DIVISION S-l-SOIL PHYSICS
Anisotropy of a Fragipan Soil: Vertical vs. Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity1
S. M. DABNEY AND H. M. SELiM2
ABSTRACT
Undisturbed core samples were obtained in vertical and horizonal
directions from surface and subsurface horizons of an Olivier silt
loam (Aquic Fragiudalfs, fine-silty, mixed, thermic) in order to test
for anisotropy. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, pe-
netrometer resistance, and volumetric moisture content at soil matric
potential of 30 J kg ' were measured. Hydraulic conductivity values
within the Ap did not differ in horizontal and vertical sampling di-
rections. However, within the Btxl horizon, measured conductivity
values were three times greater in vertical than in horizontal direc-
tions. This was attributed to the primarily vertical orientation of
flow-restrictive zones within the fragipan. Bulk density and moisture
content differed between surface and subsurface horizons, but were
not influenced by direction of core sampling. Penetrometer resist-
ance did not differ between horizons or sampling direction, but was
significantly greater in brown than in grey areas of the fragipan.
The results of this study have relevance to models of soil water flow
and the sampling methods described should be applicable to testing
for anisotropy in other soils.
Additional Index Words: Fragiudalf, prism face, ped face, bulk
density, penetrometer resistance.
Dabney, S.M., and H.M. Selim. 1987. Anisotropy of a fragipan soil:
Vertical vs. horizontal hydraulic conductivity. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
51:3-6.
T HE ASSUMPTION MADE MOST FREQUENTLY in
modeling water flow in soils is that the soil is
homogeneous and isptropic. While this is recognized
often to be an oversimplification, the assumption al-
lows analytic solutions to be obtained in drainage
problems and makes watershed hydrology models
manageable.
Some researchers have attempted to improve the
reality of their models by assuming that the soil con-
sists of several layers, each homogeneous and iso-
trppic. Frequently these layers are taken to coincide
with genetic soil horizons and usually the A horizon
is assumed to be more permeable than subsurface ho-
rizons (Chorley, 1980). Decreases in saturated hy-
draulic conductivity, Ks with depth have often been
associated with an increase in bulk density (Basak and
Anandakrishnan, 1970). Zaslaysky and Rogowski
(1969) argued that a soil consisting of layers approx-
imately parallel to the soil surface will always have an
effective horizontal K, that is greater than its vertical
conductivity, and that the overall soil could thus be
considered to behave anisotropically. In contrast to
this usage, we use "anisotropic" to refer only to soils
exhibiting differing Ks values in different directions
within a single soil horizon.
Where anisotropy has been reported within a single
' Contribution from the Dep. of Agron., Louisiana Agric. Exp.
Stn., Louisiana State Univ. Agric. Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803.
Received
2
21 Apr. 1986.
Assistant Professor and Professor.
horizon, horizontal Ks has generally been reported to
be greater than vertical conductivity. This was true in
soils containing fine stratification of coarse and fine
textured materials (Childs et al., 1957; Bouwer and
Rice, 1967), as well as for compacted clay soil mate-
rials (Mitchell et al., 1965; Basak, 1972). However, not
all soils or soil materials are anisotropic. Basak (1972)
found little difference between vertical and radial
(horizontal) Ks for well flocculated kaolinite. Bouwer
and Rice (1967) found little difference between hori-
zontal and vertical Ks in a well-structured loam soil.
Fragipans differ from soils containing stratification
due to sedimentary processes. They typically contain
polygonal peds with long vertical dimensions sepa-
rated and completely surrounded by bleached grey
seams (Grossman and Carslisle, 1969). Such a struc-
tural configuration may be expected to influence water
flow patterns and may render different .rvs-values for
different directions. Referring to water flow into dry,
cracked clay soil, Bouma (1983) argued that cutans
along vertical ped faces could act as barriers to water
flow. However, a literature search revealed no pub-
lished studies on the behavior of water flow within
fragic horizons.
The objectives of this research were (i) to charac-
terize the vertical and horizontal Ks of surface and
subsurface horizons of a fragipan soil, and (ii) to de-
termine whether core sampling direction influences soil
bulk density, penetrometer resistance, and volumetric
water content.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The soil under study is an Olivier silt loam (Aquic Fra-
giudalfs, fine-silty, mixed, thermic) developed from loessal
parent material. The soil is somewhat eroded and consists
of the following horizons: Ap 0 to 20 cm, B/E 20 to 30 cm,
Btxl 30 to 45 cm, Btx2 45 to 75 cm, and Btx3 75 to 100+
cm. The fragipan had typical (Grossman and Carlisle, 1969)
brittle brown areas (BB) containing numerous dark brown
concretions and intervening grey seam areas (GS). In field
observations, the GS appear softer than BB and roots tend
to grow within the GS and along the Ped faces between GS
and BB. The BB and GS areas are distinguishable imme-
diately below the Ap but are more sharply defined at a depth
of 1 m. The fragipan in this soil may be degrading through
pedogenic processes (Miller, 1983).
Four pits approximately 2 m long, 1.5 m deep, and 1 m
wide were dug with a backhoe. One face of each pit was
scraped clean using a sharpened hoe. All four pits had sim-
ilar profile development. The relative amounts of GS, mixed,
and BB areas were approximately 40, 40, and 20%, respec-
tively, in the Btxl and about 20, 25, and 55%, respectively,
in the Btx3 horizons. The seams were narrower and more
distant in the Btx3 than in the Btxl horizon. Based on soil
morphology and color, areas chosen for core sampling were
designated BB, GS, G + B, and mixed. The G + B refers
to sampled areas in which part of the core was distinctly
grey and part distinctly browwn and includes the high chroma
 SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 51, 1987
zone close to ped faces; "mixed" areas consisted of soil areas
neither distinctly brown nor grey.
Two pits were selected for sampling. Each pit was as-
sumed to provide access for sampling the same soil hori-
zons. Samples were obtained from the most representative
areas available at each horizon surface. "Undisturbed" hor-
izontal samples were obtained using two brass cylinders, each
5.72 cm o.d. by 3 cm long, taped together to form a single
cylinder, and carefully pushed into the exposed soil pit face
by a hydraulic ram braced against the opposite wall of the
pit until the end of the second ring was within 1 cm of the
soil surface. After all horizontal samples were in place for a
given depth, the pits were prepared for vertical core sam-
pling by excavating the soil adjacent to the pit to a depth 5
cm above the sampling depth and smoothing the surface.
Areas designated BB, GS, G + B, and mixed were selected
at distances from 15 to 35 cm from the pit face and double
rings were forced into the soil with a truck-mounted hy-
draulic ram. When all the cylinders for both vertical and
horizontal samples at a given depth were inserted, they were
excavated, wrapped in Parafilm® and returned to the lab.
Samples were obtained in both horizontal and vertical di-
rections from Ap and Btxl horizons of both pits. Samples
were obtained from the Btx3 horizon only in the horizontal
direction of one pit. Depth of sampling averaged 10 cm in
the Ap, 35 cm in the Btxl, and 85 cm in the Btx3 horizon.
Depths within the Btxl varied slightly to insure inclusion
of only undisturbed volumes of the horizon. A total of 85
core samples were obtained and analyzed.
10-'
OLIVIER SILT LOAM
Btxl HORIZON
Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity
T analyses. As discussed below, Ks values were subjected to a
k logic transformation prior to analysis of variance and means
10-
10-
48 56 64 72
10-".
T (Fig. 1). Tests for normality using the Kolmogorov D-
E
Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity
10-
48 56 64 72
TIME, HOURS
Fig. 1. Hydraulic conductivity (kg s m~3) vs. time (hours) from start
of flow of individual samples taken in horizontal (top) and vertical
(bottom) directions from Btxl horizon of an Olivier silt loam.
Different symbols indicate different samples.
In the laboratory, the brass cylinders were separated and
the outer ring was removed. The soil cores were end trimmed
and placed into Tempe cells (Soil Moisture Inc., Santa Bar-
bara, CA) whose ceramic end plates had been replaced with
coarse fritted disks. The cells were placed in a shallow pan
of water and allowed to saturate, from the bottom up, for
48 h. Tygon tubes were attached to both ends of the cells
and the tube from the bottom end was connected to a water
source. The setup used for measuring Ks was similar to the
constant head method of Klute (1965) modified for upward
rather than downward flow. The hydraulic head difference
maintained was 3 J kg~'. Measurements of K, were begun
48 h after initiation of flow. Two to four measurements were
made on each core over a period of 32 h. Temperature was
maintained at 23 ± 2°C.
After determination of Ks, the soil samples were removed
from the Tempe cells, placed in a pressure plate apparatus,
and brought to 30 J kg~' water potential. After equilibration
at this potential for 3 d, determinations of resistance to pen-
etration were made at three locations on one face of each
core using a Docket penetrometer (Soiltest Inc. model CL-
700). When the range of the penetrometer (440 kPa = 4.5
kg cm~2) was exceeded, a value of 490 was recorded. The
core samples were then weighed, removed from their brass
cylinders, dried at 105°C for 24 h, and weighed again. The
following data are reported: saturated hydraulic conductiv-
ity (Ks), bulk density (p), moisture content (0) at 30 J kg"1,
and penetrometer resistance (P) at 30 J kg~'.
In analysis of variance procedures, each individual sample
was considered to be an independent experimental unit rep-
resenting a particular soil horizon, sampling direction, and
soil color designation. Each parameter was subjected to two
analyses: One testing the effects of core direction and color
class within the Btxl horizon, and the other testing the ef-
fects of horizon (Ap and Btxl only) and core sampling di-
rection. Differences between pits were not considered in these
calculations.
RESULTS
Results of repeated flow measurements made on in-
dividual cores obtained from horizontal and vertical
directions from the Btxl horizon of one soil pit are
displayed in Fig. 1. These results demonstrate that the
80 measured Ks values for each sample were quite stable
over the 32-h measurement period. The arithmetic
mean of the repeated measures for each core was used
in further analyses. Figure 1 also demonstrates Ks val-
ues within a horizon to vary by more than one order
of magnitude. In one case, the outflow was so slow
that only a single measurement of Ks was obtained
statistic (SAS, 1985a) indicated that Ks was not nor-
mally distributed. However, log,0(A^) did not differ
significantly from a normal distribution. Other studies
have also shown that hydraulic conductivity values
are log-normally distributed (Nielsen et al., 1973; Baker
and Bouma, 1976). Therefore log-transformed Ks val-
ues were used in analysis of variance procedures.
Mean values of Ks are reported in Table 1. These
80 Ks values are weighted averages of the log-transform
of the original data, transformed back to the original
dimensions. There was little difference between con-
ductivities in horizontal or vertical directions within
the Ap horizon. A difference might be expected if thin
tillage or traffic pans existed. This was not observed.
 DABNEY & SELIM: ANISOTROPY OF A FRAGIPAN SOIL

Table 1. Number of undisturbed cores analyzed (n) and meant Table 2. Number of samples (n), bulk density (g), volumetric
of saturated hydraulic conductivity (K,) for horizontal and moisture content (0), and penetrometer resistance (P) of
vertical sampling directions at three depths in samples obtained from the Btxl horizon
an Olivier silt loam soil. of an Olivier soil.
Core sampling direction e «T Pt
Overall
Horizontal Vertical mean Soil color n Mean n Mean n Mean
s s 1 3
Soil zone n Ks X 10 n Ks X 10 Ks X 10" Mgm- m'm- kPa
kg s nra ————— \rir
Kg sS m"3 ———— GS 14 1.47 11 0.35 14 351
G + B 7 1.50 6 0.40 7 366
Apt Mixed 9 1.48 8 0.36 9 428
Plow layer 18 0.59 20 0.81 0.70 BB 11 1.49 10 0.35 11 452
Btxlt SD 0.068 0.032 66.7
Grey (GS) 7 0.16 7 0.58 0.31 T At -30 J kg'1 matric potential.
Grey + brown
(G + B) 3 0.08 4 0.13 0.11
Mixed 3 0.17 6 0.69 0.43 horizon. A contrast coded as if there were a linear
Brown (BB| 6 0.09 5 0.25 0.14 trend in the amount of brown soil material contained
Mean 19 0.12 22 0.38 0.22 in each zone (GS < G + B < mixed < BB) explained
Btx3t most of this variation (P = 0.001). The Btxl and Btx3
Grey (GS) 1 0.48 - .. .. horizons were similar with respect to P, and when
Grey + brown averaged together the mean P values for GS, G + B,
(G -r B) 1 0.016 - - -
Mixed 1 0.83 - - - mixed, and BB areas within these fragic horizons were:
Brown (BB) 3 0.021 - - .. 353, 363, 425, and 448 kPa, respectively. The true
Mean 6 0.06 - - 0.06 differences in P among the soil color zones are under-
T Means are weighted averages of log-transformed data. estimated in these averages because the range of the
t Standard deviations of Iog10 (Ks) values for each horizon are as follows: pocket penetrometer was exceeded more frequently on
Ap = 0.458, Btxl = 0.596, Btx3 = 0.166. the browner samples. The frequencies with which the
maximum value of the penetrometer was exceeded
The5 mean value of Ks for the Ap horizon was 0.70 X were 0.5, 0.4, 1.2, and 1.9 times out of 3 measure-
10~ kg s m-3. Within the Btxl horizon, at5 35 cm ments for GS, G + B, mixed, and BB samples, re-
depth, 5A; was three times greater (0.38 X 10~ vs. 0.12 spectively. A normal probability plot of the P data
X 10~ kg s m~3) in the vertical than in the horizontal indicated that an apparently normal distribution was
direction. The overall mean values 5of Ks for the Btxl5 truncated at the maximum P value approximately 1
and Btx3 horizons were 0.22 X 10~ and 0.06 X 10" standard deviation above the mean.
kg s m~3, respectively. Mean values of p, 6, and P for each soil horizon and
Data for \og\0(Ks), p, 0, and P from samples of the core direction combination are reported in Table 3.
Btxl horizon were subjected to analysis of variance In this table, these parameters have been averaged
using the General Linear Models Procedure of the Sta- across all soil color zones (GS, BB, ...). In these av-
tistical Analysis System (SAS, 1985b). Because of un- erages no effort was made to weight the data based on
balance in the data, type III sums-of-squares were used the natural abundance of each class since the G + B
for conservative tests of significance. Analysis of var- category has no areal extent of its own.
iance of logioCKs) data from the Btxl horizon indicated Statistical analysis of combined data from the Ap
that a significant difference existed between horizontal and Btxl horizons indicated that log10(A^) was signif-
and vertical sampling directions (P = 0.023). Soil color icantly influenced by both depth and core direction
also influenced log10(ATs) in that, for a given core di- (Table 1). In contrast, p and 6 were influenced by depth,
rection, GS and mixed areas consistently had larger but not by core direction, while P was independent of
Ks values than did BB or G + B zones. A linear con- both depth and core direction (Table 3). In no cases
trast testing this difference was significant (P — 0.037). were significant depth by core direction interactions
There was no apparent interaction of core sampling noted.
direction and soil color class.
None of the other parameters analyzed (p, 0, and P) Table 3. Bulk density (@), volumetric water content (B), and
were influenced by core sampling direction. Mean data penetrometer resistance (P) of core samples obtained in
horizontal (H) and vertical (V) directions
for p, B, and P are reported in Table 2. It is not sur- of an Olivier soil.
prising that p and 0 were similar for both directions
since they are considered to be sealers. The lack of Parameter: C n P*
differences indicate that our sampling technique did Core direction: H V H V H V
not create the differences in Ks reported above. Bulk — Mg nr1 — — m'nr" — —— k P a ——
density and 0 were also not significantly different be- Soil horizon
tween the different soil color classes. Ap 1.42 1.44 0.30 0.30 390 400
Because penetrometer resistance is a property re- Btxl 1.48 1.48 0.35 0.37 411 386
Btx3 1.50 0.38 402
lated to structural features as well as to bulk density SDJ 0.100 0.032 93.0
and moisture content, a soil might be expected to ex-
hibit some degree of anisotropy with respect to this t At -30 J kg'1 matric potential.
t The smallest number of samples contributing to any depth-direction mean
property. This was not observed. However, Pdid vary within the Ap and Btxl horizons was 18 for e and P, and 16 for 6.
significantly between soil color zones within the Btxl Statistical analysis did not include samples from the Btx3.
 SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 51, 1987

DISCUSSION conductivity results are made would allow testing of

Results of this study demonstrate anisotropy of the this hypothesis. Another way to ensure that a sample
soil with respect to Ks within the Btxl horizon of an contained only desired material would be to use metal
Olivier silt loam. The finding that vertical conductiv- sleeves with Plexiglas inner rings during sampling. In
ity (Ksv) is greater than horizontal conductivity (Ksh) this way the sample could be viewed after extraction.
is contrary to most previously published reports on
anisotropy. This is not inconsistent, however, with SUMMARY
what is known about the structure of fragic horizons. Sampling direction had an appreciable effect on Ks
Nikiforoff (1955) described the most distinctive mor- determined in the laboratory on undisturbed cores ob-
phological characteristic of a fragipan as its pattern of tained from a fragic horizon. Hydraulic conductivity
cleavage: irregular blocks (BB here), 0.45 to 0.60 m in in the vertical direction was larger than in the hori-
horizontal diameter, separated by conspicuous streaks zontal direction. This behavior may be attributed to
of bleached material (GS here). Viewed in vertical the orientation of flow limiting barriers and the par-
planes, the GS are roughly parallel and continuous allel nature of grey seams in vertical planes. Hydraulic
over distances greater than 1 m, whereas in horizontal conductivity values of samples from the Ap horizon
planes they form a polygonal network. Between the did not indicate anisotropy. Core sampling direction
bleached zones and the interior of the irregular blocks, had no effect on soil bulk density, moisture content
Nikiforoff described high chroma "rust- colored at a matric potential of 30 J kg~', or penetrometer
bands." Ranney et al. (1975) refered to these bands as resistance.
zones of iron oxide accumulation. Bouma (1983) de-
scribed mechanisms explaining the formation of these ACKNOWLEDGMENT
"neoferrans." Ritchie et al. (1974) described the fra- The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Mar-
gipans of several Aqualfs. They noted the presence of garet D. Obrien and B. Davidoffin the course of this study.
thin cutans along ped surfaces and comment that the
orientation of the clay films was predominantly ver-
tical. Grossman and Carlisle (1969) noted that cutans
in fragipans may be thin or thick, and that pore space
within peds was often vesicular or poorly intercon-
nected.
Neoferrans, cutans, and blocks with largely vesi-
cular pore space act as barriers to water flow. In fragic
horizons the orientation of these features is predom-
inantly vertical rather than horizontal. These facts are
consistent with our observations of Ksv > Ksh. They
are also consistent with field observations that when
a pit is freshly dug into a saturated fragipan, water
visibly flows out of GS areas but not from BB areas
which appear to dry out after a short time of exposure.
When layering is predominantly horizontal it follows
Ksh > Ksv. When the barriers to flow are oriented in
the vertical plane, the preferential flow direction is
correspondingly vertical. Flow at the interface be-
tween grey and brown areas (G + B) is probably re-
stricted primarily by neoferrans and cutans. Flow
within brown brittle bodies (BB) is probably restricted
by vesicular pore space. Flows in mixed and grey seam
(GS) areas appear to be similar.
The barriers to horizontal flow in fragic horizons
are not planar, but rather are polygonal. Thus water
flow paths in horizontal directions may be expected
to be around as well as through the less permeable
blocks. These observations also affect the validity of
our sampling technique. Because field identification
of the soil color areas was done at the pit face, a dis-
tance of 5 cm from the center of the core actually
sampled, some degree of variability may have been
introduced. The difference in parallelism of GS areas
noted by Nikiforoff (195 5) probably caused the differ-
ences between the pit faces and the sampled areas to
be greater for horizontal than for vertical cores. This
may account for the apparent difference between Ksv
and Ksh m GS areas. A sampling strategy in which
blocks of GS or BB material are excavated and sub-
sequently encased in gypsum (Bouma, 1980) before