Introduction Power System Stability y y - : Stability Synchronism Remain Stable

Introduction Power System Stability
y y__
• The tendency of a power system to develop restoring forces equal to
or ggreater than the disturbingg forces to maintain the state of
equilibrium is know as stability.
• If the forces tending to hold machines in synchronism with one
another are sufficient to overcome the disturbingg forces,, the system
y
is said to remain stable.
• Stability Studies:
– Transient
– Dynamic
– Steady‐state
• The main purpose of transient stability studies is to determine
whether a system will remain in synchronism following major
disturbances such as transmission system faults, sudden load
changes, loss of generating units, or line switching.
1
y y__
• Transient Stability Problems:
– First‐swing;
First swing; short study period after disturbance, based on a reasonable
simple generator model, without control system.
– Multi‐swing; longer study period of time after disturbance, thus consider the
effect of generator control systems.
• In all stability studies, the objective is to determine whether or not the
rotors of the machines being perturbed return to constant speed
operation.
• To simplify calculation, the following assumptions must be made:
– Only synchronous frequency currents and voltages are considered in the
stator windings and the power system. Consequently dc offset currents and
harmonic components are neglected.
neglected
– Symmetrical components are used in the representation of unbalanced
faults.
– Generated voltage is considered unaffected by machine speed variation.
2
y y__
Mechanical analog of power system transient stability
3
Rotor dynamics and the swing equation
y g q
• Accelerating torque is the product of the moment of inertia of
the rotor times its angular acceleration
the rotor times its angular acceleration.
d 2θ m
J 2
= Ta = Tm − Te (14.1)
dt
J the total moment of inertia of the rotor masses, kg m2

masses in kg-m
θm the angular displacement of the rotor with respect to stationary axis, in mechanical radians
t time, in seconds
Tm the mechanical or shaft torque supplied by the prime mover less retarding torque due to rotational
losses, N-m
Te the net electrical or electromagnetic torque, in N-m
Ta the net accelerating torque, in N-m
4
y g q
• The mechanical torque Tm and the electrical torque Te are considered
positive for the synchronous generator. Whereas for motor is another
way round.
• Tm is the resultant shaft torque that tends to accelerate the rotor in

the positive θ m direction of rotation as shown in the figure.
• Under steady‐state operation of generator Tm and Te are equal and
accelerating
l ti torque
t Ta is
i zero.
• In this case there is no acceleration or deceleration of the rotor
masses and the resultant constant speed is the synchronous speed.
5
y g q
• θ m is measured with respect to a stationary reference axis on the stator, it is
an absolute measure of rotor angle.
g
• Rotor angular position with respect
p p to a reference axis which rotates at
synchronous speed is given by:
θ m = ω smt + δ m (14.2)
• Where ω sm is the synchronous speed of the machine in mechanical radians

per second and δ m is the angular displacement of the rotor, in mechanical
radians, from the synchronously rotating reference axis.
• The derivatives of (14.2) with respect to time are:
dθ m dδ m
= ωsm + (14.3)
dt dt
d 2θ m d 2δ m
2
= (14.4)
d
dt ddt 2
6
y g q
dθ m
• Equation (14.3) shows that the rotor angular velocity is
constant and equals the synchronous speed only when dδ m is
dt
constant and equals the synchronous speed only when is
dt
equal zero.
• Thus, dδ m represents the deviation of rotor speed from
dt
synchronism and the units of measure are mechanical radians
per second.
• Eq.
Eq (14.4)
(14 4) represents the rotor acceleration measured in
mechanical radians per second‐squared
( ) ( )
• Substitute (14.4) into (14.1):
d 2δ m (14.5)
J 2
= Ta = Tm − Te N−m
dt
7
y g q
• Eq. (14.5) can be converted into power by multiplying with
angular velocityωm in Eq (14 6) (**Power = Torque x Angular
angular velocity in Eq. (14.6) (**Power = Torque x Angular
velocity).
dθ m (14.6)
ωm =
dt
d 2δ m
Jωm 2
= Pa = Pm − Pe W (14.7)
dt
Where:
Pm the shaft power input to the machine less rotational losses

the shaft power input to the machine less rotational losses
Pe the electrical power crossing its air gap
Pa the accelerating power which account for any unbalance between Pm and Pe
8
y g q
M = Jωm
• Eq. (14.7) can also be written as in (14.8), whereby :
d 2δ m (14.8)
M 2
= Pa = Pm − Pe W
dt
• M is inertia constant (joule‐seconds per mechanical radian)
is inertia constant (joule‐seconds per mechanical radian)
• In machine data supplied for stability studies, another constant
related to inertia is called H constant:
stored kinetic energy in megajoules at synchronou s speed
H=
machine rating in MVA
1 1
Jω sm
2
Mωsm
H= 2 = 2 MJ / MVA
S mach S mach (14.9)
S mach − the three phase rating of the machine in MVA.

9
y g q
• Solving for M in Eq. (14.9);
2H
M = S mach MJ / mech rad (14.10)
ω sm
mechanical radians per seconds
• Substitute the above equation in (14.8), we find;
mechanical radians
2H d δ m 2
Pa Pm − Pe
= = (14.11)
ω sm dt 2 S mach S mach
• Eq. (14.11) can also be written as;
2 H d 2δ
= Pa = Pm − Pe perunit (14.12) Swing Equation
ω s dt 2
10
y g q
• For a system with an electrical frequency of f hertz, Eq. (14.12)
becomes ( δ in electrical radians)
becomes ( in electrical radians)
H d 2δ
= Pa = Pm − Pe perunit (14.13)
πf dt 2
δ
• If in electrical degree
H d 2δ (14.14)
2
= Pa = Pm − Pe perunit
180 f dt
2 H d 2δ
• Eq. (14.12) can be written as the
ωs dt 2
t fi t d diff
two first‐order differential equations:
ti l ti
2 H dω dδ
= Pm − Pe perunit
p (14.15) = ω − ωs (14.16)
ω s dt
d dt
11
Further Considerations of the swing equation
g q
• In a stability study of a power system with many synchronous
machines only one MVA base common to all parts of the
machines, only one MVA base common to all parts of the
system can be chosen.
• Thus, H constant for each machine must be converted into per
unit base on common MVA base;
S mach
H system
t = H machh (14.17)
S system
• The
The constant moment inertia M
constant moment inertia M is rarely used in practice and H
is rarely used in practice and H
is often used in stability study.
12
g q
• In a stability study for a large system with many machines
geographically dispersed over a wide area, area it is desirable to
minimize the number of swing equations to be solved.
• This can be done if the transmission line fault, or other
disturbance on the system, affects the machines within the
plant so that their rotors swing together.
• Thus,
Thus the machine within the plant can be combined into a
single equivalent machine just as if their rotors were
mechanically coupled and only one swing equation need to be
written for them.
13
g q
• Consider a power plant with two generators connected to the same
bus which is electrically remote from network disturbances,
disturbances the swing
equations on the common system base are:
2 H 1 d 2δ 1
= Pm1 − Pe1 perunit (14.18)
ω s dt 2
2 H 2 d 2δ 2 (14.19)
= Pm 2 − Pe 2 perunit
ω s dt 2
• Adding the equation together, and denoting δ1 and δ2 by δ since the

rotor angle swing together;
2H d 2δ (14.20)
= P − P peruni
ωs dt2
m e
where H = H1 + H 2
Pe = Pe1 + Pe 2
Pm = Pm1 + Pm 2
14
The Power‐Angle Equation
g q __________________
• In the swing equation, the input mechanical power from the
prime mover Pm is assumed constant.
constant
• Thus, the Pe will determine whether the rotor accelerates,

decelerates, or remains at synchronous speed.
• Changes in Pe are determined by conditions on the transmission

and distribution networks and the loads on the system to which
the generator supply power.
15
g q __________________
• Each synchronous machine is represented for transient stability
studies byy its transient internal voltage
g E’ in series with the transient
reactance X’d as shown in the Figure below.
• Armature resistance is negligible so that the phasor diagram is as
shown in the figure.
g
• Since each machine must be considered relative to the system, the
phasor angles of the machine quantities are measured with respect
to the common system
y reference.
I
E'
'
jX d
+ jjIXd'
E' Vt δ
_ α Vt
I
Reference
(a) (b)
16
g q __________________
• Consider a generator supplying power through a transmission
system to a receiving‐end
receiving end system at bus 2.
2
I1 I2 E’1 is transient internal voltage of
generator at bus 1
E1' E2'
E’2 is transient internal voltage of
generator at bus 2
• The elements of the bus admittance matrix for the network

reduced to a two nodes in addition to the reference node is:
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤
Ybas =⎢ ⎥
(14.28)
⎣ 21
Y Y 22 ⎦
17
g q __________________
• Power equation at a bus k is given by:
∗
N
P k − jQ k = V k ∑ Y knV n (14.29)
n =1
• Let k =1
Let k =1 and N=2, and substituting E
and N=2 and substituting E’2 for V,
for V
P1 + jQ1 = E1' (Y11 E1' ) + E1' (Y12 E 2' )

∗ ∗
(14.30)
where
I1 I2
E1' = E1' ∠δ 1 E 2' = E 2' ∠δ 2 E1' E2'
Y11 = G11 + jB11 Y12 = Y12 ∠θ12
18
g q __________________
• We obtain:
' 2
P1 = E 1 G11 + E1' E2' Y12 cos (δ 1 − δ 2 − θ 12 ) (14.31)
' 2
Q1 = − E 1 B11 + E1' E2' Y12 sin (δ 1 − δ 2 − θ 12 ) (14.32)
π
• δ = δ1 − δ 2 γ =θ −
If we let and , we obtain from (14.31) and
12
(14.32) 2
' 2
P1 = E G11 + E1' E 2' Y12 sin (δ - γ )
1
(14.33)
' 2
Q1 = − E 1 B11 − E1' E 2' Y12 cos (δ - γ ) (14.34)
19
g q __________________
• Eq. (14.33) can be written more simply as
Pe = Pc + Pmax sin(δ − γ ) (14.35)
where
Pmax = E1' E 2' Y12

2
Pc = E1' G11 (14.36)
• When the network is considered without resistance, all the
elements of Ybus are susceptances, so both G
elements of Y and γ becomes
are susceptances so both G11 and becomes
zero and Eq. (14.35) becomes;
Pe = Pmax sin δ (14.37) Power Angle Equation
where Pmax = E1' E 2' X , with X is the transfer reactance between

E’1 and E’2
20
Example 1: Power‐angle equation before fault
p g q
The single‐line diagram shows a generator connected through parallel
transmission lines to a large metropolitan system considered as an infinite
bus. The machine is delivering 1.0 pu power and both the terminal voltage
and the infinite‐bus voltage are 1.0 pu. The reactance of the line is shown
based on a common system base. The transient reactance of the generator is
0 20 pu as indicated.
0.20 indicated Determine the power‐angle equation for the system
applicable to the operating conditions.
21
p g q
The reactance diagram for the system is shown:
The series reactance between the terminal voltage (Vt) and the infinite bus is:

The series reactance between the terminal voltage (V ) and the infinite bus is:
0.4
X = 0.10 + = 0.3 per unit
2
The 1.0 per unit power output of the generator is determined by the power‐angle
The 1.0 per unit power output of the generator is determined by the power angle
equation. Vt V (1.0)(1.0)
sin α = sin α = 1.0
X 0.3
α
V is the voltage of the infinite bus, and is the angle of the terminal voltage
relative to the infinite bus
22
p g q
Solve α
α = sin −1 0.3 = 17.4580
Terminal voltage, Vt : Vt = 1.0∠17.458 0 = 0.954 + j 0.300 per unit
The output current from the generator is:
1.0∠17.4580 − 1.0∠0 0
I= = 1.0 + j 0.1535 = 1.012∠8.7290 pper unit
j 0.3
The transient internal voltage is
E ' = Vt + XI
E ' = (0.954 + j 0.30) + j (0.2)(1.0 + j 0.1535)
= 0.923 + j 0.5 = 1.050∠28.44 0 per unit
23
p g q
The power‐angle equation relating the transient internal voltage E’ and the
infinite bus voltage V is determined by the total series reactance
infinite bus voltage V is determined by the total series reactance
0.4
X = 0.2 + 0.1 + = 0.5 per unit
2
Hence, the power‐angle equation is:
(1.05)(1.0)
Pe = sin δ = 2.1sin δ p.u
0 .5
δ
Where is the machine rotor angle with respect to infinite bus
The swing equation for the machine is

The swing equation for the machine is
H d 2δ
= 1.0 − 2.10 sin δ per unit
180 f dt 2
H is in megajoules per megavoltampere, f is the electrical frequency of the system

δ
and is in electrical degree
24
Example 1: Power‐angle equation
p g q
The power‐angle equation is plotted:
Before fault
After fault
During fault
25
Example 2: Power‐angle equation During Fault
p g q g
The same network in example 1 is used. Three phase fault
occurs at point P as shown in the Figure.
Figure Determine the power‐
power
angle equation for the system with the fault and the
corresponding swing equation. Take H = 5 MJ/MVA
26
p g q g
Approach 1:
Th reactance diagram
The di off the
h system during
d i fault
f l is
i shown
h b l
below:
The value is admittance

per unit
p
27
p g q g
As been calculated in example 1, internal transient voltage remains
as E ' = 1.05∠28.44° (based on the assumption that flux linkage is
constant in the machine)
⎡ − 3.333 0 3.333 ⎤
The Y bus is: Ybas = j⎢ 0 − 7.50 2.50 ⎥
b ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3.333 2.50 − 10.833⎥⎦
Since bus 3 has no external source connection and it may be removed by the node
elimination
li i ti procedure,
d th Y bus
the b matrix
t i is
i reduced
d d to:t
⎡− 3.333 0 ⎤ ⎡3.333⎤
Ybus = ⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥
1
[3.333 2.5]
⎣ 0 − 7.5⎦ ⎣ 2.5 ⎦ − 10.833
⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡ − 2.308 0.769 ⎤

⎢Y ⎥ = j⎢ ⎥
⎣ 21 Y22 ⎦ ⎣ 0.769 − 6.923⎦
28
p g q g
The magnitude of the transfer admittance is 0.769 and therefore,
Pmax = E1' E2' Y12' = (1.05)(1.0)(0.769) = 0.808 per unit
The power‐angle equation with the fault on the system is therefore,
Pe = 0.808 sinδ per unit
The corresponding swing equation is

The corresponding swing equation is
5 d 2δ
. − 0.808 sin δ per unit
= 10
180 f dt 2
Because of the inertia, the rotor cannot change position instantly upon
occurrence of the fault. Therefore, the rotor angle δ is initially 28.440 and
the electrical power output is
Pe = 0.808 sin
i 28.44° = 0.385
29
p g q g
The initial accelerating power is: Pa = 10
. − 0.385 = 0.615 per unit
and the initial acceleration is positive with the value given by
d 2δ 180 f
= ( 0.615) = 2214
. f elec deg / s 2
dt 2 5
30
p g q g
Approach 2:
C
Covert the
h readd line
li (which
( hi h in
i Y form)
f ) into
i d l to remove node
delta d
3 from the network:
1
j1.3 1
1 3 2
3 2
j0.65 j0.8667
( j 0.3)( j 0.2) + ( j 0.3)( j 0.4) + ( j 0.2)( j 0.4)

RAC = = j1.3
j 0.2
( j 0.3)( j 0.2) + ( j 0.3)( j 0.4) + ( j 0.2)( j 0.4)
RAB = = j 0.65
j 0.4
( j 0.3)( j 0.2) + ( j 0.3)( j 0.4) + ( j 0.2)( j 0.4)

RBC = = j 0.8667
j 0.3
31
p g q g
Approach 2:
Covert the read line,
line which in Y form into delta to remove node
3 from the network:
j0.1625
Pmax = E1' E 2' Y12 Y12 = −(1 / j1.3) = 0.769
Pmax = (1.05)(1.0)(0.769) = 0.808

Pe = 0.808sin δ
32
Example 3: Power‐angle equation After Fault Cleared
p g q
The fault on the system cleared by simultaneous opening of

the circuit breakers at each end of the affected line.line
Determine the power‐angle equation and the swing
equation for the post‐fault period
CB open CB open
33
Example 3: Power‐angle equation After Fault Cleared
p g q
Upon removal of the faulted line, the net transfer admittance

across the system is
1 Y12 = j1.429
y12 = = − j1429
. per unit or
j( 0.2 + 01
. + 0.4 )
The post‐fault power‐angle equation is

Pe = (1.05) (1.0) (1.429) sin δ = 1.5 sin δ
and the swing equation is

5 d 2δ
= 10
. − 1500
. sin δ
180 f dt 2
34
Synchronizing Power Coefficients___________
• From the power‐angle
curve, two values of angle Before fault
satisfied the mechanical
power i.e at 28.440 and
151.560.
After fault
• However,
H only
l the 28 440
th 28.44
is acceptable operating
point.
• Acceptable
A t bl operating
ti During fault
point is that the
generator shall not lose
synchronism when small
temporary changes occur
in the electrical power
output from the machine.
machine
35
Consider small incremental changes in the operating point parameters, that is:
Pe = Pe 0 + PeΔ δ = δ0 + δΔ (14.40)
Substituting above equation into Eq 14 37 (Power angle equation) Pe

Substituting above equation into Eq. 14.37 (Power‐angle equation) = Pmax sin δ
Pe 0 + PeΔ = Pmax sin(δ 0 + δ Δ )
(sin δ 0 cos δ Δ + cos δ 0 ssin δ Δ )
= Pmax (s
δΔ δ0
Since is a small incremental displacement from
sin δ Δ ≅ δ Δ cos δ Δ ≅ 1 (14.41)
Thus, the previous equation becomes:
(14.42)
Pe 0 + PeΔ = Pmax sin δ 0 + ( Pmax cos δ 0 )δ Δ
36
δ0
At the initial operating point :
Pm = Pe 0 = Pmax sin δ 0 (14 43)
(14.43)
Equation (14.42) becomes:
Pm − ( Pe 0 + PeΔ ) = − ( Pmax cos δ 0 )δ Δ (14 44)

(14.44)
Substitute Eq. (14.40) into swing equation;
2 H d 2 (δ 0 + δ Δ )
= Pm − ( Pe 0 + PeΔ ) (14.45)
ωs dt 2
Replacing the right‐hand side of this equation by (14.44);
2 H d 2δ Δ
+ ( Pmax cos δ 0 )δ Δ = 0 (14.46)
ω s dt
d 2
37
δ0 Pmax cos δ 0
Since is a constant value. Noting that is the slope of the power‐
δ0
angle curve at the angle , we denote this slope as S p and define it as:
dPe
Sp = = Pmax cos δ 0 (14.47)
dδ δ =δ 0
Where Sp is called the synchronizing power coefficient. Replacing Eq. (14.47) into (14.46);
d 2δ Δ ω s S p
+ δΔ = 0 (14 48)
(14.48)
dt 2 2H
The above equation is a linear, second‐order differential equation.
δ (t )
If Sp positive – the solution corresponds to that of simple harmonic motion.
Δ
If Sp p negative –
g δ Δ (t )
the solution increases exponentially without limit.
p y
38
The angular frequency of the un‐damped oscillations is given by:
ωs S p (14.49)
ωn = elec rad / s
2H
which corresponds to a frequency of oscillation given by:
(14.50)
1 ωs S p
fn = H
Hz
2π 2H
39
Example:
The machine in previous example is operating at δ = 28.44°when it is subjected
to a slight temporary electrical
electrical‐system
system disturbance. Determine the frequency
and period of oscillation of the machine rotor if the disturbance is removed
before the prime mover responds. H = 5 MJ/MVA.
The synchronizing power coefficient is S p = 2.10 cos 28.44° =1.8466
The angular frequency of oscillation is therefore;
ωs S p 377 × 1.8466
ωn = = = 8.343 elec rad / s
2H 2×5
8.343
The corresponding frequency of oscillation is fn = = 1.33 Hz
2π
1
and the period of oscillation is T= = 0.753 s
fn
40
Equal‐Area Criterion of Stability______________
The swing equation is non‐linear in nature and thus, formal solution
cannot be explicitly found.
cannot be explicitly found.
2 H d 2δ
ω s dt 2
To examine the stability of a two‐machine system without solving the
swing equation, a direct approach is possible to be used i.e using equal‐
area criterion.
41
Consider the following system:
At point P (close to the bus), a three‐phase fault occurs and cleared by circuit
breaker A after a short period of time.
Thus, the effective transmission system is unaltered except while the fault is on.
The short
short‐circuit
circuit caused by the fault is effectively at the bus and so the
electrical power output from the generator becomes zero until fault is clear.
three‐phase fault
42
To understand the physical condition before, during and after the fault,
power‐angle curve need to be analyzed.
Initially, generator operates at synchronous speed with rotor angle of δ 0

and the input mechanical power equals the output electrical power Pe.
Before fault, Pm = Pe
43
At t = 0, Pe = 0, Pm = 1.0 pu
Acceleration constant
The difference must be accounted for by a
rate of change of stored kinetic energy in
the rotor masses.
Speed increase due to the drop of Pe

constant acceleration from t = 0 to t = tc. 1.0 pu
For t<tc, the acceleration is constant given

by:
2 H dω
= Pm − 0 perunit
ω s dt
d 2δ ω s At t = 0, three phase fault occurs
= P (14.51)
dt 2 2 H m
44
While the fault is on, velocity increase Acceleration constant
above synchronous speed and can be
above synchronous speed and can be
found by integrating this equation:
dδ t ω ω
= ∫0 s Pm dt = s Pm t (14.52)
dt 2H 2H
For rotor angular position,;
ωs Pm
δ= t 2 + δ0 (14.53)
4H
At t = 0, three phase fault occurs
(14.52) 45
Eq. (14.52) & (14.53) show that the Acceleration constant

velocity of the rotor increase linearly
with time with angle move from δ 0 to δ c
At the instant of fault clearing t = tc,
g ,
the increase in rotor speed is
dδ ω s Pm
t = tc = tc (14.54)
dt 2H
angle separation between the generator
and the infinite bus is
and the infinite bus is
ω s Pm
δ (t ) t =t = t c2 + δ0 (14.55)
c
4H At t = 0, three phase fault occurs
(14.52) 46
δc e
When fault is cleared at , P
increase abruptly to point d
At d, Pe > Pm , thus Pa is
negative
Rotor slow down as Pe goes

from d to e
At t = tc, fault is cleared
47
1. At e, the rotor speed is again
synchronous although rotor angle has
advance to δx
2. The angle δx is determined by the

fact that A1 = A2
3. The acceleration power at e is still

negative (retarding), so the rotor
cannot remain at synchronous speed
but continue to slow down.
4. The relative velocity is negative and

the rotor angle moves back from point
e to point a, which the rotor speed is
less than synchronous.
5. From a to f, the Pm exceeds the Pe 6 6. In the absence of damping,

damping rotor would
and the rotor increase speed again until continue to oscillate in the sequence f‐a‐e, e‐a‐
reaches synchronous speed at f f, etc 48
In a system where one machine is swinging with respect to infinite bus,
equal‐area criterion can be used to determine the stability of the system
under
d transient
i condition
di i by
b solving
l i swing
i equation.
i
Equal‐area criterion not applicable for multi‐machines.

The swing equation for the machine connected to the infinite bus is
2 H d 2δ
= Pm − Pe (14.56)
ω s dt 2
Define the angular velocity of the rotor relative to synchronous speed by
dδ
ωr = = ω − ωs (14.57)
dt
49
Differentiate (14.57) with respect to t and substitute in (14.56) ;
2H dωr
= Pm − Pe (14.58)
ω s dt
ω ωs ωr
When rotor speed is synchronous, equals and is zero.
ω r = dδ / dt
Multiplying both side of Eq. (14.58) by ;
dω r dδ
= ( Pm − Pe )
H
2ω r (14.59)
ωs dt dt
The left‐hand side of the Eq. can be rewritten to give
H d (ω r ) dδ
2
= ( Pm − Pe ) (14.60)
ω s dt dt
50
Multiplying by dt and integrating, we obtain;
δ2
H
(ω − ω ) = ∫ ( Pm − Pe )dδ
2 2 (14.61)
ωs
r2 r1
δ1
the rotor speed is synchronous at δ 1 and δ 2 thenω r1 = ω r 2 = 0 ;

Since the rotor speed is synchronous at and , then ;
Since
Under this condition, (14.61) becomes
∫δ ( Pm − Pe ) dδ = 0
δ2
(14.59)
1
δ 1 and are any points on the power angle diagram provided that there are
δ2
points at which the rotor speed is synchronous.
51
δ1 δ2
In the figure, point a and e correspond to and
If perform integration in two steps;

If perform integration, in two steps;
δc δx
∫δ ( P
m − Pe ) dδ + ∫δ ( P m − Pe ) dδ = 0 (14.63)
0 c
δc δx
∫δ ( P
m − Pe ) dδ = ∫δ ( P e − Pm ) d δ (14.64)
0 c
Fault period Post‐fault period
Area A1 Area A2
The area under A1 and A4 are directly proportional to
the increase in kinetic energy of the rotor while it is
accelerating.
The area under A2 and A3 are directly proportional to

the decrease in kinetic energy of the rotor while it is
decelerating. 52
Equal‐area criterion states that whatever kinetic energy is added to the
rotor following a fault must be removed after the fault to restore the rotor
to synchronous speed.
speed
The shaded area A1 is dependent upon the time taken to
clear the fault.
δc
If the clearing has a delay, the angle increase.
As a result, the area A2 will also increase. If the increase

cause the rotor angle swing beyond δ max , then the rotor
speed at that point on the power angle curve is above
synchronous speed when positive accelerating power is
again
i encountered.
t d
Under influence of this positive accelerating power the

g will increase without limit and instabilityy results.
angle
53
There is a critical angle for clearing the fault in order to satisfy the
requirements of the equal‐area criterion for stability.
This angle is called the critical clearing angle δcr
The corresponding critical time for removing the fault is called critical
clearing time tcr
Power‐angle curve showing the

critical‐clearing angle δcr . Area A1
and A2 are equal
54
The critical clearing angle δcr and critical clearing time tcr can be calculated
by calculating the area of A1 and A2.
A1 = ∫δ Pm dδ = Pm (δcr − δ0 )
δ cr
(14.65)
0
A2 = ∫δ max ( Pmax sin δ − Pm )dδ

δ (14 66)
(14.66)
cr
= Pmax ((cos δ cr − cos δ max ) − Pm (δ max − δ cr )
Equating the expressions for A1 and A2, and transposing terms, yields
cos δcr = ( Pm / Pmax )(δmax − δ0 ) + cos δmax (14.67)
55
From sinusoidal power‐angle curve, we see that
δmax = π − δ0 elec rad (14 68)

(14.68)
Pm = Pmax sin δ0 (14.69)
δ max Pmax
Substitute and in Eq. (14.67),
simplifying the result and solving for δ cr
[
δcr = cos −1 ( π − 2δ0 ) sin δ0 − cos δ0 ] (14 70)
(14.70)
In order to get tcr, substitute critical angle equation into (14.55) and then solve to
obtain tcr;
ω s Pm 4 H (δcr − δ0 )
δcr = t cr2 + δ0 (14.71) t cr = (14.72)
4H ω s Pm
56
Equal‐Area Criterion of Stability ‐Example_____
Calculate the critical clearing angle and critical clearing time for the system shown
below. When a three phase fault occurs at point P. The initial conditions are the
same as in Example 1 and H = 5MJ/MVA
p /
Solution
The power angle equation is Pe = Pmax sin δ = 210

. sin δ
The initial rotor angle is
δ0 = 28.44 0 = 0.496 elec rad
and the mechanical input power P
d h h l m is 1.0 pu. Therefore, the critical angle is
h f h l l
[
calculated using Eq. (14.70) δcr = cos −1 ( π − 2δ0 ) sin δ0 − cos δ0]
δcr = cos −1[(π − 2 × 0.496) sin 28.44 0 − cos 28.44 0 ] = 81697
. 0 = 1426
. elec rad
and the critical clearing time is
4 × 5(1426
. − 0.496)
tcr = = 0.222s
0 222s
377 × 1
57
Further Application of the Equal‐Area Criterion
• Equal‐Area Criterion can only be applied for
the case of two machines or one machine
and infinite bus.
bus
• When a generator is supplying power to an
infinite bus over two parallel lines, opening
one of the lines may cause the generator to
lose synchronism.
synchronism
• If a three phase fault occurs on the bus on
which two parallel lines are connected, no
power can be transmitted over either the
line.
line
• If the fault is at the end of one of the lines, CB will operate and power can
flow through another line.
• In this condition, there is some impedance between the parallel buses and
the fault. Thus, some power is transmitted during the fault.
58
Further Application of the Equal‐Area Criterion
Considering the transmitted of power during fault, a general Equal‐area
criterion is applied;
By evaluating the area A1 and A2 as in the previous approach, we can find that;
( Pm / Pmax )(δ max − δ o ) + r2 cos δ max − r1 cos δ o
cos δ cr = ((14.73))
r2 − r1
59
Further Application of the Equal‐Area Criterion ‐ Example
Determine the critical clearing angle for the three phase fault described in the
previous example.
The power‐angle equations obtained in the previous examples are
The power‐angle equations obtained in the previous examples are
Before fault: Pmax sin δ = 2.1sin δ During fault: r1 Pmax sin δ = 0.808 sin δ
After fault: r2 Pmax sin δ = 1.5 sin δ
Hence
0.808 1.5
r1 = = 0.385 r2 = = 0.714
2 .1 2 .1
1. 0
δ max = 180° − sin −1 = 138.19° = 2.412 rad
1. 5
(1.0 / 2.1)(2.412 − 0.496) + 0.714 cos((138.19°) − 0.385 cos((28.44°)
cos δ cr =
0.714 − 0.385
= 0.127
δ cr = 82.726 °
δ
To determine the critical clearing time, we must obtain the swing curve of
versus t for this example.
60
STEP‐BY‐STEP SOLUTION OF SWING CURVE____
For large systems we depend on the digital computer to determine δ versus t

for all the machines in which we are interested; and δ can be plotted versus t
for a machines to obtain the swing curve of that machine.
g δ is calculated as a function of time over a p

The angle period long
g enough
g to
determine whether δ will increase without limit or reach a maximum and
start to decrease.
Although the latter result usually indicates stability, on an actual system

where a number of variable are taken into account it may be necessary to plot
δ versus t over a long enough interval to be sure δ will not increase again
without
ith t returning
t i to t a low
l value.
l
61
By determining swing curves for various clearing times the length of time
permitted before clearing a fault can be determined.
Standard interrupting times for circuit breakers and their associated relays
are commonly 8, 5, 3 or 2 cycles after a fault occurs, and thus breaker
speeds may be specified.
Calculations should be made for a fault in the position which will allow the
least transfer of power from the machine and for the most severe type of
fault for which protection against loss of stability is justified.
A number of different methods are available for the numerical evaluation

of second‐order
second order differential equations in step‐by‐step
step by step computations for
small increments of the independent variable.
The more elaborate methods are practical only when the computations are
performed on a digital computer. The step‐by‐step method used for hand
calculation is necessarily simpler than some of the methods recommended 62
for digital computers.
In the method for hand calculation the change in the angular position of the
rotor during a short interval of time is computed by making the following
assumptions:
•The accelerating power Pa computed at the beginning of an interval is

constant from the middle of the preceding interval to the middle of the
interval considered.
•The angular
g velocityy is constant throughout
g any
y interval at the value
computed for the idle of the interval.
**neither of the assumptions is true, since δ is changing continuously and both Pa

and ω are functions of δ.
As the time interval is decreased, the computed swing curve approaches the true
curve.
63
and
Figure 14.4 will help in visualizing the assumptions.
The accelerating power is computed for the points

enclosed in circles at the ends of the n-2, n-1, and n
intervals, which are the beginnings of the n-1, n and
n+1 interval.
The step curve of Pa in Fig. 14.4 results from the

assumption that Pa is constant between midpoints of
the intervals.
Similarly, ωr, the excess of the angular velocity ω

over the synchronous angular velocity ωs, is shown
as a step curve that is constant throughout the
e v at thee value
interval v ue computed
co pu ed foro thee midpoint.
dpo .
Between the ordinates (n-3/2)

(n 3/2) and (n-1/2)
(n 1/2) there
is a change of speed caused by the constant
accelerating power.
64
The change in speed in the product of the
acceleration and the time interval, thus:
d 2δ 180 f
ωr ,n1/ 2 − ωr ,n3/ 2 = 2 Δt = P Δt (1)
dt H a ,n−1
The change in δ over any interval is the
product of ω, for the interval and the time of
the interval. Thus, the change in δ during the
n‐1
1 interval is:
i li
Δδn−1 = δn−1 − δn−2 = Δtωr ,n−3/ 2 (2)
and during the nth interval
Δδn = δn − δn−1 = Δtωr ,n−1/ 2 (3)
Fig. 14.14 65
Substracting Eq (2) from Eq. (3) and
substituting Eq. (1) in the resulting
equation to eliminate all values of ω,
yields
Δδn = Δδn−1 + kPa ,n−1 (4)
where
180 f (5)
k= ( Δt ) 2
H
Fig. 14.14 66
Equation (4) is the important for the step-by-step solution of the swing equation with the necessary
assumption enumerated, for it shows how to calculate the change in δ for the previous interval and
the accelerating power for the interval in equation are known.
Equation (4) shows that (subject to the stated assumptions), the change in torque angle during a
given interval is equal to the change in torque angle during the preceding interval plus the
accelerating power at the beginning of the interval times k.
The accelerating power is calculated at the beginning of each new interval. The solution progresses
through enough intervals to obtain points for plotting the swing curve.
Greater accuracyy is obtained when the duration of the interval is small. An interval of 0.05s is
usually satisfactory.
The occurrence of a fault causes a discontinuity in the accelerating power Pa which is zero before
the fault and a definite amount immediatelyy followingg the fault.
The discontinuity occurs at the beginning of the interval, when t=0. Reference to Fig. 14.14 shows
that our method of calculation assumes that the accelerating power computed at the beginning of an
interval considered.
When the fault occurs, we have two values of Pa at the beginning of the interval, and we must take
the average of these two values as our constant accelerating power. 67
EXAMPLE SOLUTION OF SWING CURVE____
Given a two‐bus system of 50 Hz system, with machine 1 delivering 0.9 p.u power
to infinite bus and the machine 1 has H = 4.5 MJ/MVA. Three phase fault
occurred at the middle of the line is cleared in 0.2s. The p
power angle
g equations
q
are given as below
Pre-fault: Pe = 2.0 sin δ

During fault: Pe = 1.091sin δ
After fault cleared: Pe = 1.714 sin δ
Compute the swing curve using step-by-step method.
68
Solution:
Remember! Mechanical power doesn’t change during transient stability studies.
At the beginning,
beginning machine 1 delivering 0.9
0 9 pu power.
power At this steady state
condition, Pe = Pm = 0.9 pu.
Wh the
When th fault
f lt occurs att t=0s
0 the
th rotor
t angle
l is
i att the
th initial
i iti l value:
l
2.0 sin δ = 0.9
⎛ 0.9 ⎞
δ 0 = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 26.74°elec deg
⎝ 2.0 ⎠
180 f 180(50)
k= (Δt ) 2 = (0.05) 2 = 5
H 4.5
69
At the beginning of the first interval there is a discontinuity in the acceleration
power. Just before fault occurs, that is t=0-s Pa=0 since the machine is operating
p p g in
synchronism and the rotor angle is the initial steady-state rotor position δ 0
At t=0+s immediately after the fault has occurred;
Pe+0 = 1.091sin(26.74°) = 0.491

Pa = Pm − Pe+ 0 = 0.9 − 0.491 = 0.409
The average value of Pa at t = 0 is Paavg = 0.409 / 2 = 0.2045
Similarly, for representing any change in switching condition during stability

analysis, the accelerating power to be used is the average of the accelerating power
just before and just after the change in switching condition.
70
Then we can find
kPa = 5 × 0.2045 = 1.0225°
The interval Δδ1 = 0 + 1.0225° = 1.0225°

is the change in rotor angle as time advances over the first interval from 0 to Δt
At the end of the first interval, δ1 = δ 0 + Δδ1 = 26.74° + 1.0225° = 27.7625°
At Δt = 0.05s kPa ,1 = 5( Pm − Pe) = 5(0.9 − 1.091sin(27.7625°) = 1.9590°

and it follows that the increase in rotor angle over the second time interval is
Δδ 2 = Δδ1 + kPa ,1 = 1.0225° + 1.9590° = 2.9815°
Hence, at the end of the second interval δ 2 = δ1 + Δδ 2 = 27.7625° + 2.9815° = 30.744°
The subsequent steps are shown in the following Table.
71
kPa (Elec Δδ δ
T (Sec) Pmax δsin Po (pu) Pa (pu) Degree (Elec Degree) (Elec Degree)
0‐ 2.0 0.450 0.9 0.0 26.74
0+ 1.091 0.450 0.491 0.409 26.74
0 Avg
0 Avg 1 5455
1.5455 0 2045
0.2045 1 0225
1.0225
1.0225
0.05 1.091 0.465863 0.508257 0.391743 1.958716 27.7625
2.981216
0.1 1.091 0.511259 0.557783 0.342217 1.711084 30.74372
4.692301
0.15 1.091 0.579859 0.632626 0.267374 1.33687 35.43602
6.029171
0.2‐ 1.091 0.662 0.722 0.178 41.46
0.2+ 1.714 0.662 1.135 ‐0.235 41.46
0.2Avg 0.815 ‐0.0285 ‐0.1425
5 886671
5.886671
0.25 1.714 0.735539 1.260714 ‐0.36071 ‐1.80357 47.34667
4.083099
0.3 1.714 0.781917 1.340206 ‐0.44021 ‐2.20103 51.42977
1.882069
0.35 1.714 0.801971 1.374579 ‐0.47458 ‐2.37289 53.31184
‐0.49082
0.4 1.714 0.796824 1.365756 ‐0.46576 ‐2.32878 52.82101
‐2.8196
0.45 1.714 0.766133 1.313152 ‐0.41315 ‐2.06576 50.00141
‐4.88536
0.5 1.714 0.70861 1.214557 ‐0.31456 ‐1.57278 45.11605
‐6.45815
72
0.5 1.714 0.70861 1.214557 ‐0.31456 ‐1.57278 45.11605
‐6.45815
0.55 1.714 0.624737 1.0708 ‐0.1708 ‐0.854 38.6579
‐7.31215
0.6 1.714 0.520262 0.891729 0.008271 0.041356 31.34575
‐7.27079
0.65 1.714 0.407981 0.69928 0.20072 1.003601 24.07496
‐6.26719
0.7 1.714 0.305863 0.524249 0.375751 1.878756 17.80777
‐4.38843
0.75 1.714 0.232106 0.397829 0.502171 2.510854 13.41934
‐1.87758
08
0.8 1 714
1.714 0 200108
0.200108 0 342984
0.342984 0 557016
0.557016 2 785078
2.785078 11 54176
11.54176
0.907497
0.85 1.714 0.215602 0.369542 0.530458 2.652288 12.44925
3.559785
0.9 1.714 0.275824 0.472762 0.427238 2.13619 16.00904
5 695975
5.695975
0.95 1.714 0.369874 0.633964 0.266036 1.330182 21.70501
7.026157
1 1.714 0.480758 0.824019 0.075981 0.379907 28.73117
7.406064
1.05 1.714 0.589787 1.010896 ‐0.1109 ‐0.55448 36.13724
73
At t=0.2s, fault is cleared. Hence, the average of accelerating power just before and after should be
considered.
At t=0.2- s (just before fault cleared);
Pe−0.2
02
= 1.091sin(41.46
1 091 i (41 46°) = 0.7223
0 223
Pa−0.2 = Pm − Pe−0.2 = 0.9 − 0.7223 = 0.1777
At t=0.2+ s (j
(just after fault cleared);
);
Pe+0.2 = 1.714 sin(41.46°) = 1.1348
Pa+ 0.2 = Pm − Pe+ 0.2 = 0.9 − 1.1348 = −0.2348
Pa−0.2 + Pa+0.2 0.1777 − 0.2348
Hence, average Pa; Pa (average) = = = −0.02855
2 2
The subsequent steps are shown in the following Table.
74

Introduction Power System Stability y y - : Stability Synchronism Remain Stable

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Introduction Power System Stability

J the total moment of inertia of the rotor masses, kg m2

• Tm is the resultant shaft torque that tends to accelerate the rotor in

• Where ω sm is the synchronous speed of the machine in mechanical radians

Pm the shaft power input to the machine less rotational losses

S mach − the three phase rating of the machine in MVA.

• Adding the equation together, and denoting δ1 and δ2 by δ since the

• Thus, the Pe will determine whether the rotor accelerates,

• Changes in Pe are determined by conditions on the transmission

• The elements of the bus admittance matrix for the network

P1 + jQ1 = E1' (Y11 E1' ) + E1' (Y12 E 2' )

E1' = E1' ∠δ 1 E 2' = E 2' ∠δ 2 E1' E2'

Y11 = G11 + jB11 Y12 = Y12 ∠θ12

Pmax = E1' E 2' Y12

where Pmax = E1' E 2' X , with X is the transfer reactance between

The series reactance between the terminal voltage (Vt) and the infinite bus is:

The swing equation for the machine is

H is in megajoules per megavoltampere, f is the electrical frequency of the system

The value is admittance

⎡Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡ − 2.308 0.769 ⎤

Pmax = E1' E2' Y12' = (1.05)(1.0)(0.769) = 0.808 per unit

Pe = 0.808 sinδ per unit

The corresponding swing equation is

( j 0.3)( j 0.2) + ( j 0.3)( j 0.4) + ( j 0.2)( j 0.4)

( j 0.3)( j 0.2) + ( j 0.3)( j 0.4) + ( j 0.2)( j 0.4)

Pmax = E1' E 2' Y12 Y12 = −(1 / j1.3) = 0.769

Pmax = (1.05)(1.0)(0.769) = 0.808

The fault on the system cleared by simultaneous opening of

Upon removal of the faulted line, the net transfer admittance

The post‐fault power‐angle equation is

and the swing equation is

Substituting above equation into Eq 14 37 (Power angle equation) Pe

sin δ Δ ≅ δ Δ cos δ Δ ≅ 1 (14.41)

Pm − ( Pe 0 + PeΔ ) = − ( Pmax cos δ 0 )δ Δ (14 44)

Where Sp is called the synchronizing power coefficient. Replacing Eq. (14.47) into (14.46);

The synchronizing power coefficient is S p = 2.10 cos 28.44° =1.8466

Initially, generator operates at synchronous speed with rotor angle of δ 0

Speed increase due to the drop of Pe

For t<tc, the acceleration is constant given

Eq. (14.52) & (14.53) show that the Acceleration constant

Rotor slow down as Pe goes

2. The angle δx is determined by the

3. The acceleration power at e is still

4. The relative velocity is negative and

5. From a to f, the Pm exceeds the Pe 6 6. In the absence of damping,

Equal‐area criterion not applicable for multi‐machines.

the rotor speed is synchronous at δ 1 and δ 2 thenω r1 = ω r 2 = 0 ;

If perform integration in two steps;

The area under A2 and A3 are directly proportional to

As a result, the area A2 will also increase. If the increase

Under influence of this positive accelerating power the

This angle is called the critical clearing angle δcr

Power‐angle curve showing the

A2 = ∫δ max ( Pmax sin δ − Pm )dδ

= Pmax ((cos δ cr − cos δ max ) − Pm (δ max − δ cr )

cos δcr = ( Pm / Pmax )(δmax − δ0 ) + cos δmax (14.67)

δmax = π − δ0 elec rad (14 68)

Pm = Pmax sin δ0 (14.69)

The power angle equation is Pe = Pmax sin δ = 210

For large systems we depend on the digital computer to determine δ versus t

g δ is calculated as a function of time over a p

Although the latter result usually indicates stability, on an actual system