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In separated-type water tunnel structure, when the point supported steel liner is subjected to the
uniform external pressure, the contact between tunnel lining and liner is difficult to happen
because the developed compressive hoop thrust in pipe only shortens the circumference of liner
and then enlarges the gap between liner and host. Therefore, the buckling of the uniformly point
supported liner can be considered a rotary symmetric buckling likely the buckling of free pipe
under external pressure. In this chapter, the buckling of free pipe is investigated.
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Plain Pipe vs. Stiffened Pipe
The choice of plain versus stiffened steel pipe for a tunnel liner is primarily not only a cost
issue, but also have to consider other issues such as the safety, constructability, and the
inspection/ maintenance. For instance, steel pipe with diameter to thickness ratios of more than
about 300 or thickness more than 45mm are usually not practical due to handling limitations.
On the other hand, the steel pipe must have the sufficient capacity to resist the internal pressure
and external pressure, while the external pressure is vulnerable to cause the buckling of pipe.
Generally, the steel pipe thickness designed for external pressure is usually much thicker than
that for internal pressure. In engineering practice, plain steel pipe has many advantages as
shown in followings,
• Design and analysis are relatively simple and well understood.
• Outer diameter of a plain steel pipe is less than a stiffened steel pipe; hence the excavated
tunnel diameter can be reduced.
• Manufacture of a plain steel pipe is simpler, particularly for wall thickness less than about
20mm. The manufacture cost per unit length of stiffened steel pipe is generally higher than a
plain pipe with same thickness, considering the required stiffener welding work.
However, when the water tunnel is built in deep underground, the groundwater pressure is
relatively high and the structure design has to consider the bucking of steel pipe under external
pressure principally. In such case, the stiffened pipe is required considering its following
advantages,
• Stiffened steel pipe can be designed lighter than a plain pipe.
• Buckling mode of a stiffened pipe can be controlled, and the long steel pipe collapse can be
avoided if appropriately design.
• Thinner pipe can be used, hence not only quantities of steel materials but also the welding
works are possibly reduced. In addition, the construction of deep water tunnel can become
possibility when the steel pipe rolling process is limited in thickness due to available
fabrication machinery and other restrained conditions.
- 19 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Otherwise, the application of the external circular stiffeners usually called ring stiffener should
be considered when the thickness of a plain pipe designed for external pressure exceeds the
thickness required by internal pressure. Finally, the design should be carried out based on
economic considerations of the following three available options: a) increasing the thickness of
the pipe, b) adding external stiffeners to a pipe with thickness required for internal pressure, and
c) increasing the thickness of pipe and adding external stiffeners, and satisfy the design
requirement for the external pressure. In addition, the economic comparison between plain and
stiffened pipe must consider the extra cost of welding, tunnel excavation and backfill.
In the current study, the stiffened pipe is considered as the tunnel liner in principle considering
the safety and cost of the water tunnel built in urban deep underground. The stiffeners are
installed with a constant spacing on the steel pipe, and are welded with fillet welding around
and at the exterior of pipe. The stiffener is assumed having sufficient second moment of inertia
to avoid buckling of itself, since it is principally used to holding the pipe in a circular shape. As
the stiffener types, there are 4 common types as shown in Fig. 2.1, called tee bar, rolled channel
stiffener, rolled plate stiffener, and flat bar, respectively. Tee bar is theoretically the most
efficient as a stiffener, however the complicated fabrication is the vital shortcoming. Moreover,
the available reduction of cross section is limited because the failure of flange or web has to be
avoided. Rolled channel stiffener is also structural efficient, by which a greater spacing of
stiffener becomes possible because of its larger inertia moment and two connection points with
steel pipe. The problem of rolled channel stiffener is that there are no effective means to treat
the void created by stiffener. A rolled plate oriented parallel to the steel pipe cannot add the
second moment of inertia of steel pipe to resist buckling. It is therefore that the rolled plate is
not used as main stiffener, just used for reinforcing the connection of steel pipe. A flat bar
(Rolled or cut plate placed perpendicular to pipe) are the most commonly used stiffener due to
not only its easily manufacturing but having efficient second moment of inertia to improve the
capacity of buckling resistance. Accordingly, in this study, the flat bar is adopted as stiffener in
terms of the design and construction of stiffened pipe. The cross-section profile of a pipe
stiffened with flat bar is shown in Fig. 2.2, where the related notations about stiffened pipe are
shown1).
Steel pipe
- 20 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
hr
t Be = 1 . 56 Rt
R0 Rc
R
2S
Plain Pipe
When a free pipe is subjected to uniform external pressure, the tangential compressive stress
will be developed in pipe and increases with the external pressure increases. When the
tangential compressive stress reaches a limit value, the pipe is not able to maintain its initial
circular shape, and distorts unstably in buckling.
For a finite long free pipe with radius R, thickness t, the buckling has been discussed by Von.
Mises2), Donnel3), Southwell4), Timoshenko5), Flügger6), Tokugawa7), etc.. The corresponding
buckling equations will be referred in following section for stiffened pipe. However for an
infinite long free pipe, the buckling equation can be derived using the Euler buckling theory, by
assumed as a ring with the second moment of inertia (I).The buckling equation is expressed as
follows,
3
(n 2 − 1) EI (n 2 − 1) E ⎛ t ⎞
Pcr = = ⎜ ⎟ (2.1a)
R3 12 ⎝ R ⎠
However, if the pipe is longitudinal restrained, Eq. (2.1a) should be modified by considering
the Poisson’s effect. The equation of critical pressure is then given by the following,
- 21 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
3 3
(n 2 − 1) E ⎛ t ⎞ (n 2 − 1) E ' ⎛ t ⎞
Pcr = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ (2.1b)
12(1 − v 2 ) ⎝ R ⎠ 12 ⎝R⎠
Where, the E’=E/(1-v2) is often used in practice, commonly called effective elastic modulus.
As for a long free pipe, since the lowest critical pressure is always produced when the number
of wave n is equal to 2, the number of waves is commonly given 2. Thus the buckling equation
of a long pipe can be expressed by Eq. (2.2).
3
E' ⎛ t ⎞
Pcr = ⎜ ⎟ (2.2)
4 ⎝R⎠
Moreover, the analytical solution using Eq. (2.2) is only valid for hydrostatic pressure with the
acting direction normal to pipe surface. For a conservative load maintaining their direction, the
denominator 4 in Eq. (2.2) should be replaced by 3.
Stiffened Pipe
As the ring-stiffened pipe is generally considered a stiffened cylindrical shell, the following
studies should be mentioned. The buckling of ring-stiffened cylindrical shells under external
pressure has been studied by the following researchers. Reis and Walker8) analyzed the local
buckling strength of ring-stiffened cylindrical shells by non-linear buckling analysis. Y.
Yamamoto9) studied the general instability of ring-stiffened cylindrical shells using experiments.
S. S. Seleim et al. 10), systemically studied the buckling behavior of ring-stiffened cylinders.
From the studies mentioned above, it is confirmed that the buckling behavior of ring-stiffened
cylindrical shells involves three types of failure: inter-ring shell buckling, general buckling, and
ring-stiffener stripping. Regarding buckling design, Charles P. Ellinas and William J. Supple11)
conducted a comprehensive investigation on buckling design for ring-stiffened cylinders.
Generally, the studies on buckling of stiffened pipe can be divided into two groups. One group
focused the buckling of the shell between adjacent stiffeners, while another group focused the
buckling of overall pipe. The two buckling forms are usually called general buckling and local
buckling, and their buckling forms are shown in Fig. 2.3, respectively. The representatives of
former group include Von Mises, Donnel, Southwell, Timoshenko, Flügger, Tokugawa, etc,
while the latter are represented by Kendrick12), Bryant13), etc..
In the research of former group, the stiffened pipe is simply assumed that the two ends of a
plain pipe are held in circular shape, and buckling occurs in a rotary-symmetric buckling with
sinusoidal wave. The related equations were derived by Southwell in 1913, Von Mises in 1914,
Timoshenko in 1938, Flügger in 1960, Tokugawa in 1961, Donnel in 1976. However, since the
Timoshenko’s equation obtained by Von Mises firstly are usually used in engineering practice.
- 22 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
The Timoshenko and Von Mises’ buckling equation for a stiffened pipe with radius R,
thickness t and spacing S is given in Eq. (2.3). Where, the approximate wave number can be
determined by following Eq. (2.4).
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
2n 2 − 1 − ν ⎥
Pcr =
Et 1
2
+
Et 3 ⎢
12(1 − ν 2 ) R 3 ⎢
(
n −1 +
2
) 2 ⎥
(2.3)
R ⎛ ⎛ πR ⎞
2
⎞ ⎛ πR ⎞
(n 2 − 1)⎜ n 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 1⎟ ⎢ n 2 ⎜ ⎟ + 1⎥
⎜ ⎝ S ⎠ ⎟ ⎢⎣ ⎝ S ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠
4
⎛ πR ⎞
3⎜ ⎟
n=
8 ⎝ S ⎠
t2 (
12(1 − ν 2 ) R 2 ) (2.4)
When the spacing S in Eq. (2.3) is replaced by the length of a plain pipe L, the Von Mises’
buckling equation can also be used for a finite long pipe.
In Japan, Tokugawa equation is also used in buckling design as shown following,
t
E
Pcr =
⎡ 2α 4
D0
⎢ +
2 ⎛ t ⎞
⎜ ⎟
2
⎧⎪ 2
( 2 2
⎨ n +α − 2) (
n 4 2n 2 − 1 ⎫⎪⎤
⎥
)
2 ⎬
(2.5)
n −1+
2 (
α 2 ⎢ n2 + α 2
⎣ )2
3(1 − μ ) ⎝ D0 ⎟⎠
2 ⎜
⎪⎩ (
n + α 2 ⎪⎭⎥⎦ )
2
Where,
πD0
0.5 0.25
α= ⎛D ⎞ ⎛D ⎞
n = 1.63⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
2S ⎝ S ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠
- 23 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
In the latter group, for the buckling of stiffened pipe, Kendrick and Bryant presented their
theoretical solutions using the energy approach in 1953, 1954 respectively, based on the
phenomenon of buckling deformation that stiffeners and shell distorts simultaneously when
buckling occurs. Kendrick and Bryant’s theoretical equations are given in Eq. (2.6) and Eq.
(2.7), respectively.
Et α4 Ie (n2 −1)2
Pcr = + (2.6)
R (n2 + α2 2 −1)(n2 + α2 )2 R3S
Et α4 Ie (n2 −1)2
Pcr = + (2.7)
R (n2 + α2 2 −1)(n2 + α2 )2 2
R0Rc S
- 24 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
λ/λc=1+bη2 (2.8a)
Where, λ is the applied load (axial load P or external pressure p) and λc is the classical buckling
load. The amplitude of the buckling displacement normal to the shell w have been normalized
with respect to the shell thickness t, thus η=w/t. Accordingly, if the post-buckling coefficient b
is negative, the equilibrium load falls following buckling and the buckling load of the real
structure λs is expected to be imperfection-sensitive. In this case, the asymptotic relationship
between the buckling load of the imperfect shell and the imperfection amplitude η* is
- 25 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Perfect shell
Imperfect shell
Limit point
Imperfect shell
η η
Where, ρs=λs/λc and η* is the normalized amplitude of the initial imperfection in the form of the
classical asymmetric buckling mode17). In the latter the theory was developed and refined by
Thompson and Hunt18), etc..
However, as the buckling of stiffened pipe under external pressure, that the imperfection has
far less influence on the critical pressure, and in most cases the experimental buckling pressure
is higher than the analytical value by as much as 15% has been verified by the Tennyson19).
- 26 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
buckling load can be estimated after every load increment. However, the BUCKLE
INCREMENT option should be used if a collapse load calculation is required at multiple
increments. The linear buckling load analysis is correct when one takes a very small load step in
increment zero, or makes sure the solution has converged before buckling load analysis (if
multiple increments are taken). Although the linear buckling (after increment zero) can be done
without using the LARGE DISP parameter, in which case the restriction on the load step size no
longer applies, the estimated bucking load should be used with caution, as it is not conservative
in predicting the actual collapse of structures. Generally, for a buckling problem that involves
material nonlinearity (for example, plasticity), the nonlinear problem must be solved
incrementally because a failure to converge in the iteration process or non-positive definite
stiffness can signal the plastic collapse during the analysis. Moreover, for extremely nonlinear
problems, since the BUCKLE option cannot produce accurate results, the history definition
option AUTO INCREMENT should be used to allow automatic load stepping in a quasi-static
fashion for both geometric large displacement and material (elastic-plastic) nonlinear problems.
By the option the elastic-plastic snap-through phenomena can be handled and the post-buckling
behavior of structures can be analyzed.
In the liner buckling analysis, the buckle option solves the following eigenvalue problem by
the inverse power sweep or Lanczos method using the following matrix formula.
Where, K is the stiffness matrix of structure, ΔKG is assumed a linear function of the load
increment ΔP to cause buckling.
The geometric stiffness ΔKG used for the buckling load calculation is based on the stress and
displacement state change at the start of the last increment. However, the stress and strain states
are not updated during the buckling analysis. The buckling load Pcr is therefore estimated by:
Pcr = P0 + λi ΔP (2.9b)
Where, for increments greater than 1, P0 is the load applied at the beginning of the increment
prior to the buckling analyses, and λi is the ith mode value obtained by the power sweep or
Lanczos method. As the control tolerances, the maximum number of iterations and the
convergence tolerance can be inputted. For the inverse power sweep method, the power sweep
terminates when the difference between the eigenvalues in two consecutive sweeps divided by
the eigenvalue is less than the tolerance. The Lanczos method concludes when the normalized
difference between all eigenvalues satisfies the tolerance.
In the current study, the numerical analysis for investigation of buckling behavior is
conducted applying linear buckling analysis, considering the non-linear characteristics has little
- 27 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
influence on the elastic buckling of a perfect cylindrical under uniformly external pressure. As
the analysis result, the estimated critical load can be used to evaluate whether material
nonlinearities occurred before buckling. Moreover, the buckling mode should be plotted and
studied, by which whether the modeled mesh size is sufficient to describe the collapse mode can
be checked.
- 28 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Pipe
Stiffener
Pipe
Stiffener
Local buckling
Pipe
Stiffener
Pipe
Stiffener
General buckling
Fig. 2.5 Local buckling and general buckling
However, in practice, an un-appropriate conception is prevailing until present that the buckling
between stiffeners will occur in a stiffened pipe with relatively heavy stiffeners, while general
buckling failure will occur in a stiffened pipe with the light stiffener. Actually, the buckling
failure type of stiffened pipe is determined not only by the flexural rigidity of stiffeners but the
spacing of stiffeners and the geometries of pipe. Buckling behavior of stiffened pipe with
respect to buckling type has been investigated by author using numerical analysis method,
where the uniformly stiffened pipe is focused, and the second moment of inertia referring the
flexural rigidity of stiffener is briefly named stiffness, since Young’s modulus is a constant22) 23).
- 29 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
4 10 6 1.0
E 1.50 hr/tr
hr ≤ 0.4 t r (2.10) 5 10 9 1.0
fy ≤ 17
6 5.0 3 1.0
The buckling behavior is discussed from the 7 5.0 6 1.0
two aspects of: a) effects of stiffness and spacing 8 5.0 9 1.0
of stiffeners b) effect of the pipe dimensions. 9 7.5 3 1.0
3500
14 Model1 II Model1
Model2 General buckling lobes 3000 Model2 II
Model3 (Model1) Model3
) )
12
2 2
Pcr (kN/m
II
2500
Pcr (kN/m
Number of lobes n
10 I : General buckling
II 2000
Pressure
8
I II: Local buckling
I
pressure
1000
4 I I II
Critical
- 30 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Fig.2.6 a) and b) show the buckling behavior with changing of the stiffness and spacing of ring
stiffeners. Where, the curves of the stiffness of ring stiffeners, Ir, versus the number of lobes, n,
and the critical external pressure, Pcr, are presented for different spacing of ring stiffeners.
Fig.2.7 a) indicates that all models experience two buckling types with the increasing of
stiffeners’ stiffness. The first one is the general buckling with deformation of pipe and ring
stiffeners as one cylinder in the form of sinusoid waves. The second one is the local buckling
with deformation of the inter-stiffener shell in a form of diamond waves. The number of
buckling waves is not successive: it is less when in general buckling, and then becomes a
greater constant value when in local bucking. As the effect of spacing, with the spacing of ring
stiffeners decreasing, the number of
1500
Model6
waves decrease in general buckling and MODEL6
Model9
MODEL9
increase in local buckling. Fig.2.7 b) 1200
Model2
MODEL1
t=10mm
indicates that the buckling pressure
Pcr (kN/m2)2)
座屈圧力 Pcr(kN/m
Model8
Pcr (kN/m
L=9.0 m Model5
buckling and local buckling, with respect 400
)
1500
Pcr (kN/m
300
CriticalPressure
1000
Effects of Pipe Geometries
200
The effect of the geometries including
Buckling
- 31 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
almost maintaining the maximum critical pressure of general buckling in local buckling.
However, from Fig.2.7 a), that the critical pressure and limit stiffness increase with the increase
of wall thickness can be observed. In terms of the length of stiffened pipe, as shown in Fig.2.7
b), the limit stiffness of ring stiffeners, is required to be larger with an increase of pipe length,
while the local buckling pressures are almost the same values, which are determined only by
inter-ring shells. Moreover, the influence of length change on the limit stiffness and critical
pressure becomes greater with the thickness increase.
Summary
From this study, the buckling behavior was clarified as shown in Fig.2.8. For an individual
stiffened pipe, with the increase of flexural rigidity of stiffener briefly named stiffness the
critical pressure increases in first phase of general buckling, while almost maintains constant in
second phase of local buckling. Furthermore, the buckling type is always general buckling
before the stiffener stiffness reaches the limit value, then turns to local buckling once exceeds
the limit value. Also, from Fig.2.8, a similar behavior is shown for pipe stiffened with a
different spacing. However, the changes in terms of limit stiffness of stiffeners and the critical
pressure due to the spacing change are expressed significantly. Generally the wider the spacing
is the smaller the limit stiffness of stiffeners, and the smaller the critical pressure. As the effects
of pipe dimensions, the length, radius, and wall-thickness of pipe affect the buckling behavior in
terms of the critical pressure and the limit stiffness of stiffeners. Generally, the limit stiffness
decreases with the increasing of the ratio of radius to thickness (R/t), as well as the critical
pressure. Similarly, with the increasing of length, the limit stiffness and critical pressure
decreases.
Pcr
P2Lcr
P1crL
S2 Local buckling
P cr :Critical pressure
S1
P cr0 :Critical pressure of pipe
P crL :Critical pressure of local buckling
I r : Second moment of inertia of stiffener
Pcr0
General buckling I r
L
:Limit second moment of inertia
I 1Lr I 2Lr Ir
- 32 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
- 33 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
The buckling behaviors of uniformly stiffened pipe have been clarified. In particular, the
buckling type that will eventually change from general buckling to local buckling with the
increasing of stiffness of ring stiffeners was identified. Since the general buckling is far
different from the local buckling, and the pipe and stiffeners is required to consider
simultaneously, the accurate critical pressure of an arbitrary stiffened pipe can be obtained only
if the buckling type is known previously. In flowing paragraphs, the theoretical equations of
critical pressure are derived taking into account characteristics of general buckling and local
buckling first. The solution for buckling of stiffened pipe is then presented based on the
theoretical equations. Finally, the verification of the theoretical equations and the presented
solution are carried out using numerical analysis and existing experiments.
2.3.1 Introduction
As discussed above, since the buckling of stiffened pipe involves two buckling types of
general buckling and local buckling, it is necessary to derive the theoretical equations in terms
of general buckling and local buckling, respectively. As for the initial imperfection25), its
2 1/2 2
influence on critical pressure is smaller in the case that Baterdf parameter Z(Z
b b=(1-v ) L /R/t)
is greater than 103, while can be reduced due to supporting of stiffeners in the case that Z is
smaller than 102. Furthermore, since the imperfection of stiffened pipe is still in the research
stage and there is not a practical solution until present, in the current study, the imperfection is
disregarded in theoretical analysis, however will be taken into account in stiffened pipe design
using safe factor. Otherwise, the material stress state is another important issue for buckling
analysis, because the elastic or inelastic buckling is determined by whether the stress level of
material is beyond the proportional limit or not. In [Buckling Design Specification]26) published
by JSCE, a simple formula as shown in Eq. (2.11) has been given to estimate the instability type
for a cylindrical shell. If Kc>1.2, the buckling is elastic buckling, or inelastic buckling. For an
infinite long stiffened pipe, the buckling can always be considered elastic buckling generally
considering of the infinite long length.
2 R 3 / 4 Lf y 1 / 2
Kc = ( ) ( ) (2.11)
t 2 RE
On the other hand, for the theoretical analysis, in the case that it is difficult to determine the
exact buckling load in complex structures using the Euler formula due to the difficulty in
organizing the constant stiffness matrix, the buckling load is often approximated using energy
conservation. This means that predicting buckling load is often referred to as the energy method
in structural analysis27), 28), 29). Therefore, in the current study, the theoretical equations based on
buckling behavior are discussed using the energy method disregarding the imperfection and
- 34 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
nonlinear of material, while the solution for buckling pressure uses the Ritz method30), which is
a variational method named after Walter Ritz, and one effective method for finding
approximations to the lowest energy eigenstate or ground state in mechanics.
γ yx ε y
x xy t z
by two pairs of adjacent planes normal to γ
ε x xy z
Rx(y)
the middle surface of shell and containing Focused Focused
Rx
lamina R’x(y) lamina
its principal curvatures. In addition, when Ry O’
1 1
ε x = ε x0 − z ( '
− ) = ε x0 − χ 0x z (2.12)
Rx Rx
1 1
ε y = ε y0 − z ( '
− ) = ε y0 − χ 0y z (2.13)
Ry Ry
Where, ε x and ε y are strains of the lamina, ε x0 , ε y0 and χ x0 , χ y0 are strains and curvature
change of middle surface respectively, with respect to x and y directions.Furthermore, the shear
strain of focused lamina during bending of shell should be taken into account. Considering that
it is consisted of twisting of focused element χ xy
0
and the shearing strain in middle surface γ xy
0
,
the shear strain of the lamina can be given as Eq. (2.14).
γ xy = γ xy0 − 2 zχ 0xy
(2.14)
From the equations discussed above, the strains of arbitrary point of pipe can be obtained,
upon the strain and curvature change of middle surface were given.
- 35 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
∏ = U − V p − Vs (2.15)
Where,
Π : total potential energy of stiffened pipe
Vp: strain energy of pipe
Vs : strain energy of ring stiffeners
U : work done by external pressure during buckling
Where, the assumption for thin shells and the stress-strain relationships from Hock are
introduced as follows:
- 36 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
γ yz = γ xz = 0 (2.17a)
σz = 0 (2.17b)
E
σx = (ε x + νε y ) (2.18a)
1 −ν 2
E
σy = (ε y +νε x ) (2.18b)
1 −ν 2
E
τ xy = γ xy (2.18c)
2(1 + ν )
Substituting Eqs. (2.18) into Eq. (2.16), the strain energy then can be written into Eq. (2.19),
1 E 1
2 ∫∫∫ x
V= [ε 2 +εy2 + 2νεxεy + (1−ν)γ xy2 ]dxdydz (2.19)
2 (1−ν ) 2
Since the pipe is treated as the isotropic thin shells, substituting Eq. (2.12), Eq. (2.13) and Eq.
(2.14) into Eq. (2.19), the strain energy of pipe then can be written as
1 E 1
{ε 0 + 2νε x0ε y0 + ε y0 + (1 −ν )γ xy0
2 2 2
2 ∫∫∫ x
Vp =
2 (1 −ν ) 2
( ) ( )
− 2 z[ χ x0 ε x0 + νε y0 + χ y0 ε y0 + νε x0 + (1 − ν )γ xy0 χ xy0 ] (2.20)
Integrating Eq. (2.20) with respect to t from -0.5t to 0.5t and rearranging the equation, the
strain energy of pipe is then expressed by bending strain energy (Vp1) and extensional strain
energy (Vp2) of pipe.
V p = V p1 + V p 2 (2.21)
Et3 2
2 ∫∫
Where, Vp1 = [(χx0 + χ y0 )2 − 2(1 −ν )(χx0 χ y0 − χxy0 )]dxdy
24(1 −ν )
Et 2 2 1 2
2 ∫∫
Vp2 = [ε x0 + 2νε x0ε y0 + ε 20 + (1 − ν )γ xy0 ]dxdy
2(1 − ν ) 2
EAr EI r0
Vs = ∫∫ε y dxdy + ∫∫ χ y2dxdy
2
(2.22)
2 2
- 37 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Since the stiffeners’ deformation is identical with shell’s strain for general buckling, the
curvature change is same as that of shell. In addition, the strains produced due to axial force is
relatively smaller than that due to bending deflection, the strains can be expressed using the
curvature change of shell. Thus, the strain energy of a stiffener can be written as Eq. (2.23),
where, Ir is expressed as Eq. (2.24), is defined as effective second moment of inertia.
⎡ EA h + t EI 0 ⎤
Vs = ⎢ r ( r r ) 2 + r ⎥ ∫∫ ( χ y0 ) 2 dxdy
⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦ (2.23)
EI
= r ∫∫ ( χ y0 ) 2 dxdy
2
I r = Ar ( hr + t ) 2 4 + I r0 (2.24)
Where,
Ar = ∫∫ dA = hr br
2
I r0 = t r hr 12
Moreover, since the pipe is stiffened uniformly, the number of stiffeners then can be computed
as L/S for a stiffened pipe. Accordingly, the strain energy of all stiffeners is obtained as shown
below,
L EI r 2
Vs =
S 2 ∫ χ y0 dy (2.25)
- 38 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
inextensional deformation of cylindrical shell, the work done by tangential force can be
disregarded, the work done by external pressure during buckling is therefore equal to that done
by perpendicular force. The Eq. (2.26) expresses the work done by external pressure for a
infinite element.
Moreover, since χyRdθ/2 is very small and relative rotation angle χy is identical to curvature
change of middle surface of pipe, the total works can be written as follows,
R
U =−
2 ∫∫ N y χ y0 wdθdx (2.27)
where,
N y = pR (2.28)
Substituting Eq. (2.28) into Eq. (2.27), the total works done by external pressure of stiffened
pip can be expressed as shown in Eq. (2.29).
pR 2
U =− ∫∫ χ wdθdx
0
y (2.29)
2
pR 2
∏ = U − V p − Vs = − ∫∫ χ wd θ dx
0
y
2
Et3
[( χ x0 + χ 0y )2 − 2(1 −ν )( χ x0 χ 0y − χ xy0 )]dxdy
2
2 ∫∫
−
24(1 −ν )
Et 1
− ∫∫ [ε
02
x
2
+ 2νε x0ε y0 + ε 20 + (1 − ν )γ xy0 2 ]dxdy − L EI r ∫χ
02
y dy (2.30)
2 2 S 2
As similar with other variational method, a trial wave function is required on the system in
Ritz method. The trial function should be selected to meet boundary conditions (and any other
physical constraints). Since the exact function is not known previously the trial function should
contain one or more adjustable parameters, which are varied to find a lowest energy
configuration. Where, the displacements in x, y and z direction denoted u, v and w respectively
are expressed by trial wave function as shown below, taking into account the support boundary
at two ends and the buckling deformations.
- 39 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
mπx
u = A sin nθ cos (2.31a)
L
mπx
v = B cos nθ sin (2.31b)
L
mπx
w = C sin nθ sin (2.31c)
L
where,
A,B and C:constant factors of displacement u, v and w
m:number of longitudinal buckling waves
n:number of circumferential buckling waves
As for the strain-displacement relation, the equations can be given as follows according to
Flügger’s cylindrical shell theory:
∂u
ε x0 = (2.32a)
∂x
1 ∂v
ε y0 = ( − w) (2.32b)
R ∂θ
∂v 1 ∂u
γ xy0 = + (2.32c)
∂x R ∂θ
∂2w
χ x0 = (2.32d)
∂x 2
1 ∂2w
χ y0 = ( + w) (2.32e)
R 2 ∂θ 2
1 ∂ 2 w ∂v
χ xy0 = ( + ) (2.32f)
R ∂x∂θ ∂x
Additionally dy= Rdθ, substituting it and Eqs. (2.32) into Eq. (2.30) and integrating, the total
potential energy of stiffened pipe can be written as following equation.
πL Et ⎧ 2⎡ 2 2 1 2⎤ 2 ⎡ (1 − μ ) m α
2 2
1− μ2 ⎤
Π= ⎨ − A ⎢ m α + (1 − μ ) n ⎥ − B ⎢ + Arn2 + n2 ⎥
4R 1 − μ ⎩
2
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 tl ⎦
⎡ 1− μ 2 1− μ 2 I r (n 2 − 1)
2
⎤
− C ⎢−
2
Et
p(n − 1) +
2 t2
12 R 2
2 2 2 2
m α + n −1 +( tl
Ar (1 + )Ar R 2
) + 1⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎛ 1− μ 2 r ⎞ ⎫
− (1 + μ )mnαAB − 2n⎜⎜1 + A ⎟⎟ BC − 2 μmαAC ⎬ (2.33)
⎝ tl ⎠ ⎭
Moreover, based on the assumption of in-extensional deformation of a cylindrical shell, C= Bn
- 40 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
can be obtained by substituting equations (2.31b and c) into Eq. (2.32b). Omitting the smaller
terms and rearranging, the total potential energy of stiffened pipe can be briefly written as Eq.
(2.34).
πL Et ⎧ 2 ⎡ 2 2 1 ⎤
Π= 2 ⎨
− A ⎢m α + (1 −ν )n2 ⎥ + AC[(1 −ν )mα ]
4R 1 −ν ⎩ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 −ν 2 1 −ν 2 I r (n 2 − 1) 2 (1 −ν )m 2α 2 ⎤ ⎫
− C 2 ⎢− p(n2 − 1) +
t2
12R2
m( α
2 2
+ n 2
− 1 )
2
+
tS R2
)+
2n 2 ⎥⎬ (2.34)
⎣ Et ⎦⎭
πR
where, α =
L
[ ]
A 2m2α 2 + (1 − ν )n 2 − (1 − ν )mαC = 0 (2.36a)
) ( )
⎧⎪ t 2 2
1 −ν 2 I r (n2 − 1) (1 −ν )m2α 2 pR(1 −ν ) 2
2
⎫
(
2 2 2 2
2C⎨ 2 m α + n − 1 + 2
+ 2
−
Et
(n −1)⎬ − (1 −ν )mαA = 0
⎪⎩12R tS R 2n ⎭
(2.36b)
The two equations can be satisfied by putting A and C equal to zero, which corresponds to a
uniformly compressed circular form of equilibrium of shell. However a buckled form of
equilibrium becomes possible only if Eq. (2.36) yields for A and C solutions different from zero;
this requires the determinant of these equations becomes zero. In this manner the equation for
determining the critical load is obtained. The equation has the matrix form as follows.
- 41 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
X 11 X 12
=0 (2.37)
X 21 X 22
X 11 = 2m 2α 2 + (1 − ν )n 2 (2.38a)
X 12 = X 21 = −(1 − ν )mα (2.38b)
) ( )
1 −ν 2 I r (n2 − 1) + (1 −ν )m α − pR(1 −ν ) (n2 −1)⎫
2 2 2
⎧⎪ t 2 2
X 22 = 2⎨ (2
2 2 2 2
m α + n −1 +
R2 2n2 Et
⎬ (2.38c)
⎪⎩12R tS ⎭
Substituting Eq. (2.38) into Eq. (2.37) and solving, the following equation can be obtained,
⎧⎪ t 2 2 1−ν Ir (n −1)
2
(1−ν)m2α2 pR(1 −ν 2 ) 2 ⎫ (1 −ν )2 m2α 2
( )
2 2
2⎨ 2 m α + n −1 +
2 2 2
+ − (n − 1)⎬ = (2.39)
R2 2n2 ⎭ 2m α + (1 −ν )n
2 2 2
⎪⎩12R tS Et
After omitting the small terms which have very little effect on the magnitude of the critical
pressure, the critical pressure can be obtained in which the potential energy becomes the
smallest. Where, the longitudinal waves is assumed as m=1. The critical pressure equation can
be rewritten after rearranging,
Et ⎡ t 2n2 I r n2 α 4 ⎤
PcrG = + + (2.41)
R ⎢⎣12(1 − ν 2 ) R 2 tR 2 S n 6 ⎥⎦
To obtain the smallest critical pressure, the Eq. (2.41) should satisfy the Eq. (2.42).
Substituting Eq. (2.41) into Eq. (2.42), the equation of wave to get critical pressure can be
obtained as shown in Eq. (2.43).
∂PcrG
=0 (2.42)
∂n
3α 4
n= 8 (2.43)
K
t2 I
where, K= + 2r
12(1 − ν ) R
2 2
tR S
- 42 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
πS Et ⎧ 2 ⎡ 2 2 1 ⎤
Π= 2 ⎨
− A ⎢m α + (1 −ν )n2 ⎥ + AC[(1 −ν )mα ]
4R 1 −ν ⎩ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 −ν 2 (1 − ν )m 2α 2 ⎤ ⎫
− C 2 ⎢− p(n 2 − 1) +
t2
12 R 2
m( α
2 2
+ n 2
− 1
2
+) 2n 2 ⎥⎬ (2.44)
⎣ Et ⎦⎭
In the same way, the equation of critical pressure can be obtained using the minimum principle
of potential energy and omitting the small terms, as written in Eq. (2.45).
Et ⎡t 2 (α 2 + n2 −1)2 α4 ⎤
PcrL = ⎢ + 2⎥
(2.45)
(n2 −1)R ⎣⎢ 12(1−ν 2 )R2 ( )
α 2 + n2 ⎦⎥
In the same way, the equation to find the number of circumferential waves can be obtained.
3α 4
n=8 (2.46)
K
where,
t2
K=
12(1 − ν 2 ) R 2
πR
α=
S
- 43 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
- 44 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Verification by Experiment
The two-stage method is examined in terms of judgment of buckling types and critical pressure.
All the experimental models shown in Table 2.3 are investigated by two-stage method. First, the
buckling type of respective model is judged and examined through comparing with the
experimental result. Then, the critical pressure corresponding to the judged buckling type is
used and compared with the experimental result. The analytical buckling type and critical
pressure are summarized as shown in Table 2.5 for all models, as well as the corresponding
experimental results including buckling types, critical pressure and collapse pressure. Where,
- 45 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
the experimental critical pressure is ideal pre-buckling pressure of perfect structure estimated by
Southwell method by plotting measured pressure to displacement curve of geometrically
imperfect model, while the collapse pressure is the measured pressure when the testing model
collapses. Moreover, from Table 2.5, that all the model buckles in elastic buckling can be found
because the critical pressure of all models is smaller than limit pressure of elastic buckling PL
(4.31 N/mm2 ). The same result was also given by judging the strains obtained from the
experiment, which all of them are less than yield strain.
The bucking types judged by two-stage method are identical to experimental results for
almost models except model7. The model7 and model8 have the same dimensions and material
properties, however, the buckling types vary each other with general buckling in model7 and
local buckling in model 8. The complex buckling phenomenon was explained in the referring
article, that the model7,8 failed in one of the two possible types (primary type) but their
behavior and ultimate collapse was influenced by the presence of the other type (secondary
type). The interaction role played by the secondary buckling type in buckling behavior was
found to affect the buckling type and deformation pattern but not the buckling pressure. It is
therefore more reasonable only to investigate buckling pressure for such case. As the feature of
respective buckling type, it can be indicated by the failure deformation. For those buckling
which failed by the shell instability form (local buckling), the collapse was always confined to
one bay only. Other bays were either not affected by the excessive deformations at the collapse
bay or developed a different pattern of deformation at collapse. Such behavior characterized the
“localized” nature of the shell instability form. On the other hand, for the models failed in the
general buckling, the deformation patterns of all the bays were forced to reshapes into the same
final buckling pattern. This characterizes the “overall” nature of the general buckling type.
As the buckling critical pressure, the errors of theoretical values obtained by two-stage
method are 5%~29% and 5%~24%, while those calculated by Kendrick’s equations in
Table 2.5 Comparison between analytical and experimental results ( unit: N/mm2 )
Buckling forms Judgment Theoretical results Experimental results Error
Model General Local Type Critical Waves Collap Critical Waves Type Pu Pe
PGcr PLcr Pcr n Pu Pe n Pcr Pcr
Model2 8.77 1.30 L. 1.30 6 1.57 1.61 6 L. 1.21 1.24
Model4 5.4 2.04 L. 2.04 7 2.26 2.36 8 L. 1.11 1.16
Model6 4.14 2.87 L. 2.87 8 3.26 3.6 8 L. 1.14 1.25
Model7 3.4 3.81 G. 3.40 2 2.94 4.06 8 L. 0.86 1.19
Model9 8.77 1.30 L. 1.30 6 1.36 1.36* 6 L. 1.05 1.05
Model1 2.35 8.70 G. 2.35 2 3.03 3.03 3 G. 1.29 1.29
Model3 2.7 6.08 G. 2.70 2 2.83 2.96 3 G. 1.05 1.10
Model5 3.08 4.87 G. 3.08 2 3.19 3.28 3 G. 1.04 1.06
Model8 3.4 3.81 G. 3.40 2 3.52 3.58 3 G. 1.04 1.05
Model10 2.7 6.08 G. 2.70 2 3.12 3.17 3 G. 1.16 1.17
*:Model9, the collapse pressure is used for critical pressure due the experiment failure.
- 46 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Seleim’s article are 12%~33% and 19%~27% less than corresponding experimental results
for general buckling and local buckling, respectively. It is therefore some more valid to use the
two-stage method for investigating the buckling of stiffened pipe, especially under the condition
of known buckling types if use the two-stage method. Moreover, the Kendrick’s equation is
well known of use for general buckling, the application for local buckling is not demonstrated
well although used in the study of Seleim et al.. Furthermore, as the most interest to engineering
practice, the theoretical pressure is always less than experimental value. This means the
influence of imperfection is so little that can be ignored. The explanation can be considered as
follows: the influence of imperfection on a stiffened pipe is far different from a plain thin wall
pipe because the buckling resistance capacity is determined not only by the pipe shell but also
the stiffeners for stiffened pipe; in addition, the interaction of pipe shell and stiffeners may
reduce the influence of imperfection; otherwise, the theoretical critical pressure may be
underestimated due to the modeling with shell and beam element for pipe and stiffeners
respectively and disregarding the effect of interaction between pipe and stiffeners in theoretical
analysis. In Tennyson’s study, the same results that the theoretical critical pressure is 15% less
than experimental value has been mentioned. Accordingly, it should be correct to consider that
the effect is greater due to interaction of stiffeners and pipe than imperfection in practical
buckling behaviors of stiffened pipe under lateral pressure.
From the above studies, it was verified that the two-stage method is rather valid solution for
analysis of stiffened pipe buckling, because not only the buckling type but also the more
accurate critical pressure can be predicted. Furthermore, since the two-stage method always
gives conservative critical pressure, the stiffened pipe may also be designed safely when apply
this method.
- 47 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Form Fig. 2.12, all the number of buckling waves calculated by two-stage method generally
agrees with corresponding experimental result can be found. On the other hand, the number of
buckling waves predicted from the buckling theory of Tokogawa and Timoshenko agrees with
experimental result in local buckling, while is far different from that in general buckling. In
contrary, the buckling wave number of Bryant and Kendrick coincides with experimental result
well in general buckling while far less in local buckling. This may imply the existing buckling
theories should be selected according to the buckling type when applied.
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo
d e l2 d e l4 d e l6 de d e l9 de de de de de d d d d d d d d d d
l7 l1 l3 l5 l8 l10 e l2 e l4 e l6 e l7 e l9 e l1 e l3 e l5 e l8 e l1
0
Fig. 2.13 Comparison with Kendrick theory Fig. 2.14 Comparison with Bryant theory
- 48 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
Critical/Collapse pressure(N/mm 2 )
9.0 Experimental critical pressure Experimental critical pressure
Critical/Collapse pressure(N/mm 2)
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo mo
de de de de de de de de de de d e l2 d e l4 d e l6 d e l7 d e l9 d e l1 d e l3 d e l5 d e l8 d e l1
l2 l4 l6 l7 l9 l1 l3 l5 l8 l10 0
Fig. 2.15 Comparison with Tokugawa theory Fig.2.16 Comparison with Timoshenko theory
The implication is tested by the subsequently calculated critical pressure. As shown in Figs.
2.13 and 2.14, the experimental results generally are coincident with Bryant and Kendrick’s
critical pressure in general buckling, however there is great difference existing in local buckling.
Inversely, as shown in Fig. 2.15 and 2.16, the critical pressure from Tokogawa and
Timoshenko’s equations agrees well with the experimental results in local buckling while
disagrees with those in general buckling. However, with respect to difference between the
existing buckling theories, there is little difference between Tokogawa and Timoshenko’s
critical pressure in general buckling, while Bryant’s solution presents more conservational
critical pressure than Kendrick’s in general buckling. On the other hand, only the critical
pressures estimated by tow-stage method are satisfied with experimental results in all general
and local buckling.
Consequently, it is more rational and reasonable to consider that the buckling theories of
Tokugawa and Timoshenko are only suitable for local buckling and those of Kendrick and
Bryant are suitable for general buckling. While for an arbitrary stiffened pipe with buckling type
unknown previously, the critical pressure should be estimated using the two-stage method.
- 49 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
The two-stage method is a very useful and rational tool to solve the problem of stiffened pipe
buckling under external pressure has been confirmed from the above discussion. However, as
for the bucking design, the theoretical analysis of buckling behavior is required in many cases
other than the buckling critical pressure. Until present, the investigation of buckling behavior
can only be carried out using the numerical analysis (FEM) or experiment because there is no a
reliable analytical solution. Since the investigation for the buckling behavios of pipe usually
requires much time and cost, no matter using numerical analysis or experiments, the theoretical
solution should be discussed. In the following paragraph, an effective and simple theoretical
analysis method using two-stage method will be presented, and be examined by conventional
methods of numerical analysis. Meanwhile, the more detailed description on buckling behavior
will also be given. Where, the testing models used in former paragraphs, are adopted in the
analytical models with respect to the numerical and theoretical analyses.
- 50 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
from the rotation field. The transverse shear strains are calculated at the middle of the edges and
interpolated to the integration points. In this way, a very efficient and simple element is
obtained which exhibits correct behavior in the limiting case of thin shells. The element can be
used in curved shell analysis as well as in the analysis of complicated plate structures. For the
latter case, the element is easy to use since connections between intersecting plates can be
modeled without tying. Due to its simple formulation comparing to the standard higher order
shell elements, it is less expensive and, therefore, very attractive in nonlinear analysis. The
element is not very sensitive to distortion, particularly if the corner nodes lie in the same plane.
All constitutive relations can be used with this element.
- 51 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
)
2
2
pressure P c r (N/mm
1.6
P c r (N/mm
9.0
8.0 1.4
局部座屈領域
)
)
L.B. domain
2
2
Critical座屈圧力(N/mm
座屈圧力(N/mm
7.0 1.2 L.B. domain
局部座屈領域
6.0 1.0
Critical pressure
5.0
0.8
4.0 全体 L.B.
局部 全体
G.B. 局部
L.B.
G.B. 0.6
3.0 G.B. domain
全体座屈領域
全体座屈領域
G.B. domain 0.4
2.0
1.0 座屈変形図 0.2
697 3899 949 座屈変形図 17604
0.0 0.0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000
4
補剛リブの有効断面2次モーメント(mm
of inertia of stiffener I r (mm 4 )) 4 4
Moment 補補剛リブの有効断面2次曲げモーメントIr(mm
Moment
剛 材 of
の有 inertia
効断面 of stiffener
2 次 モ ー Iメ ン ト) )
r (mm
Fig. 2.17 Buckling behavior (Model1) Fig. 2.18 Buckling behavior (Model2,9)
8.0 Numerical
解析値
解析値 Theoretica
理論値
理論値 l 実験値
Experimenta
実験値 l 解析値 理論値 実験値
)
2.8
)
Numerical
解析値 Theoretica
理論値 l Experimenta
実験値 l
2
2
pressure P c r (N/mm
pressure P c r (N/mm
7.0 2.5
L.B. domain
局部座屈領域 2.3
6.0
)
)
2.0
2
2
Critical座屈圧力(N/mm
Critical座屈圧力(N/mm
局部座屈領域
L.B. domain
5.0 1.8
1.5
4.0
1.3
3.0 全体 局部
L.B. 1.0 G.B.
全体 L.B.
局部
G.B.
2.0 0.8
G.B. domain
全体座屈領域 0.5 G.B. domain
全体座屈領域
1.0 0.3
1123 3278 座屈変形図 1980 座屈変形図 6678
0.0 0.0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
4 4
補 補剛リブの有効断面2次モーメント(mm
4 )
補補剛リブの有効断面2次モーメント(mm
Moment
剛 材 of
の有 inertia
効断面 of stiffener
2 次 モ ー Iメr (mm
ント)4 ) Moment
剛材 ofのinertia
有 効 断of面stiffener
2 次モー I r (mm
メント )
Fig. 2.19 Buckling behavior (Model3, 10) Fig. 2.20 Buckling behavior (Model4)
6.0 Numerical
解析値
解析値 Theoretica
理論値
理論値 l Experimenta
実験値
実験値 l
)
4.0 解析値
Numerical
解析値 Theoretica
理論値
理論値 l 実験値
Experimenta
実験値 l
2
pressure P c r (N/mm
5.0 3.5
)
2
3.0
座屈圧力(N/mm )
局部座屈領域
Critical 座屈圧力(N/mm
Fig. 2.21 Buckling behavior (Model5) Fig. 2.22 Buckling behavior (Model6)
5.0 Numerical
解析値 Theoretica
理論値 l Experimenta
実験値 l
)
4.5
4.0
)
2
3.5
Critical座屈圧力(N/mm
L.B. domain
局部座屈領域
3.0
2.5
2.0 全体 局部
L.B.
G.B.
1.5
1.0 G.B. domain
全体座屈領域
0.5 座屈変形図
2204 2622 n=3 n=10 n=8
0.0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
4 4
Moment
剛 材ofのinertia
有 効 断of面stiffener
2 次 モ ーI rメ
補補剛リブの有効断面2次モーメント(mm
補剛材 (mm
ント))
a) General buckling b) Locally local buckling c) Generally local buckling
- 52 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
As the special case that the same model as model 7, 8 buckled in two bucking types in
experiment, its explanation can be found in the buckling behavior. As shown in Fig. 2.23, the
second moment of inertia of stiffeners for model7, 8 is 2204mm4, almost equivalent to
2622mm4, the limit stiffness of stiffeners. This means the stiffening condition is just near to the
boundary of local buckling and general buckling. In fact, the interesting phenomenon also
induces an important issue for buckling of stiffened pipe. For stiffened pipe, there exists a
crossing range of buckling types in which the stiffened pipe failed in one of the two potential
buckling types. The range is defined with respective of the stiffness of stiffeners, named
crossing range. Actually, the existence of crossing range is not only indicted in the referring
experiments but also in the experimental results shown in DNV35),BS550036) and ASME37)
Code.However, in theoretical analysis using two-staged method the buckling type is always
determined as that having smaller critical pressure of general buckling between local buckling.
Accordingly, the conservative critical pressure can be ensured in crossing range.
On the other hand, another interesting phenomenon that there are two buckling patterns
existing in local bucking was confirmed through the numerical analysis. One of buckling
patterns is that only buckled at the end of stiffened pipe, namely end local buckling, while the
other happens in overall stiffened pipe, namely overall local buckling. Moreover, the buckling
pattern is related to the ratio of spacing to radius S/R, generally end local buckling for S/R<1 ,
overall local buckling for S/R>1. This can be found by focusing on the deformation profile
shown in Figs.2.17 ~24. Model1, Model3,10,Model5 and Model7,8 , whose ratio of spacing
to radius S/R is less than 1, occurred end local buckling, while the other models with S/R greater
than 1 buckled in overall buckling. The reason has been given by Charles as that stresses
distributed in supported ends of pipe reaches plasticity and induced a plastic buckling. The
additional explanation can be considered that for stiffened pipe with wider spacing the critical
pressure of local buckling was smaller and the local buckling was elastic buckling, then overall
local buckling happened.
The buckling behavior analysis using two-stage method is confirmed in terms of validation
and an efficient method for buckling study. In addition, the details on the buckling behavior of
stiffened pipe have been investigated and discussed. As a result, the buckling behavior
simulation can provide the accurate analysis of any stiffened pipes, with respect to not only the
buckling types and critical pressure but also the various buckling phenomenon.
- 53 -
Chapter 2 Buckling of Free Pipe under External Pressure
References
1) Berti, D., Stutzman, R., Lindquist, E., and Eshghipour, M.: Buckling of steel tunnel liner
under external pressure, J. Energy Engng., Vol. 124, No.3, pp. 55–89, 1998.
2) Von Mises, R. Der kritische Aubendruck zylindrischer Rohre (The critical external pressure
of cylindrical tubes). VDI-Zeitschrift, Vol. 58, pp.750–755,1914 [in German].
3) Donnell, L. H.: Beams, plates and shells, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, 1976.
4) Southwell, R. V.: On the general theory of elastic stability, Philosophical Trans., 213A,
pp.187-244, 1913.
5) Timoshenko, S. and Gere, J.: Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw Hill, New York, 1961.
6) Flügge, W.: Stress in Shells, pp.208-218,407-432, Springer-Verlag, OHG., Berlin, 1960.
7) Tokugawa, T.: Model experiments on the elastic stability of closed and cross- stiffened
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