tabulated in Table 1.
(7) Slight negative pressure was then applied to the drainage line to expel almost 50%
.-of water-resin solution within the specimen. After almost 6 hours, when the water-resin
"Solution in the specimen became hard enough to maintain the sand particles to their con-
figuration, the specimen was taken out from triaxial chamber (photo. 1).
(8) The firm and porous specimen obtained by these procedures did not have sufficient
·strength to be cut and polished to make thin sections. So, polyester resin (Rigolac) was
·permeated into the voids of the specimen which has been taken out from triaxial chamber.
(9) The specimen was cut with a diamond saw along two vertical planes (A B C D),
(H I J F), and a horizontal plane (E F G H) as shown in Fig. 2. Three thin sections
normal directions of which are perpendicular to the reference axes X, Y and Z were made.
In this paper, three thin sections prepared from two vertical planes and a horizontal plane
will be called Vx-section, Vv-section, and H.-section, respectively. Photos. 2 and 3 show the
thin sections obtained by direct projection of the translucent sections on photographic
=papers.
(10) Each thin section was studied by means of a petrographic microscope and the tech-

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T
E
0
If)
M

To l Burette 1 "-Drainage Line

Fig. 1. Preparation of specimens saturated Photo. 1. Test specimens deformed under triaxial
with water-resin solution stress and stabilized by polyester resin

Table 1. Specimens tested

Name of Axial I Mobilized Dilatancy

Specimen Strain (%) Stress Ratio Rate

T-UND 0.00 1. 00 1.19

T-1 0.18 2.54 0.00 1. 26
Specimens T-2 0. 37 2.65 +0.05 1. 30
Compacted by the T-3 0.50 3.02 +0.36 1. 40
Tapping Method T-4 0. 74 3.28 +0.52 1. 61
T-5 1. 48 3.30 +0. 56 1. 51
T-6 5.18 4.09 +0.46 1. 64

:= ~N-D--------~:-~-~----7--- ~:: -~--- ~=----

0 0.92
1. 04
P-2 0. 37 1. 94 -0.31 1. 03
Specimens
P-3 0. 74 2. 44 0. 00 1.15
Compacted
by the P-4 1. 11 2. 70 +0.15 1. 34
P-5 1.48 2.65 +0.15 1. 34
Plunging Method
P-6 2. 96 2. 79 +0.20 1. 33
P-7 3. 70 3.21 +0.29 1. 31
P-8 14.81 2.96 +0.14 1. 43

X-axis
#
Fig. 2. Preparation of thin sections

-.. Y-axis

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 FABRICS OF SAND 5

V -section H- section

Photo. 2. Microphotographs of deformed sands compacted by the tapping method

niques described in Reference 6.

Test Results
In the experimental part of this paper, sand specimens were saturated not with water
but with water-resin solution. It is necessary to examine the influence of water-resin solu-
tion on the strength and deformation behaviour of granular sand.
The relations between stress, strain and volumetric strain of sand saturated with de-aired
water are shown in Fig. 3. Similar relations of the same sand saturated with water-resin solution
are also represented in Fig. 4. Although the sand saturated by de-aired water seems to be
slightly stronger than the sand saturated with water-resin solution, we may reasonably
conclude that the deformation mechanisms of the sand saturated with the resin solution are
essentially the same as those of the sand saturated with de-aired water.
Figs. 3 and 4 also show a remarkable effect of the initial fabric on the mechanical be-

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V -section H -sec fion

'.:t
I
Q

·-
l>
Q.)

Q..
U)

OQ
I
Q

·-
l>
Q.)
Q...
U)

Photo. 3. Microphotographs of deformed sands compacted by the plunging method

haviour. Mobilized strength of the specimen compacted by the tapping method is stronger
than that of the specimen compacted by the plunging method, although both of these
specimens have the same initial void ratio.

FABRIC ANALYSIS AND THEIR RESULTS

Preferred Orientation of Apparent Long Axes

Orthogonal reference axes are selected as shown in Fig. 2. The angles 8; between apparent
long axes of grain particles and the reference axis X(or Y) were measured on the V-sections
prepared from the deformed and undeformed specimens. The results are shown in Figs.
5 and 6. Apparent long axes in lL-section of the deformed and undeformed specimens do
not exhibit any preferred orientation as shown in Fig. 7.

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 FABRICS OF SAND 7

~0""' ,.:2;;.::0;.._..,_ _ _ _..,.__ _ _ _ __

~0 ~2~0~---------~--------------~
T I

--f-
~
~.::: .. ( 1
bv
) ••• Specimen compa.cted
the tapping method
;2 f- s- ( 1 ) •• ,Specimen compacted
by the tapping method
li
--;; . ...
( Z ) ••• Specimen compacted
( 2 ) •• ,Specimen compacted
~
0
by the p lung lng method
-~
'-f-
c:: V)
'(,.,.-7 )
... - - - - -
--- ---.. ----------
·- ~
------ --1-·
by the plunging method

'(ij
1....
f- V) -
QJ ,, ..... - - - ... - - 'C..----- r(J
.!:::
f- -
V)
1-
/'"'( 7) . ---------... ........
- 1-
U) l.. ...,I
..._
1.0 U) d1.0
.,,,., ...
_./"( 2)
l/)1- V)l-/

(.) J9 . ~._ ;/ 1.0 _, .... -- ------------- ......

(.) f-0-
.i:::
~
.\... I
0 I
..._I/
~
_.
!: ~ U) I .,. . ,....(~? ;
l.. : .-''
c:-
§ 1-
r(J : I
·:;;: I E
(1)
::::Sf-
o. ,
..._I I
-
c:::J!I
(1)1 - ro•/
0
;::::>. ~ 1- ·;-I
(1)1
1- q'
.
f-
0 . 0
5.0
5.0 10 10
Axia I Strain (%) Axial Strain (% )
Fig. 3. Stress, strain and volumetric strain of Fig. 4. Stress, strain and volumetric strain of
specimens saturated with water specimens saturated with water-rasin solution

9 •
r- 3 e;: o·
V.M.==30%

Fig. 5. Frequency histograms of 8; in V-sections of deformed sands

(Specimens compacted by the tapping method)

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0'"
(].)
'-
lL o;
0

C2) P-1

>..
(.)
c.
Q.)

g.IO
<1>
'-
lL%

-90' 90'
(3) 8= -77·
V.M.= 12%

,_
CD

lL%

Fig. 6. Frequency histograms of fJ; in V-sections of deformed sands

(Specimens compacted by the plunging method)

Cl) T- 6 (2) p - 7

Fig. 7. Frequency histograms of fJ; in H-sections of deformed sands

In order to ensure a suitable estimation of mean direction and variance of these frequency
histograms, it is necessary to know the vector mean direction (0) and vector magnitude
{V. M.) (Curray, 1956). Vector mean direction 8 and vector magnitude are calculated by
the following equations :
- 1 I:n; sin 20;
8 =2 arctan L:n; cos 20;

V •M • -_ ~
100 -v
. I (I: n; sm
• - )2
28; + (" - )2
L..J n; cos 28;
L..Jn;

where 0; is azimuth from -90° to +90° of group observation, and n; is the number of the
observation in each group.

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 FABRICS OF SAND 9

The value of V. M. varies from 0 to 100 percent. Complete random distribution of the
orientation will give a vector magnitude of 0%. On the other hand, 100% of V. M. value
means that all observed orientations have exactly the same direction. With the approach
of vector magnitude to 100%, the preferred orientation of the long axis becomes more re-
markable. The calculated B and V. M. values are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
The value of B for the specimens compacted by the tapping method varies within a small
range of -1° to +3°. It means that apparent long axes of grain in these deformed specimens
are preferably parallel to the horizontal plane. Vector magnitude generally becomes larger
with increase of axial strain.
As shown in Fig. 6, the frequency histogram of fJ; of the undeformed specimen compacted
by the plunging method has a vector mean direction at 0=+90°, that is, apparent long
axes are preferably parallel to vertical direction. When axial strain of the deformed speci-
m~n is small (less than 1.5%), the orientation distributions of fJ; are almost similar to those
of undeformed one. But with the increase of the axial strain, the vector magnitude gradually
decreases and any preferred orientation is not clear even in V-section (random fabric with
respect to particle orientation).
It is reasonable to assume that when deformation occurs in granular sand under un-
equal principal stresses, grain particles are moved and rotated to the most stable position
to the applied principal stresses, and that long axes of particles become generally
perpendicular to the direction of the maximum principal stress. The frequency of fJ; within
the range of angle -50°<0; <+50° becomes larger with the increase of axial strain (Figs. 5
and 6). Roscoe and Schofield (1964) have mentioned in their discussion on the development
of anisotropic fabric due to the rotation of particles as follows: "the writers have observed
equal and opposite rotations of as much as 15° of neighboring particles of dense sand which
are against the glass walls of the plane strain earth pressure test apparatus." From the
facts mentioned by the present author and Roscoe et al., it is reasonable to conclude that
"rolling" of particles must be an important factor to control the mechanism of fabric re-
construction.
Neither failure plane nor failure zone can be seen microscopically in any specimens throughout
the process of progressive deformation up to peak stress state (axial strain less than 15%). There
is no evidence that long axes of particles tend to arrange parallel to the potential failure plane
defined by the equation, sin- a 1~as (Fig. 8). These evidences well accord with Rowe's find-
a1 as
ing that initiation of slip plane in an element of granular assembly is the result of failure
and does not occur at the peak stress ratio. Also, it is important to note that the process
of fabric reconstruction is continuous and no gap can be observed between granular fabrics

Fig. 8. Diagrammatic representation of hypothetical

particle orientation at failure

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formed at prepeak stress and those formed at peak stress. This fact means that the theore-
tical equations developed for peak stress conditions can be applied to explain the mechanical
behaviour at prepeak stress conditions.
Preferred Orientation of Tangents
The changes of the function E(f3) with increasing deformation are shown by Figs. 9 and
10. The following facts are found from these two figures:
(1) The grain fabrics continuously change and normal directions (N;) to tangent planes
gradually come to concentrate within the range of angle 0°<{3<50° (or 130°<{3<180°) with
the increase of axial strain (c:1). Then, the initial fabric becomes a more anisotropic.
(2) The function E(f3) changes mostly during the course of increasing stress ratio. After
peak stress ratio (a1/a3) 1 , the function E({3) does not change markedly.
Now, suppose the number of contacts of grain particles which constitute the granular
assembly of a unit cube and the area of a contact surface to be m and LlS;, respectively.

( 7) T- UNO (2} T- 7

-
i..J.J0.7

( 3) T- 2 T - 4
02
-
0

( 5 J T -. 5

-
l.J.Jo.l

f3
90"

Fig. 9. The function E (f3) of deformed sands

(Specimens compacted by the tapping method)

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 FABRICS OF SAND 11

(7} P-UND ( 2} p- 7

-
CQ
...__
Q2

Lu0.7 0.7

/3
o·

( 1, } P-5

-
CQ
...__
Lu
0.7 0.7

(5} p- 6
Q2

Lu0.7

o·
Fig. 10. The function E (/3) of deformed sands
(Specimens compacted by the plunging method)

The area LlS; can be projected on YZ-, ZX- and XY-planes as shown in Fig. 11. These
projected areas are LlS; cosa·sin,B, LlS; sina·sin,B, and LlS; cos,B, respectively. Then, the
integral areas of the projected area of m contacts can be calculated by the following
equations:
_ \1tfl/2rr
Sx = LlS·m) ) E(a, ,B)cosa·sin 2 ,B dad,B ( 1)
0 -l/21t

( 2)

- (1/21t(21t
Sz = LlS·m) J E(a, ,B)sin.B cos.B dad,B ( 3)
0 0

where LIS is the average area of these contact surfaces in the unit cube.

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Fig. 11. Determination of fabric index of granular sand

Because of axial symmetry of the fabric of granular sand, Sx must be equal to Sy. Thus
the ratio Sz/Sx (or Sz/SY) is considered as a fabric characteristic of anisotropic granular
sand. The value of Sz/Sx calculated from fabric data of deformed and undeformed sand
specimens are shown in Table 1.
From Table 1, it has become clear that the ratio Sz/Sx has intimate relations with
mobilized stress ratio and dilatancy rate. The relation between Sz/Sx and ada3 is shown
in Fig. 12. From this figure, a linear regression equation as shown below can be shown
to fit the experimental data.

( 4)

The contacts whose normals are parallel to the direction of axial load (at-direction) are
most effective in supporting the axial load. By increasing the angle between the direction of
axial load (a 1) and the normal to the contact plane from oo to 90°, the bearing ability to axial
load may generally decrease. The contacts whose normals are perpendicular to a1 may
have no actual role to support the axial load. Consequently, it is reasonable to assume
that the ability to support axial load at a contact may be proportional to the projected area

--~-
_.
0.5
. /

r- / ~
w
• /
/
/

0
1- X /. •-
.--
-~
';::;
""1::s
I
/
,--'
/
/

........--•x . . . ---- ..._

<!J X .,.'
·/·~----
1-

- X~--
x......- -- Q::
Iii
/."*"X
.... -.?' f-A c:
.£!!
b 0
1-----+-,.-7-_,----:l"~l'fll·p-----·----------
- ~
·-.
- G·. Spec lmen compacted hy Cl /
x 0 .• Specimen cJmpacted by
the tapping method
the tapping methnd
r- X· .Specimen cnmpacted by X X.• Specimen compacted hy
the plunging meth~d
the plung.ing methnd
1-

0 I I J I I
'
I J -Qs~_.--~---~~--~---~~---~
1.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6
5z/ 5.,. 5z/ 5J<
Fig. 12. Relationship between mobilized stress Fig. 13. Relationship between dilatancy rate
ratio adaa and Sz/Sx ( -dv/dc 1) and Sz/Sx

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of the contact plane on the horizontal plane (L1Sj cosj3), and the ability to support the axial
load at all contacts should be determined to a certain degree by Sz. Also, it is probable
that the ability to support the horizontal load is determined by Sx (or Sy). Therefore, it
seems to be quite true that the ratio adas/Sz/Sx is constant (k1).
The actual relation between Sz/Sx and ( -dvfdc. 1) is illustrated in Fig. 13. The data in
this figure indicate that the relation between ( -dvjds1) and Sz/Sx can be represented by the
following linear equation:
( 5)

Equations (4) and (5) can be applied to all specimens compacted by the tapping and plung-
ing methods. From equations (4) and (5), the following linear relation between a1/as and
( -dvjdc.1) is also obtained.
( 6)

0 0
5.0 SandB X' ,..oo
I 0
o····90- specimen Xx~Xo
•····60-specimen
li .... ]0-specimen 9xf1>1'•
X···. 0 -specimen ~~ 0
A
~~
·4.0 ~g_ ~X
0 OM~P
c:PJox
~>o<*'
I XOx
!Y.

•
p
j)
•x.
·~~XX A
3.0

-·-······~~=-~
-

V)

-
V)
(!J
'-.
V)

/::;. 0
~ ~~
-R •
I

2.0 • ~ .._'!
k A'
o o Ax
X-

.4 • 0

~d *~A
0
0 •
7. 0
•
- 0.5 0 0.5 7. 0
Dilatancy Ra te - ( d.. ?J/d 2, )
Fig. 14. Relationship between mobilized stress ratio atfa 3 and dilatancy rate -dvjdsr..

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Figs. 14 and 15 show the relationship between mobilized stress ratio (J 1/(J 3 and dilatancy
rate ( -dvjds1) at prepeak stress. These data came from the experimental works described
in Reference 6 (Oda, 1972). One linear regression equation of the following form can be
shown to fit the experimental data in both of Figs. 14 and 15.

Sand D X
XX
o .. 90 -specimen X
•·· 60-specime n
Jl··JO-specime n
X·· 0-specimen

c
-4-.
I1S 0
~~~--~----------~~~~------+-------~

V)
V)
<b
l..
;):) 2.0 ·---+-----------+----------t

-0.5 0 0.5
Dilatancy Rate . -( dlljrh.,)
Fig. 15. Relationship between mobilized stress ratio ada3 and dilatancy rate -dvjds 1

( 7)

Fig. 16 shows the relationship between mobilized stress ratio ((Jd(J 3) 1 and dilatancy rate
( -dvjds1) 1 at failure. Equation (7) can also fit the data represented by Fig. 16.
The equation (6) obtained experimentally by the consideration of the granular fabric ac-
cords in form with equation (7). This fact suggests that equations (4) and (5) expressing
the linear relations between (J1/(Js, -dvjds1 and Sz/Sx are fundamental in granular mechanics.
Two constants ks' and ks' in equation (7) are independent of the following conditions:
the shape variation of constituting grain particles, the compaction method (initial fabric)
and the initial void ratio. Therefore, the constants k1 , k 2 , k3 and k 4 in equations (4) and
(5) may also be independent of these conditions. In other words, these constants are deter-
mined in each granular material without any relation, to the internal configuration of
particles (fabric). Physical and mechanical significance of these constants will be discussed
.in another paper.

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Proposed Mechanism of Fabric Change in Granu-

Sand B
lar Sand 0···90-spec imen
•···60-spaclmen q
The initial fabric of a granular sand is deter- 4··30-speclman 0-t X
'/i ··· 0-soec 1men ")<, I
mined by various factors, e.g., the shape of suffix -~- •
I 1 o-a =O. 5kg/cml1 -'.l.'-O,X2 1
particles and the compaction method. When (h/<Js 2 : • =I.Okg/cm2 ~

increases beyond unity, the initial fabric cannot 3 : ' =3.0kg/cm~ .;~~
withstand the continuously increasing stress
ratio, and the deformation of sand occurs. The
resistance of the fabric against increasing stress c
ratio gradually increases with the increase of -..::: 4 t-------.::r;Qai'A.of-
axial strain (strain hardening). This type of ~
fabric reconstruction is mostly due to the develop-
ment of preferred orientation of tangents at grain Sand D
contacts perpendicular to the maximum principal ®· .. 90-specimen
® ... Go-specimen
stress direction. This reconstruction of initial
fabric must be made chiefly by preferred direc- 3
0
.0 0.5
@···30-sC)cclmen
® ... o-speclmen

7.0
tion of sliding and partially by rolling of each
Dilatancy Rate at Failure
grain. The term, "preferred direction of sliding,"
does not contradict with the Rowe's statement Fig. 16. Relationship between mobilized
that direction of sliding is limited to the critical stress ratio (<1d<1 3 )f and dilatancy rate
angle derived from the minimum energy ratio ( -dvjds 1)f at failure
theory, although the results of fabric re-
·Construction may not be fully explained by the deformation model proposed by Rowe
(1962).
Figs. 9 and 10 illustrate that the tangents whose normals incline to <J 1-direction within
the range of angle 50°<(3<90° (or 90°<(3<130°) generally disappear with the increase of
axial strain, and the tangents whose normals incline to <J1-direction within the range of
angle 0°</3<50° (or 130°</3<180°) gradually increase. It is possible to consider that the
contacts of the former type are unstable and those of the latter type are stable under un-
equal principal stresses <J1><J2=<J3 • With increasing ratio of <Jd<Js, the sliding may occur at
unstable contacts to form new stable contacts.
Horne (1965) discussed the deformation and strength behaviour of assembly of round,
rigid and cohesionless particles. By assuming that deformation of the assembly takes place
as a result of relative slidings between groups of particles, and that motion among groups
is not facilitated by the presence of individual particles which act as rollers between these
groups, he proposed the following three equations:
1 ~oo('l/2tr(2tr • • •
ds1 = + -2mx
-
o o
) j
o
H(a, /3, u) u (1-cos 2(3) dadfodu ( 8)

1 \OO\tr(l/2tr • • •
dcz = - - - - ) ) ) H(a, (3, u) u sin 2(3 cosa dadjjdu ( 9)
2my o o -1121r
1 ~00\IT\IT , , ,
des = - - - - ) j H(a, (3, u) u sin 2(3 sina dadfidu (10)
2mz o o o

·where mx, my and mz are mean projected solid paths in the coordinate directions, u is sliding
velocity, and H(a, (3, u) denotes probability density of sliding contacts which is a function
of a, fi and u (compressional strain being positive).
If (i) the assembly deforms at the state of stress <J1><J2=<J3 =constant, (ii) the critical angle

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of sliding with respect to a 1 is given by the angle derived from the minimum energy ratio
theory and (iii) the sliding velocity it is equal with each other at sliding contact, equations
(8), (9) and (10) can be rewritten as follows:

(11)

From equation (11) and stress-dilatancy law obtained by Rowe (1962), the following relation
can be obtained:

a1/as=- Sz
4 · --·tan ( -1r 1 )
+ -if>P (12)
7r Sx 4 2

If we suppose if>" to be 22° after Rowe's experimental results for coarse quartz sand, theoretical
equations (11) and (12) can be represented by the dotted lines in Figs. 12 and 13. Slight dis-
crepancies between the theoretical and experimental data are observed in Figs. 12 and 13.
The discrepancies may be due to the fact that Rowe and Horne neglected the mechanical
role of rolling of grains during the progress of deformation and used the minimum energy
ratio theory related to the critical sliding angle.
It must be noted that the equations theoretically obtained by Rowe and Horne have a basically
identical form to the equations (4) and (5) experimentally obtained by the present author ; (i)
Horne's equations (11, 12) and the present author's equations (4, 5) represent linear relations
between a 1 /a3 , ( -dv/dc1) and Sz/Sx, (ii) tan ( ~ - ~ if>") and tan (: + ~ if>p) are both only
dependent on the value of if>~-' which is constant for a given material, and the constants kt.
k2 , k3 and k4 in equations (4) and (5) are also not affected by fabric and are constant for a
given material.
The ratio Sz/Sx must become maximum at peak stress ratio (al/as)t. The value of max-
imum ratio Sz/Sx may be determined not only by fabric such as the initial void ratio and
the existence of preferred orientation of long axes but also by some characters of constitut-
ing grain particles such as shape, surface roughness and interparticle friction angle. The
mobilized stress ratio at failure (ai/a3 ) 1 must be determined directly by the maximum value
of Sz/Sx. Both of (Sz/Sx)max and (ai/a3)t in the granular sand compacted by the tapping
method is larger than those in the granular sand compacted by the plunging method. The
initial fabric of the former type of sand has strong preferred orientation of long axes of
grains perpendicular to acdirection. The latter type of sand, however, has the initial fabric
characterized by the preferred orientation of long axes of grains parallel to acdirection.
Therefore, it is reasonable to consider that (Sz/Sx)max attained by the former specimens
must be larger than (Sz/Sx)max attained by the latter specimens.
However, it is an important subject for the future study to calculate theoretically the
value (Sz/Sx)max which is attained at peak stress ratio in a deformed assembly. This should
be based on the confirmed knowledges for the mechanism of fabric reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS
From this study which has intended to make clear the mechanism controlling the fabric
reconstruction during the deformation and the relations between the fabric and some
mechanical properties of granular sand, the following conclusions are obtained:
(1) One of the most important fabric characters of granular sand is represented. by the
parameter (Sz/Sx) which has close relations to mobilized stress ratio and dilatancy rate as
shown by equations (4) and (5).

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(2) The process of fabric reconstruction is successive without any distinct change of
basic mechanism during the deformation between the stage of prepeak stress and peak
stress. The law which has been developed for the peak stress condition may be applied to
the prepeak stress condition.
(3) The continuous reconstruction of the initial fabric with increase of axial strain occurs
principally by preferred direction of sliding along the unstable contacts among neighbouring
grain particles, and partially by rolling of each grain to make preferred re-orientation of
long axes of grains perpendicular to cr 1-direction.
(4) The value (Sz/Sx)max at peak stress is determined not only by initial fabric but also
by some properties of grain particles such as shape, surface roughness and interparticle
friction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is extremely grateful to Professor Toru Onodera and Yotar6 Seki of the
University of Saitama for their constant guidance and encouragement given to the author's
laboratory works, and for reading the manuscript.
The author also wishes to express his thanks to Professor Joji Kojima of the Hiroshima
University and Professor Kenji Ishihara of the University of Tokyo for their kind advice
and critical reading of the manuscript.

NOTATION
E(a, f3)=probability density of normals to tangents which is a function of a and f3
e= void ratio
H(a, {3, u)=probability density of sliding contacts which is a function of a, [3 and u
mx, my, mz=mean projected solid paths in the coordinate directions
m=number of contacts of grain particles which constitute the granular assembly
of a unit cube ·
N;=normal directions to tangent planes
n; =number of observation in each group
Sx, SY, Sz=summations of the projected area of contact surfaces on the YZ-, ZX- and'
XY-planes
L1S;=area of a contact surface
L1S=average area of contact surfaces
X, Y, Z=reference axes
u=sliding velocity
V. M. =vector magnitude showing the degree of preferred orientation of apparent:
long axes
a, f3 =angles defining the direction of normal to the contact plane
a, =angle of inclination of potential slip surface to the major principal plane
f3s=angle of inclination of tangent at the sliding contact to the minor principal.
plane
cr1, cr2, cra=principal stresses
s1, s2, sa=principal strains
v=volumetric strain
ds =incremental strain
a1/aa=mobilized stress ratio in effective stress
(crl/cra)t=mobilized stress ratio at failure

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( -dv/dct)=dilatancy rate
( -dv/dct) 1 =dilatancy rate at failure
crn=normal stress on the shear plane
1: max= maximum shear stress on the shear plane

(ovjd.d)max=maximum rate of volume expansion

rp =angle of internal friction
¢.u=angle of interparticle friction
Ot=average angle of inclination of tangent planes to the shear plane
O;=angle of inclination of an apparent long axis to the reference axis X
O=vector mean direction of apparent long axes

REFERENCES
{ 1) Curray, J. R. (1956): "Analysis of two-dimensional orientation data," Jour. Geol., Vol. 64, pp.
117-131.
( 2) Horne, M. R. (1965) : "The behaviour of an assembly of rotund, rigid, cohesionless particles,"
Part I and 2, Proc. Roy. Soc. A., Vol. 286, pp. 62-97.
{3) Horne, M. R. (1969): "The behaviour of an assembly of rotund, rigid, cohesionless particles,"
part 3, Proc. Roy. Soc. A., Vol. 310, pp. 21-34.
{ 4) Mogami, T. (1965): "A statistical theory of mechanics of granular materials," Jour. Fac. Eng.,
University of Tokyo (B), Vol. 28, pp. 65-79.
{ 5) Newland, P. L. and Allely, B. H. (1957): "Volume changes in drained triaxial tests on granular
materials," Geotechnique, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 17-34.
{ 6) Oda, M. (1972): "Initial fabrics and their relations to mechanical properties of granular material,"
Soils and Foundations, Vol. 12, No.1, pp. 17-36.
{ 7) Roscoe, K. H. and Schofield, A. N. (1964): "Discussion of Rowe 1963," Jour. Soil Mech. Found.
Div., Vol. 90, pp. 136.
{ 8) Rowe, P. W. (1962): "The stress-dilatancy relation for static equilibrium of an assembly of
particles in contact," Pro c. Roy. Soc. A, Vol. 269, pp. 500-527 .
.( 9) Rowe, P. W. (1963): "Stress-dilatancy, earth pressures and slopes," Jour. Soil Mech. Found.
Div., Vol. 89, No. SM3, pp. 37-61.

(Received November 6, 1971)

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