Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review of system topologies for hybrid electrical energy storage

systems
Thomas Zimmermann *, Peter Keil, Markus Hofmann, Max F. Horsche, Simon Pichlmaier,
Andreas Jossen
Institute for Electrical Energy Storage Technology, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Arcisstraße 21, 80333 Munich, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are the most interesting option available for reducing CO2 emissions for
Received 22 March 2016 individual mobility. To achieve better acceptance, BEVs require a high cruising range and good
Received in revised form 18 September 2016 acceleration and recuperation. To meet these requirements, hybrid energy storage systems can be used,
Accepted 18 September 2016
which combine high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) storage units. To date, the coupling of the two
Available online 11 October 2016
energy storage types has been realized passively or actively by using DC/DC converters. In this paper, the
corresponding topologies, described in the literature, are presented and reviewed with focus on the
Keywords:
usable voltage window of the energy storage types, the utilization of stored energy, the connection to a
Hybrid energy storage topology
Battery system
power train/load, and additionally required power electronics. Besides, reconfigurable topologies on cell
Electrical double-layer capacitor level and module level, without the need of additional DC/DC converters, have been investigated in the
Lithium-ion battery literature and are also presented and reviewed.
We then suggest a new topology class of discrete hybrid energy storage topologies, which combine both
research topics. In the proposed topology class, standardized energy storage modules (ESMs) consisting of
either HP or HE devices are combined. Each ESM is equipped with switching elements, which can
activate, bypass, or disable the module and therefore allow reconfigurations. Four sub-topologies
emerge when these ESMs are arranged to form an energy storage system.
ß 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2. Passive hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3. Active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1. Semi-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.1. Parallel semi-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.2. Battery semi-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.3. Capacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2. Full-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1. Cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.2. Parallel full-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.3. Modular multilevel full-active hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4. Discrete hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.1. Reconfigurable topologies on cell level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2. Reconfigurable topologies on module level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3. Introduction of the new class: discrete hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: t.zimmermann@tum.de (T. Zimmermann).
URL[6_TD$IF][: http://www.ees.ei.tum.de

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2016.09.006
2352-152X/ß 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90 79

4.3.1. Parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.3.2. Serial discrete hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.3. Serial–parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3.4. Parallel–serial discrete hybrid energy storage topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

1. Introduction energy storage elements which have the same cell chemistry, a
variety of connection topologies exists for HESSs (Fig. 2). The
Nine countries and regions, including the United States, the topologies examined in the scientific literature to date can be
European Union, Japan, Canada, China, and Australia, have adopted divided into the passive hybrid energy storage topology (P-HEST),
emission standards for passenger cars and light-weight vehicles which is presented in Section 2, and the active hybrid energy storage
[1]. Within the European Union, the emission of CO2 per driven topology (A-HEST), which is presented in Section 3. In Section 4, we
kilometer is limited to an average of 95 g for a passenger car present scientific literature on reconfigurable topologies on cell
registered after 2020. To reduce emissions sufficiently to meet level and module level, which is presented in Sections 4.1 and 4.2,
these limits, the manufacturers of large cars in particular need to respectively. Afterwards in Section 4.3, we propose reconfigurable
electrify the power train of most of the cars they produce[1_TD$IF] [2][2_TD$IF]. hybrid topologies on module level and suggest a new topology
Today’s battery electric vehicles (BEVs) use a battery storage class called discrete hybrid energy storage topology (D-HEST).
system made up of many individual energy storage elements or
cells. The storage elements used are of the same cell type and have 2. Passive hybrid energy storage topology
the same cell chemistry. Hard wiring of identical storage elements
is easy to realize and allows only a few interconnection variants. To The simplest hybridization is achieved by the direct parallel
achieve the necessary design system output voltage or increase connection of two or more different cell technologies. Fig. 3 shows
storable energy, the energy storage elements are interconnected in an example of this passive hybrid energy storage topology (P-HEST)
series (Fig. 1a), whereas a parallel interconnection of storage using a combination of battery storage and EDLC. The coupling of
elements leads to an increase in capacity, maximum current, and the cell types is carried out passively, without use of an
storable energy (Fig. 1b). Both interconnections are combined to intermediary power electronic converter [14]. The voltage of the
achieve an increase in the output voltage, maximum current, two energy storage devices VBATT1 and VEDLC1 is identical to the
capacity, and storable energy of the system (Fig. 1c). voltage of the load (Vpower train) [15]. The voltage window of both
Nowadays, the dimensioning of such an energy storage system energy storage systems must therefore match the load. In
is done for a specified operating point, and the design is a automotive applications, the power train is the load. Likewise,
compromise between multiple requirements. Divergent operation the operating voltage windows of the respective storage technol-
of such an electrical energy storage system can lead to incomplete ogies should have the largest possible intersection with each other.
utilization of the stored energy. To better fulfill the requirements, In previous studies [7,14,16–51], HESSs have been analyzed in
hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) have been developed that which an EDLC is connected directly to a battery. This topology is
combine two or more different energy storage types [3– cost-effective, requires little space, and is weight-saving because
13]. Usually, these combine high-energy (HE) and high-power no additional power electronics are required and the wiring is
(HP) storage elements. The advantage of such hybrid systems is an straightforward. The distribution of energy flows between the
overall increase in specific power and/or specific energy. HP different storages depends on the equilibrium voltages and the
storage enables acceleration or deceleration of power and in internal resistances of the energy storage devices, Ri,BATT1 and
general uses electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) or HP Ri,EDLC1 [18].
batteries. In contrast, HE storage ensures the long-term supply The internal resistance depends on factors such as cell design,
and is in general realized using HE Li-ion cells. the current state of charge (SOCBATT1, SOCEDLC1), temperature
The combination of HP and HE storage cells to form an HESS can (TBATT1, TEDLC1), and aging [52]. As the two energy storages are
be realized in different ways. In contrast to the hard wiring of directly linked, the power distribution cannot be controlled. It has
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]

Fig. 1. Basic interconnection topologies of energy storage elements having the same cell type and chemistry. (a) Serial interconnection, (b) parallel interconnection, and (c)
parallel–serial interconnection to increase storable energy, capacity, or ampacity and/or achieve a higher output voltage.
[(Fig._2)TD$IG]
80 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
Fig. 2. Extended classification scheme including active and passive hybrid energy storage topologies and the newly introduced class of discrete hybrid energy storage
topologies.
been shown [14,16–19,24,25,29,34,38] that directly parallel
connected batteries and EDLCs can provide a pulsating load with
higher peak power and lower losses.
The operating life of a hybrid combination of lithium-ion
batteries and EDLCs is, in the case of a discharge profile with high
dynamics, greater than that of a battery-only operation. The
voltage drop in a hybrid system is also lower than that in a pure
battery system[1_TD$IF] [14][3_TD$IF].
This can be explained by taking into account that the battery
typically has a higher internal resistance than the EDLC, thus
resulting in a lower ohmic system resistance for a P-HEST [49]. The
battery delivers only a fraction of the current while the major
current passes through the EDLC [24].
A theoretical analysis by Dougal et al. showed that in hybrid
battery operation, heating decreases because of the high current
provided by the EDLC, thus reducing the internal losses of the
battery. The extent of the benefit achieved depends on the pulse
amplitude, the pulse width ratio, and the capacity of the EDLC[1_TD$IF] [18][4_TD$IF].
Passive hybridization is used to reduce stress because the EDLC
can provide and absorb peak currents during acceleration and
deceleration. The EDLC connected in parallel acts as a low pass
filter that smooth and average rapid voltage changes [38]. A larger
capacity of the EDLC results in better filtering effects [49]. More-
over, Pagano et al. showed in experimental tests that an additional
EDLC increases the source efficiency and power quality [36]. How-
ever, because of the direct coupling, the usable capacity of the EDLC
[(Fig._3)TD$IG]
Fig. 3. Passive hybrid energy storage topology. Based on [12].
is limited, as the operating voltage window is usually limited by
the battery storage or the power train [8,10]. As the power
distribution cannot be influenced, it is not possible to achieve a
high utilization of the stored energy content at low temperatures
[53]. To optimize the performance of the energy storage system, an
active distribution of power flows is necessary [10].
3. Active hybrid energy storage topology
The charge and discharge characteristics of energy storage
devices differ significantly, depending on the energy storage
technology used. Fig. 4 lists the voltage profiles of the charging and
discharging of Li-ion batteries and EDLCs.
In order to operate each energy storage in an optimal way and in
accordance with its characteristics, the energy storage devices
must be decoupled [11]. This has been referred to as an active
hybrid energy storage topology (A-HEST), in which the energy
storage units are actively decoupled, for example by a DC/DC
converter [7,12]. The number of decoupled energy storage units
defines a system as either a partially decoupled configuration, or
semi-active hybrid energy storage topology (SA-HEST) and a fully
decoupled configuration, or full-active hybrid energy storage
topology (FA-HEST) [8,10,55]. These sub-classes are discussed
below.
[(Fig._4)TD$IG]
Fig. 4. Exemplary voltage profiles for charging and discharging behavior of Li-ion
batteries and electric double-layer capacitors. Based on [54].
 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
3.1. Semi-active hybrid energy storage topology
A SA-HEST comprises two or more different energy storage
devices, from which part of the energy storage devices are
decoupled. This topology class is therefore also known as a
partially decoupled configuration. The decoupling is realized using
a DC/DC converter. Although the use of a converter adds to the cost
and requires extra installation space, this topology class has
several advantages. In particular, the decoupled energy storage can
be operated optimally based on its charge and discharge
characteristics. Tie et al. and Ju et al. analyzed and reviewed the
decoupling of a battery storage and of an EDLC [11,12]. Depending
on the decoupled energy storage, Kuperman et al. differentiated
between the following sub-topologies: parallel semi-active hybrid
energy storage topology (pSA-HEST), battery semi-active hybrid
energy storage topology (BSA-HEST), and capacitor semi-active hybrid
energy storage topology (CSA-HEST) [8]. These sub-topologies are
discussed in the following sections.
3.1.1. Parallel semi-active hybrid energy storage topology
The pSA-HEST (Fig. 5a) is the simplest sub-topology and an
extension of P-HEST (Section 2), in which the energy storage
devices are directly connected [8,56]. Decoupling between the
storage devices and the load is realized using a DC/DC converter,
while the different energy storage devices are in a direct parallel
connection [3,7,30,34,42,56–59]. Because of this decoupling, the
operating voltage range of the energy storage is independent of the
voltage range of the load. This simplifies the design of energy
[(Fig._5)TD$IG]
Fig. 5. Semi-active hybrid topologies: (a) parallel semi-active hybrid energy storage topology, (b) battery semi-active hybrid energy storage topology, (c) extended battery semi-
active hybrid energy storage topology, (d) capacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage topology, (e) advanced capacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage topology. Based on
[11,60,61].
81
storage devices and loads because there are no reciprocal
restrictions. The DC/DC converter must be designed for the
maximum load current and the maximum power of the load
[8]. As the energy storage devices are directly linked, the voltages
of the two sources are equal [57]. The operating voltage window is
in general determined by the battery storage, which limits the
usable capacity of the EDLC. As with the P-HEST, the current
distribution is determined by the internal resistances and the
equilibrium voltages of the two energy storage units [42]. Thus, the
limitations resulting from the direct connection of the energy
storage devices are identical as for the P-HEST.
3.1.2. Battery semi-active hybrid energy storage topology
The BSA-HEST (Fig. 5b) decouples the battery storage from the
EDLC and the load [4,7,15,19,53,59–76], which makes the battery
immune to short-term power peaks [10]. The energy flow between
the battery and the load – in this case the power train of a BEV – can
be controlled using a DC/DC converter. The available battery
capacity can be fully used within the permissible operating voltage
range, which helps to maximize the range of the BEV. With an
appropriate load balancing strategy, short-term power peaks can
be absorbed by the EDLC in the acceleration and deceleration
phases. This is a particular advantage when using Li-ion batteries
because of their very non-linear voltage profile. The direct coupling
of the EDLC and the power train means that the latter must be
designed to accept widely varying load voltages. When accelera-
tion and deceleration is frequent, this load voltage can change
abruptly [10]. In turn, the DC/DC converter must also be designed
82 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
to handle widely varying load voltages. When the DC/DC fails, the
load must be handled by the energy stored in the EDLC. In a BEV,
the capacity of the EDLC is small compared to the capacity of the
battery, making emergency backup impractical.
Liu et al. analyzed a BSA-HEST in combination with a pulsed
power load. The HESS was controlled in current mode such that the
battery delivers a constant current by the DC/DC converter, while
the free-wheeling EDLC delivers the peak currents. Liu et al.
performed a steady-state analysis for the optimization of the
system power and system efficiency. Furthermore, they used a
small-signal analysis to improve the transient characteristics and
eliminate potential system instabilities[1_TD$IF] [62][5_TD$IF].
Xiong et al. presented a methodology for the optimal sizing of a
BSA-HEST. The developed algorithm uses two nested loops while
the outer loop is based on a particle swarm optimization algorithm
and a dynamic programming algorithm in the inner loop. The outer
loop evaluates the selected parameters while the inner one
generates the optimal control strategy and calculates the costs[1_TD$IF] [74][6_TD$IF].
Keil et al. showed for a BSA-HEST that the available energy
content can be increased by actively controlling the power flow.
Applying a moderate discharge current to the HE battery leads to a
heating of the battery which facilitates the later discharging
process when the energy content of the HP storage device is
depleted[1_TD$IF] [53][7_TD$IF].
Cao et al. introduced a semi-active extended battery variant
(Fig. 5c). As in the BSA-HEST, they connected the EDLC directly to
the load to provide the peak power. Lower voltage battery storage
was linked to the load (power train) via a power diode, which
allowed the battery storage to support the EDLC directly when the
voltage of the EDLC dropped below the voltage of the battery. A DC/
DC converter connected between the EDLC and the battery storage
kept the voltage of the EDLC above the voltage of the battery
storage, giving the battery a nearly constant load profile. Cao et al.
and Neenu et al. have shown that this configuration can increase
the life of the battery and allow a smaller bidirectional DC/DC
converter to be used, further reducing the cost of the system[1_TD$IF]
[15,67,71][8_TD$IF].
Song et al. replaced the bidirectional DC/DC converter with an
unidirectional converter, thereby further increasing the efficiency
of the system and reducing the cost. The use of the power diode and
the unidirectional DC/DC converter made the whole system less
complex, but also limited the controllability of the energy flows[1_TD$IF]
[55,61][9_TD$IF].
3.1.3. Capacitor semi-active hybrid energy storage topology
In comparison with the BSA-HEST, in the CSA-HEST the
positions of the battery storage and the EDLC are reversed
(Fig. 5d). The EDLC is decoupled from the load and battery storage
by a DC/DC converter[1_TD$IF] [4,55,60,63,68,70,76–117][10_TD$IF].
The DC/DC converter allows the energy flow to be controlled
and gives the EDLC a wide operating voltage range [8]. In contrast
to passive hybridization or direct coupling to the power train, the
full capacity of the EDLC can theoretically be utilized. In this
configuration, a fast-acting energy control allows load peaks to be
absorbed by the EDLC.
However, the DC/DC converter must be designed to accept
these short and high-power peaks and the high voltage swings,
which increases the cost of the system. The direct coupling of the
battery storage and load, combined with the large capacity of the
battery storage, make the voltage variations at the load substan-
tially lower than those of the BSA-HEST[1_TD$IF] [10][1_TD$IF].
Failure of the DC/DC converter is not critical when using a CSA-
HEST in a BEV, as emergency operation using the remaining battery
storage is possible.
Wangsupphaphol et al. presented a cascaded control strategy
for a CSAHEST consisting of a Li-ion battery and an EDLC. The main
objective of the control strategy was the reduction of stress on the
battery and the maximum recuperation of braking energy. The
inner control loop determines the current of the DC/DC converter
while the outer loop controls the voltage of the EDLC[1_TD$IF] [113][12_TD$IF].
Shen et al. showed the optimization of a power splitting
strategy which divides the load demand between the battery and
the EDLC. The main objective of the power splitting strategy was
the prolongation of the battery lifetime and the reduction of power
losses in the DC/DC converter. The optimization process was
carried out in two steps. The first step, dynamic programming was
used to obtain an optimal current flow in the HESS. In the second
step, an intelligent energy management controller based on neural
networks was implemented which was trained using the
optimization results of dynamic programming[1_TD$IF] [117][13_TD$IF].
Niemoeller et al. presented a controller for a CSA-HEST which
consists of Li-ion batteries and an EDLC. The EDLC is attached to the
load and the battery by a DC/DC boost converter. The control
strategy is based on an cascaded controller with an inner and an
outer loop. The inner loop controls the inductor current of the DC/
DC boost converter whereas the outer loop follows three main
objectives. First, changes of the load current should be compen-
sated as fast as possible. Second, the current through the DC/DC
converter should be zero in the case of steady state which means
that the battery should provide all the power to the load. Third, the
controller has to adjust the EDLC voltage slowly to a nominal
voltage, so that future transients can also be handled[1_TD$IF] [103][14_TD$IF].
Cao et al. compared a PID-based control strategy as well as a
fuzzy sliding mode control to an battery-only approach. The CSA-
HEST, which was used in this work, consists of an main source and
an auxiliary source. The main source was realized by a lead-acid
battery and the auxiliary source consisting of a bidirectional DC/DC
converter and an EDLC. It could be shown that the fuzzy-based
approach has a better robustness, self-adaptability, and improved
the system stability compared to the PID-based approach.
Compared to the battery-only approach, the driving range could
be increased by 36.8% with the PID controller, and by 42.1% with
the fuzzy sliding mode control[1_TD$IF] [85][15_TD$IF].
Xiang et al. presented an advanced CSA-HEST in which the EDLC
and the battery storage were connected to the load via switches
with parallel power diodes (Fig. 5e). Due to the direction of the
diodes, discharge during acceleration was performed by the
battery storage, while the energy from regenerative braking was
sent to the EDLC. The switches allowed different behavior to be
achieved. For example the load could be supplied by the EDLC, by
the battery storage, or by both together. A bidirectional DC/DC
converter connected between the EDLC and the battery storage
transferred energy between the two energy storage devices. Xiang
et al. showed that combining the new topology variant with an
appropriate operating strategy allows the DC/DC converter to be
designed to handle lower power demand[1_TD$IF] [60][16_TD$IF].
Keil et al. showed that the driving range of a BEV at subzero
temperatures can be increased with a CSA-HEST[1_TD$IF] [112][17_TD$IF].
3.2. Full-active hybrid energy storage topology
Full-active hybrid energy storage topologies (FA-HESTs) com-
prise two or more different energy storage devices with each
storage unit decoupled by power electronics [8,10–12]. This
topology class is also called a fully decoupled configuration in the
literature. The decoupling is usually done using bidirectional DC/
DC converters.
System losses are higher than those from the semi-active hybrid
energy storage topology (SA-HEST), the larger number of DC/DC
converters required adds to the weight and cost, and additional
installation space is required for the electronics. Although the
complexity of the energy storage system increases with each
 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
added DC/DC converter, this topology class has certain advantages.
If a suitable operating strategy is used, this HESS allows every
energy storage unit to be operated optimally, based on its charge
and discharge characteristics. This high degree of controllability
has the advantage that the power requirements can be assigned
individually to each energy storage device, improving the
performance of the storage system and increasing the battery life[1_TD$IF]
[10][18_TD$IF].
The FA-HEST is divided into three sub-topology classes: the
cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topology (cFA-HEST), the
parallel full-active hybrid energy storage topology (pFA-HEST), and
the modular multilevel full-active hybrid energy storage topology
(MMFA-HEST).
3.2.1. Cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topology
The cFA-HEST, also known as serial full active hybrid energy
storage topology, has two sub-topologies: battery cascaded full-
active hybrid energy storage topology (BcFA-HEST) and capacitor
cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topology (CcFA-HEST). The
topology uses two or more different energy storage devices
connected in series, with the energy storage devices decoupled
from each other as well as from the load by a DC/DC converter.
3.2.1.1. Battery cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topolo-
gy. The BcFA-HEST is an improved variant of the BSA-HEST
(Section 3.1.2). A disadvantage of the BSA-HEST is that when the
voltage of the load (power train) varies significantly, the EDLC
operates unmatched. The BcFA-HEST solves this by decoupling the
EDLC from the load (Fig. 6a), by inserting an additional DC/DC
converter between the EDLC and the load (power train) [58,118].
Onar et al. used this topology to reduce the capacity of the
battery and thus the battery cost. The EDLC is more resistant to
sudden load changes than a pure battery solution and can cope
better with short, high current peaks, allowing braking energy to
be recovered more efficiently[1_TD$IF] [58][19_TD$IF].
Because two energy transformations take place in this topology,
the overall efficiency of the storage system is reduced. The need for
a DC/DC converter capable of handling the maximum peak power
and the peak current of the load also increases the system cost [8].
3.2.1.2. Capacitor cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topolo-
[(Fig._6)TD$IG] The CcFA-HEST is an improved variant of the CSA-HEST
gy.
Fig. 6. Full-active hybrid topologies: (a) battery cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topology, (b) capacitor cascaded full-active hybrid energy storage topology, (c) parallel
full-active hybrid energy storage topology, (d) extended parallel full-active hybrid energy storage topology realized with a multi-input power electronic converter, (e) modular
multilevel full-active hybrid energy storage topology. Based on [8,11,119,120].
83
(Section 3.1.3). Fig. 6b shows its topology. The main energy source
is the battery storage, which is decoupled from the load by a DC/DC
converter that regulates the output voltage of the entire storage
system. An EDLC is connected in series with the battery and
decoupled by an additional DC/DC converter. The EDLC provides
the additional peak current needed when the allowable battery
current is exceeded [121].
Compared with the CSA-HEST, an additional DC/DC converter is
required to handle the maximum peak power and peak current of
the load. Doubling the power conversion stages reduces the overall
efficiency of the storage system and increases its cost[1_TD$IF] [8,10][20_TD$IF].
3.2.2. Parallel full-active hybrid energy storage topology
The pFA-HEST is another variation on the FA-HEST, comprising
two or more different energy storage devices, which are connected
in parallel and are decoupled from each other and from the load
[5,42,56,57,59,105,112,119,122–160]. Fig. 6c shows the connec-
tion topology of an energy storage system which combines HP and
HE storage, each connected to the load via its own DC/DC
converter. Each storage device can then be operated independent-
ly, based on its voltage characteristics. The DC/DC converters are
cheaper than those in a cascaded topology because they are
designed to match the energy storage device [10]. Thus, the DC/DC
converter for the battery storage device is designed to handle the
average power demand of the load, and the converter for the EDLC
is designed to handle the maximum peak current of the load
(power train) [8]. A failure of the EDLC or its DC/DC converter can
be tolerated because emergency operation using only battery
storage is possible.
Tankari et al. presented a pFA-HEST consisting of an EDLC which
is connected by a buck–boost DC/DC converter to the load and a
battery which is connected to the load by a boost converter. An
energy management strategy based on a polynomial controller
was applied. The strategy performs two steps. The first one
controls the current on the EDLC side whereas the second one
controls the load voltage on the battery side. The proposed control
strategy was validated with an experimental test setup[1_TD$IF] [151][21_TD$IF].
An extended variant of the pFA-HEST is shown in Fig. 6d. This
differs from the original topology as the DC/DC converters are
integrated into a single converter. The bidirectional DC/DC
converter has a separate connection port for each energy storage
device, which acts on a common inductor. Although there are
84 [(Fig._7)TD$IG]
T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90

additional inputs, only one inductor is required and the converter

is also called a multi-input power electronic converter (MIPEC)
[6,7,10,11,119,123,128,129,161,162]. This design allows the
weight and size of the converter to be reduced, simplifying the
implementation and lowering the system cost [6,119]. However,
the control strategy and the power flow management of the energy
storage system become more complex [7].
Hatami et al. presented an extended pFA-HEST consisting of an
three-port bidirectional DC/DC converter combined with an EDLC
and a Li-ion battery. The third port of the DC/DC converter was
connected to the power train which was realized by an 10 kV
permanent magnet brushless DC motor. A control strategy based
on a low-pass filter was proposed where high current demands of
the load are provided by the EDLC whereas the battery current
remained close to a constant current. In this configuration the
volume and weight of the overall HESS could be significantly
reduced. Furthermore, the battery life could be improved due to
the reduction of the peak currents compared to an battery-only
operation[1_TD$IF] [162][2_TD$IF].

3.2.3. Modular multilevel full-active hybrid energy storage topology

The MMFA-HEST [12,120,163–168] is the last sub-topology of
the FAHESTs, in which multiple energy storage modules are
connected in series (Fig. 6e).
Each module consists of an energy storage device and
associated power electronics in the form of a DC/DC converter
to act as a charge/discharge unit. Built-in DC/DC converters allow
each energy storage device to be operated following its optimum
charge and discharge profile[1_TD$IF] [120,166][23_TD$IF].
Modularization and the incorporation of power electronics into
each module enable the energy storage system to quickly adapt to
different voltage and power levels [12]. Each energy storage device
may have a different capacity, cell technology/chemistry, internal
resistance, self-discharge rate, state of health (SOH), and aging
behavior, making this topology and the pFA-HEST suitable for
second life applications [120]. The serial interconnection of the
modules on the output side makes it necessary to ensure that each
DC/DC converter can handle the maximum current of the power
train. On the input side, each DC/DC converter has to achieve the
maximum power rating of the associated energy storage device or
module. This requires a sufficiently large installation space, and the
additional DC/DC converters add to the cost of the system. The
system complexity is greater than that of the previously discussed
topologies, which can add to the difficulty and expense of real
implementations [12]. Another disadvantage is the sensitivity of
the system to DC/DC failures, as a single converter failure results in
a system failure.
4. Discrete hybrid energy storage topology
Passive and active hybridization has a better utilization of
stored energy and driving range compared to battery-only storage,
but the need for DC/DC converters adds additional costs. The cost of
the required electronics is especially sensitive in the automotive
industry, and alternative topologies have been investigated, which
can improve energy utilization without the need of additional DC/
DC converters.
4.1. Reconfigurable topologies on cell level
One approach has been to devise a topology in which the energy
storage system can adapt dynamically to the load [169–180]. At
the cell level, simple switching elements are used instead of
complex and costly DC/DC converters.
Ci et al. proposed a reconfigurable multi-cell battery storage
system in which the connections between the individual energy
Fig. 7. Reconfigurable topologies on cell level. Based on [170–174].
storage cells actively adapt (Fig. 7a). The suggested design supports
series wiring, parallel wiring, and combinations of serial–parallel
interconnections. Ci et al. showed significant increases in both
operating lifetime and reliability, while fully discharged or faulty
cells are isolated from fully operational cells[1_TD$IF] [170,180][24_TD$IF].
Alahmad et al. introduced a battery switch array system for
aerospace applications which allows up to N energy storage cells to
be connected in any desired configuration (Fig. 7b). The proposed
system enables configurations with programmable voltage,
programmable capacity, programmable voltage/capacity ratio
and the isolation of any energy storage cell from any desired
configuration. Due to the isolation capability of any cell, the system
is real-time fault tolerant to single cell failures. Furthermore, the
topology is modular and highly scalable but it requires a total of
[(4N)  3] switching elements; were N is the number of energy
storage cells[1_TD$IF] [171][25_TD$IF].
Visairo et al. presented a similar concept which expanded the
operating time and reduced the power conversion losses of a
battery-powered computer system (Fig. 7c). Battery-powered
mobile systems spend most of their operating time in low power
modes in which the voltage regulators have low efficiencies.
Commonly used control strategies of the voltage regulators
minimize driving and switching losses by scaling the variable
switching frequency. The proposed topology allows a reconfigura-
tion of the battery internal interconnections from a series cell
connection to a parallel one and vice versa. Due to the input voltage
adaptation of the voltage regulators, experiments showed a light
load efficiency improvement of about [26_TD$IF]5% [172][27_TD$IF].
Kim et al. demonstrated an automatically adjusting battery
storage system at cell level that can adapt to the load and the
storage requirements (Fig. 7d). As well as improved operation and
life time, the system was also tolerant to single and multiple
cell failures, thereby enhancing the reliability of the system.
Furthermore, Kim et al. added a bidirectional DC/DC converter to
the previous energy storage system. Due to these modifications, a
smooth and steady current flow between charge and discharge
mode is achieved. Moreover, the reliability and energy conversion
efficiency of the system could be enhanced due to the
 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
self-reconfigurable, multicell battery system and a balancing
control during active operation[1_TD$IF] [174–178][28_TD$IF].
Jin et al. presented a dynamic reconfiguration framework to
improve battery utilization, to facilitate recovery from battery cell
failures and power reallocation, and to reduce total cost of the
energy storage system. The framework was developed for the
reconfigurable energy storage system suggested by Kim and Shin
[173] which consists of energy storage cells each surrounded by six
on/off switches so that the interconnection of these storage cells
could be reconfigured in series, parallel, or combinations (Fig. 7e)[1_TD$IF]
[179][29_TD$IF].
4.2. Reconfigurable topologies on module level
The reconfigurable topologies shown so far have been
investigated at the cell level. Kim et al. stated that these
reconfigurable topologies on cell level could also be used for
applications on module level. In this case, the individual cells in a
cell pack will be replaced by energy storage modules (ESMs) and
module switching elements[1_TD$IF] [177][30_TD$IF].
Baronti et al. presented an architecture of a reconfigurable
battery pack for HP applications, which consists of ESMs connected
in series. Furthermore, Baronti et al. demonstrated the realization
of a switching element at the module level[1_TD$IF] [181][31_TD$IF].
4.3. Introduction of the new class: discrete hybrid energy storage
topology
Based on these previous studies, we propose new topologies for
energy storage systems using switching elements at module level
and combine them to create a new topology class. The switching
elements can take on only discrete states, and we therefore call this
topology class discrete energy storage topology (D-EST). An energy
storage system in the proposed topology class comprises several
[(Fig._8)TD$IG]
Fig. 8. Discrete hybrid topologies: (a) schematic representation of the proposed energy storage module (ESM) consisting of the energy storage device (ES) and switching
elements S1 and S2, (b) parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology consisting of n ESMs connected in parallel, (c) serial discrete hybrid energy storage topology consisting of m
serial interconnected ESMs, (d) serial–parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology consisting of n parallel connected energy storage strings, (e) parallel–serial discrete hybrid
energy storage topology with crossbars between the energy storage strings.
85
ESMs which are uniformly constructed with well-defined inter-
faces (Fig. 8a).
By combining uniform modules, the capacity of the energy
storage system, the output voltage level, the ampacity, and the
characteristics of the energy storage system can all be configured in
discrete steps, allowing the range and performance of a vehicle to be
dimensioned flexibly. Modularization has the further advantage of
easier configuration and handling during assembly. Moreover,
defective or underperforming modules can be replaced quickly
during maintenance. The replaced modules can be reused in second
life applications. To achieve this, the maximum voltage level of each
module must be below 60 Vdc, placing it in voltage class A [182] and
allowing less rigorous safety requirements to be applied. Modules
can be sourced from different suppliers, as long as their energy
storage characteristics are nearly the same and the interface of the
different modules is standardized. The ESMs consist of s  p
individual energy storage elements of the same cell type where s
and p represent the number of serial and the number of parallel
connected energy storage cells within an ESM. In practice, battery
cells exhibit certain cell-to-cell variations from production. In hard-
wired electrical energy storage systems, the weakest cell or group of
parallel cells limits the performance of the entire energy storage
system. In our approach, only the performance of one ESM is limited
by a weak cell while the other ESMs can provide full performance.
Typically, a control algorithm preserves a weak module by selecting
those ESMs with the highest SOC or voltage. Hence, a weak ESM is
discharged less often than the powerful modules.
The previous research investigations on reconfigurable topolo-
gies are based on the same cell type or cell chemistry. We can
imagine that also a hybridization with reconfigurable topologies is
possible taking into account that different voltage levels and
compensation currents between modules can occur. Therefore, the
cell type can vary between different ESMs, creating a hybrid
storage system to take advantage of the passive hybridization
86 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
effects discussed in Section 2. We call this the discrete hybrid energy
storage topology (D-HEST). The well-defined structure allows
switching of elements at module level, so that the ESM can be
disconnected from or bypass the rest of the system. We can
imagine, that modularization makes possible four different
connection topologies, which are presented below.
4.3.1. Parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology
The parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology (pD-HEST)
comprises n parallel connected ESMs (Fig. 8b). Additional degrees
of freedom result from switching the ESMs, allowing the system to
be reconfigured after assembly, in idle periods, or during normal
operation. In automobile applications, the energy storage system
can be adapted to the traffic. When driven in city traffic, for
example, extra HP modules will be connected to handle the
frequent acceleration and deceleration phases. In interurban
driving, a high cruising range is more important, and more HE
storage modules will be connected. Faulty modules can be turned
off by the energy storage system and an emergency operation
initiated if the remaining ESMs can provide sufficient energy and
power. The switch S2 shown in Fig. 8a is not required in the pD-
HEST, but in a standardized ESM it is still included to allow the
modules to be installed in the other topologies which require it.
4.3.2. Serial discrete hybrid energy storage topology
The second sub-topology consists of m serially configured ESMs
(Fig. 8c) and is called the serial discrete hybrid energy storage topology
(sD-HEST). The total voltage of the energy storage system is the sum
of the individual module voltages, so that loads and power trains
designed for higher operating voltages can be operated. The
switching elements allow defective ESMs to be bypassed and
replaced by an emergency operational state using the remaining
modules. The connections between the ESMs can also be decoupled
in the case of a failure, in idle periods, or during assembly or
maintenance, splitting the system voltage into the voltages of the
individual modules. As a result, hazards due to high voltages can be
minimized. This topology provides particular benefits when the
number of ESMs connected in series is larger than necessary to
handle the maximum load. In this case, weak modules can be
removed and conserved before they leave their safe operating area
(SOA). With the use of appropriate control algorithms, ESMs whose
characteristics are subject to large scattering can also be inter-
connected.
To take advantage of both topologies, we propose to combine
them. The combination of the pD-HESTs and the sD-HESTs results
in the following two sub-topologies: serial–parallel discrete hybrid
energy storage topology (spD-HEST) and parallel–serial discrete
hybrid energy storage topology (psD-HEST).
4.3.3. Serial–parallel discrete hybrid energy storage topology
In the spD-HEST, multiple ESMs are connected in series to so-
called energy storage strings. Several of these energy storage
strings are connected in parallel to form the energy storage system
(Fig. 8d). This allows the capacity, voltage level, ampacity, and
characteristics of the system to be scaled up almost arbitrarily. The
total voltage of the system corresponds to the voltage of the
storage strings and thus to the sum of the module voltages of the
active ESMs in a string. As with sD-HEST, the switching elements
can bypass a faulty ESM or bridge a whole energy storage string.
The remaining ESMs can support an emergency operation. As in the
previous sub-topology, the connection between the modules can
be separated in case of a failure, splitting the system voltage into
the individual module voltages. This can also be done in idle
periods or during assembly or maintenance. The switching
elements also allow the storage system to be reconfigured while
in operation. The characteristics of the energy storage system can
be adapted to the load or the power train by use of an appropriate
operating strategy, allowing new and old ESMs to be used in
combination.
4.3.4. Parallel–serial discrete hybrid energy storage topology
The last sub-topology is an extension of the spD-HEST. First, the
ESMs are connected in parallel via crossbars and are serially
connected to each other (Fig. 8e). We therefore call this topology
the psD-HEST. Again, the capacity, voltage level, ampacity, and
characteristics of the energy storage system can be scaled almost
arbitrarily. The capacity and ampacity depend on the number of
ESMs connected in parallel, whereas the voltage level results from
the number of serially connected active modules. The additional
crossbars allow a single ESM to be detached from the rest of the
storage system. If an energy module fails, an emergency operation
can be supported by the remaining ESMs. As in the previous sub-
topologies, the connection between the modules can be severed to
avoid high voltage levels.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, we gave an overview of the passive and active
hybridization of electrical energy storage systems described in the
existing literature. The literature differentiated between the
topology classes P-HEST and A-HEST. The P-HEST is the simplest
hybridization but with the restriction that the utilization of stored
energy is limited by the energy storage type with the lowest
operating voltage window. The A-HEST can be further divided in
the sub-topologies SA-HEST and FA-HEST. In both sub-topologies
the limitations of the P-HEST are treated by using additional DC/DC
converters. The SA-HESTs use one additional DC/DC converter
whereas for the FA-HESTs the number of DC/DC converters
depends on the number of individual energy storage types or
individual energy storage elements.
Moreover, we showed the literature on reconfigurable topolo-
gies on cell level and on module level. These topologies are
alternatives to the A-HESTs which can improve the energy
utilization by using switching elements but without the need of
additional DC/DC converters.
Based on these results we proposed new discrete hybrid
topologies and suggested the new topology class D-HEST. In this
class, multiple energy storage cells of the same cell type are
combined to create a uniform ESM. These ESMs have additional
switching elements allowing the modules to be activated, bypassed,
or disabled. The switching elements also allow the energy flow to be
controlled by selectively activating and deactivating the ESMs. This
is similar to a conventional HESS, but without requiring bulky and
heavy DC/DC converters. The energy storage system comprises
several of these ESMs, which can be arranged in the four topologies:
pD-HEST, sD-HEST, spD-HEST, and psD-HEST.
Detailed investigations will be undertaken in future work to
examine special aspects of the proposed topology class. Research is
also needed on the battery management system, on a better
definition of the hardware and software interfaces, and on
operating strategies. Other applications should be investigated,
for example in the field of stationary energy storage systems,
second life applications, special-purpose machines, and use in
commercial vehicles, airplanes, and ships, where the installation
space is less restricted.
Acknowledgements
This work contributes to the project DriveBattery2015 and has
been funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs
and Energy (BMWi) under the project number 03ET6060F.
 T. Zimmermann et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 8 (2016) 78–90
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