Chapter 3

An Anthropological Conceptualization of self: The Self as Embedded in Culture

Kiljoy J. Oldster once said “We are each a product of our biological endowments, culture, and personal
history. Culture ideology and cultural events along with transmitted cultural practices influences each of us.
We are each the product of our collective interchanges. We are each a molecule in the helix of human
consciousness joined in a physical world. We form a coil of connective tissue soldered together by cultural
links.”

ANTHROPOLOGY is concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human
experience.

- Some Anthropologists - there is no simple definition.

- Contemporary Anthropologists - The culture and the self are complementary concepts that are to be
understood in relation to one another.

JAMES L. PEACOCK

Anthropology encroaches on the territory of the sciences as well as the humanities and transcend
the conventional boundaries of both while addressing question from the distant past and the pressing
present- perhaps with the implication for the future.

HAVILAND, PRINS, WALRATH & MCBRIDE

Anthropology considers human experience as an interplay of NATURE referring to genetic

inheritance which sets the individual’s potential and NURTURE Referring to the sociocultural
environment.

Therefore, it could be understood that the both biological and cultural factors have significant influence
on the development of self-awareness among individuals within society. And the most important contribution of
anthropology is providing insights into the nature of self-based on continuous understanding of the basic
elements of culture.

The Cultural Construction of Self and Identity

CULTURE according to:

Edward Tylor- Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge belief, art, moral, law, customs,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member or society.”

Peacock- “Culture is not a behaviour itself but the shared understanding that guide behaviour and are
expressed in behaviour.”

Van Meijil- Culture has acquired a range of different meanings that require reflection and analysis
because the significance of cultures has enormous implication for everyone’s conception of self.

In social anthropology

The concept of identity was used mostly in the context of “ethnic identity” pointing out the sameness of
the self with others, that is, to a consciousness of sharing certain characteristics (e.g. language, culture, etc.)
within a group.

According to Robbins, there are two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different societies:
 1. Egocentric- The self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual. Each person is defined as a
replica of all humanity but capable of acting independently from others.
In dictionary: thinking only of oneself, without regard for the feelings or desires of others; self- centered.
2. Sociocentric- The self is contingent on a situation or social setting. This the view of the self that is
context- dependent which emphasizes that there is no intrinsic self that can possess enduring qualities.
In dictionary: Sociocentric occurs when a person puts the needs and concerns of a social group ahead of
his or her own needs and concerns.
- Japanese- Japanese possesses a sociocentric view of the self in which membership of a person in
a social group defines the boundaries of the self.
- Chinese- Chinese is also possesses a sociocentric view of the self. Chinese prioritize kin ties and
cooperation. For them, the very essence of interpersonal relations is mutual dependence.
- American- In contrast with the Japanese and Chinese, the Americans are egocentric. They
believe that they should be assertive and independent.
From similarities and differences in characteristics among individuals, people construct their own social
characteristics. Identity toolbox refers to the feature of a person’s identity that he/she chooses to emphasize in
constructing a social self

 Kinship, gender, and age- These are almost universally used to differentiate people.
 Ethnicity, personal appearance and socioeconomic status- The most significant feature to determine
a person’s social identity.
 Language- Another importan5t identity determinant that is often viewed as essential for the
maintenance of a group identity.
 Religious affiliation- In other society, Religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity.
 Personal Naming- A universal practice with numerous cross- cultural variations, establishes a child’s
birthright and social identity.
Person’s name may symbolically represent his or her cultural self. For example,
Iceland- Icelanders name their infants soon after birth. The boy’s name is added with suffix sen
and the girl’s name with dottir. Whereas patronyms (surnames based on father’s name) are
common in Iceland.
Arctic Canada- Children are named after their deceased relatives and other people with
admirable qualities which they believe will be helpful for their character formation.
Aymara Indians- They do not consider an infant as a true human until a name is given to him or
her. When the child is around two years old and ready to speak the Aymara language, a special
ritual is performed to give it a name.
Philippines- It is common practice of catholic parents to name their children after saints.
Minangkabau culture- In Indonesia, children inherit their mother’s family name.

One identity is not inborn. It is continuously develop in life. For instance, rites of passage usually
involve ritual activities to prepare individuals for new roles from one stage of life to another such as birth,
puberty, marriage, having children and death.

Arnold Van Gennep believes that change in one’s status and identity are marked by a three- phased rite
passage.
 1. Separation Phase- People detach from their former identity to another. For example, in a wedding, the
bridge walking down the aisle to be “given away” by the parents to the groom implies the separation
from one’s family to become part of a new one.
2. Liminality Phase- A person transitions from one identity to another. For example, the wedding
ceremony itself is the process of transition of the bride and groom from singlehood to married life.
3. Incorporation Phase- The change in one’s status is officially incorporated. For example, the wedding
reception and parties that celebrate the wedding serve as the markers that officially recognize the bride
and groom’s change towards being husband and wife.

Rites of passage help a person to adjust from one social dimension of his/her lifer to the others. However,
sometimes individuals disagree on their respective identities. Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson coined
the term “identity struggles” to characterize interaction in which there is a discrepancy between the identity a
person claims to possess and the identity attributed to that person by others. Golubovic suggests that in order to
attain self-identification, individuals have to overcome many obstacles such as traditionally established habits
and externally imposed self-images.

The Self as Embedded in Culture

Clifford Geertz

An American Anthropologist offers a reformation of the concept of culture which favors a symbolic
interpretative model of culture. He defines culture as a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic
forms by means of which people communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about and attitudes
toward life. He agrees with Max Weber, that “man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself
has spun.”

In his attempt to illustrate an accurate image of man, Geerts suggests two important ideas:

1. Culture should not be perceived only as “complexes of concrete behaviour patterns - customs, usages,
traditions, habit clusters – as has, by and large, been the case up to now, but as a set of control
mechanisms- plans recipes, rules, instruction- for governing behavior.
2. Man is precisely the animal most desperately dependent upon such extragenetic, outside – the – skin
control mechanism, such culture programs, for ordering bahavior”

Likewise, Robbins, considered human being as cultural animal as they create the meanings of object, person,
behaviors, emotion and events and behave in accordance with meanings they assume to be true. Cultural
differences exist when groups of people assign different meanings to different life events and things. Hence, the
self is embedded in culture

Chapter 4:

Psychological Perspective of Self

“For a young person, it is almost a sin, or at least a danger, to be too preoccupied with himself; but for the
ageing person, it is a duty and a necessity to devote serious attention to himself.” -Carl Jung
The development of self understanding in adolescence involves a number of theories about self, identity, and
personality.

They foster discourse on the different conceptualizations of identity based on different sociocultural context.
(Santrock, 2002)

William James’ Concept of Self: The ME-self and the I-self

I-self – Thinking self, refers to the self that knows who he or she is. It reflects the soul of a person or the mind
which is also called pure ego.

ME-self – empirical self, refers to a persons personal experiences.

Divided into 3 subcategories: Material Self, Social Self, Spiritual Self

 Material Self - Is attributed to an individual’s physical attributes and material possessions that
contribute to one’s self-image

 Social Self - Refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social situations.

 Spiritual Self - Refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that includes a person’s
purpose, core values, conscience and moral behavior. Requires introspection.

Carl Rogers’ Self Theory: Real and Ideal Self

Another aspect of self-understanding that is important in adolescent years focuses on self-concept. This refers
to the image of self.

 He defines the self as a flexible and changing perception of personal identity.

 He suggests that the self develops from interactions with significant people and awareness of one’s own
characteristics and level of functioning.

 According to him, human beings are actually striving for self-fulfilment or self-actualization.

Real Self - Consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of what one is and what one can do.

Ideal Self - The person’s conception of what one should be or what one aspires to be which includes one’s
goals and ambitions in life.

Multiple Versus Unified Self, True Versus False Self

 The construction of Multiple Selves varies across different interpersonal and intrapersonal roles and
relationships.

 These challenges contribute heavily to the young person’s struggle for a Unified Self.

Donald Winnicott has found that the self is composed of 2 selves: the True Self and the False Self

 The function of the False Self is to hide and protect the True Self.

 Researchers have found that adolescents’ perceptions of themselves can change depending on the
situation.

 Adolescents develop different selves in various relational contexts.

THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC

Albert Bandura (2001) posits that humans, through their agency are perceived as proactive agents of
experiences.

Agency - embodies the endowments, belief system, self-regulatory capacities, and distributed structures and
function through which personal influence is excited, rather than reside as a discrete entity.

Endowments -An endowment might be a natural gift, says of a physical attribute or a talent.

Belief System - A belief system is an ideology or set of principles that helps us to interpret our everyday reality.
This could be in the form of religion, political affiliation, philosophy, spirituality, or self-beliefs, among any
other things.

Self-regulatory Capacities - Allow person to control his/her response or behavior when confronted with
externally imposed stimuli. Feedback is an externally imposed control that work with a person’s self-regulatory
capability in order to make adjustment to behavior.

The core features of agency enable people to play a part:

• Self-development

• Adaptation

• Self-renewal

Self-development - Self-development is taking steps to make yourself better, such as by learning new skills or
overcoming bad habits.

Adaptation - The process of changing to fit someone purpose or situation. Something that is adapted;
especially: a movie, book, play, etc., that is changed so that it can be presented in another form.

Self-renewal - The act of renewing yourself or itself. To make a new life and change your bad habits.

The main features of human agency:

• Intentionally

• Forethought

• self-reactiveness

• self-reflectiveness

Intentionally - Refers to act done intentionally. Intentions center on plans of action with the anticipation of
possible outcomes. Human transactions, of course, involve situational inducements, but they do not operate as
determinate forces.

Forethought - People set goals for them self or enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of
prospective actions. Through the exercise of forethought, people motivate themselves and guide their action in
anticipation of future events.

Self-reactiveness -Involves not only the deliberative ability to make choice and action plans, but the ability to
give shape to appropriate courses of action and to motivate and regulate their execution.

Self-reflectiveness - Gives the person the ability to reflect upon and the adequacy of his/her thought and
actions. People are not only agent of action but also self-examiner of their own functioning.

THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE

Archetype are the universal models after which roles are patterned. The archetype represent the hidden
potentialities of the psyche, or total personality. Jung suggest that the psyche continues to develop throughout
life, but the psyche starts to show a definite form and content during adolescence.

Four Major Archetype:

• Persona

• Shadow

• Animus/Anima

• Self

Persona- refers to social roles that individuals present to others

Shadow- refers to the repressed thought that are socially unacceptable.

Anima- is the feminine side of the male psyche while the Animus is the masculine side of the female psyche.

Self - is the central archetype that unites all part of psyche. Ego is the individual’s conscious perception of the
self.

SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND PERSONALITY

According to him, the dynamic forces within the self are many and in inevitable conflict. He argues that the
mind is composed of three structures through which personality is formed: the id, ego, and superego.

Id- refers to the component of the personality characterized by its need to satisfy basic urges and desire.

Ego - refers to the I and operates on the reality principle and controls the id. Ego can conform with existing
societal consideration.

Superego - refers to the “conscience” and “moral judge” of one’s conduct. Violation of rules leads to feelings
of guilt.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

• Oral stage

• Anal stage

• Phallic stage

• Latency stage

• Genital stage

Each stage is associated with conflicts that the individual must resolve so that he or she can successfully move
on to the next stage.

Each stage has needs and that the dissatisfaction of needs may result in fixations which could have lasting
negative effects on one’s personality.
Oral Stage – first stage

• Lasts from birth up to the first year of life.

• During this stage, babies derive pleasure from oral activities like sucking and biting

• Overindulgence of oral needs may lead to oral incorporative personality disorder.

• Dissatisfaction may lead to oral aggressive personality disorder.

Anal stage – Occurs around second year of life.

• During this stage, the child derives pleasure from the elimination of body wastes.

• Through toilet training, the child learns the basic rules of society.

• Anal fixations can lead to anal retentive personality disorder or anal expulsion personality disorder.

Phallic stage – Occurs around age 3 or 6.

• During this stage, the child derives pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or displaying their
genitals.

• These behaviour is most likely motivated by curiosity about the differences between the anatomy of man
and woman.

• Fixation at this stage may lead to abnormal sex behaviours in later life.

Latency stage –Lasts from 7 to 12 years of age.

• At this stage, sexual energy is repressed because children become occupied with school.

Genital stage – Last stage

• Starts from adolescence to adulthood.

• During this stage, pleasure is again derived from the genital areas and individuals seek to satisfy their
sexual drives from sexual relationships.

• Sexual problems may result as a consequence of inappropriate sex behaviour.

Erik Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erikson’s theory proposes that individuals go through eight psychosocial stages of development. While Erikson
believed that each stage is important, he gives particular emphasis on the development of the ego. The ego is the
positive force that contributes to identity formation and lays the foundation for certain strengths and virtues in
life such as hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom.

Trust vs. Mistrust

• Infancy 0-1 year

• Parents must maintain an adequate environment supportive, nurturing, and loving so that the child
develops basic trust.
 • Virtue: Hope

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Early Childhood 1-3 years

• As the child develops bowel and bladder control, he or she should also develop healthy attitude toward
being independent and somewhat self-sufficient. (i.e. walking and eating alone). If the child is made to
feel that independent efforts are wrong, then shame and self-doubt develops instead of autonomy.

• Virtue: Will

Initiative vs. Guilt

• Play age 3-6 years

• The child must discover ways to initiate actions on his or her own. If such initiatives are successful, guilt
wil be avoided. This period enables children to take leadership and make decisions and to cooperate in
play.

• Virtue: Purpose

Industry vs. Inferiority

• School age 6-12 years

• The child must learn to feel competent, especially when competing with peers. Seeing tasks through to
completion is essential. Failure results in feelings of inferiority.

• Virtue: Competence

Identity Formation vs. Identity Confusion

• Adolescence 12-19 years

• The young person must develop a sense of role identity, especially in terms of selecting a vocation and
future career. It’s important to have a strong “ego identity”, which is a “sense of self”, or know who you
are.

• Virtue: Fidelity

Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Early adulthood 20-25 years

• The adult’s formation of close friendships and relationships with the opposite sex is vital to healthy
development.

• Virtue: Love

Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Adulthood 26-64 years

• Adults need to develop useful lives by helping and guiding children. Childless adults must fill this need
through adoption or other close relationships with children.
 • Virtue: Care

Integrity vs. Despair

• Old age 64-death

• Adults eventually review their lives. A life well spent will result in a sense of well-being and integrity.

• Virtue: Wisdom

CHAPTER 5

The Western and Eastern Concept of Self

Lesson Outcomes:

 explain the western concept of self

 enumerate and discuss the different Eastern conception of self

 compare Eastern and Western views of the self

 examine your own conceptualization of self

One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking seriously the culture of others. If
forces you to pay attention to those details of life which differentiate them from you.

-Edward T. Hall

This chapter outlines the Western and Eastern concept of self and how they differ and agree on certain
perspective. The Western conceptualization divided into three periods of historical development while Eastern
concept of the self are presented based on the four great systems of Eastern thought: Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Taoism.

Western Concept of self

Geertz (van Meijl, 2008) defines the Western concept of self as “ a bounded, unique, more or less
integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action
organized into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against its social and
natural background.

For the reason, delusion of the separate self is likely to be stronger in individuals raised in individualistic
Western societies. It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the
following aspects.

Different Aspect of Western Self

1. Western Self as Analytic

2. Western self as Monotheistic

3. Western Self as Individualistic

4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

1. Western Self as Analytic - The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on causal links
(part-to-whole relationships). The whole is understood when differentiated into parts. One must categorize and
make distinctions to pursue cause.

2. Western self as Monotheistic - The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe condenses the
supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities of existence (e.g.; beautiful/ugly;
kind/cruel; strong/weak; etc.) and categories of identity or experience (e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; sinner/saint;
etc.)

3. Western Self as Individualistic - Western individualism exhibit the coexistence of favorable and
unfavorable conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides
opportunities for self-fulfillment; it also increase the likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration.

4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic - The Western way of thinking is focused on material
“things” and favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial
“things”.

David Ho (1995) Describes the Western self as individualistic self that is deeply aware of itself, its
uniqueness, sense on direction, purpose, and violation.

If all things are well, the self achieve coherence and stability over time. In an individualist perspective,
the Western self is the measure of all things (Ho, 1995; Garcia, 2013), that is, the source of all reflection.

Frank Johnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of the Western concept of the self to works on
philosophy, almost half a million year ago.

By the middle and nineteenth centuries, psychology has provided answers in philosophical questions
about the concepts of soul and mind.

The growth of sociology, anthropology, and psychology in their late nineteenth century saw the
emergence of various concept of self, among them the Western concept.

Stage Period Historical Development

 There were philosophical and theological attempts
to characterize the self through the concepts of self
1 Pre - Christian
through the concepts of soul and mind with
Times
emphasis on conscious experience of the individual,
until 1850 distinction between physical and mental nature of
man (mind - body dualism), and the causality of
human behavior

 The establishment of experimental psychology in

mid-nineteenth century led to a change in emphasis
2 1850 - 1940
from abstract concept of soul and mind to
 observable and measurable aspects of human
faculties.

 The concept of self-re-emerged within the social

interactionist framework in the early 1900s.

 There is multidirectional and continuous

development of concept of self.
3 1940 - present
a) Sociological and psychological theories of self
encompass all three level of self, namely inner self,
interpersonal self, and social self

b) Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in

philosophy and psychology, engaged in holistic
approach integrating and inner, interpersonal, and
social aspects of self.

c) At present, there is convergence in some

conceptualizations of the self among psychologists,
anthropologist, sociologist, philosophers, and
linguists whose studies focus on the actual,
multivariate, and situational contexts of the self
employing new frameworks and methodologies.

Eastern Concept of self

In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. Thus, the major Eastern religion such as
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism are also the common representative of Eastern thought.

These Eastern Intellectual and traditions differ greatly in features and approaches to various issues self
hood. For the reason, the Eastern thought is described as plurastic (Garcia, 2013).

Although these four systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self, they
share the same goal - to teach how to become a perfect person (Villa, 1995).

The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought

1. Hinduism

2. Buddhism

3. Confucianism

4. Taoism

Hinduism

The Hindu concept of self is expounded in Vendanta, a major school of Indian thought based on
Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman is absolute reality, and
Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman.

Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true self
(permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes continually). The goal of the
person is to have knowledge of the true reality - Braham. Self - realization is being united to all - embracing
Brahman, But the realization of true self hood will result in a complete dissolution of identity (Ho, 1995).

The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. All actions are subject to karma.
Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in life. People get exactly what they deserve. If you
do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will be punished. Therefore, the individual is the only
one responsible of the consequences of his or her actions (Garcia, 2008)

Hindus believe that Atman, being an immortal soul, continues to be reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime
until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and reaches a state of nirvana or non-birth (Garcia,2008).

Karma does not end with a body's death, so it is influence may extend through incarnation of the soul.
Individuals cannot change the fact that they are exactly what they are supposed to be in life. In the present
lifetime, they can change what they will become in future lives.

Buddhism

Sidharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, is the founder of Buddhism. The root word of Budddhism is
“budh” meaning “awake”. To be awake may imply that opening of the eyes would lead to understanding more
about the self and the world.

According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the
potential to be a Buddha. But the seed should be nurtured (Mansukhani, 2013).

In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter, sensation,
perception, mental constructs, and consciousness) that compose the individual; however each of parts distinctly
is not man (Villaba, 1995).

The ideal is to experience Nirvana (literally meaning, “blowing out,” as of a lamp), a state of
transcendence devoid of self-reference. This state of transcendence can be achieved through meditation (Ho,
1995).

The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism.

1) life is suffering

2) suffering is caused by attachment yo desires

3) suffering can be eliminated

4) elimination of suffering is through the practice of the

Eightfold Path

i. right view v. right livelihood

ii.right aspiration vi. right effort

iii.right speech vii.right mind full

iv.right action viii. right concentration

Confucianism

The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversation of Confucius). The core of Confucian
thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not wants others
to do to you”. Thus, the basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation to others.
The most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationship

I. between ruler and minister

II. between father and son

III. between husband and wife

IV. between brothers

V. between friends

Hence, the self is known as a relation self. Another important feature in Confucian thought is the
individual's greatest mission of attaining self realization wherein self-cultivation is instrumental.

Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one's role in society and acting accordingly. Moral
character is perfected by continuously taking every opportunity to improve in thought and action. There will be
harmonious relationship when individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior.

The individual is set to respond to what is socially required rather than to one's personal needs and goals.
Here, the self is a subdued self (Ho, 1995).

Taoism

Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of relational self. To them, the self
is an extension of the cosmos, not social relationships. The self is described as one of the limitless forms of Tao
(Ho, 1995)

The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is the foundation of all that exists (Garcia, 2008).

The perfect man has no selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and other dissolve.
Consequently, the individual may behave spontaneously, just going in the flow of the Tao. The selfless person
leads to a balanced life, in harmony both nature and society (Ho, 1995).

Individuals must seek to understand and act in accordance with the natural order.

There should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin Yang (Abella, 2016). Hence,
there is oneness of the Tao.

Dichotomy of Western and Eastern Concept of Self

An extensive literature on Eastern thoughts about the self exists. Many movements of Eastern thoughts
raise question about the ultimate meaning of life and have developed theories of self in so far as they
investigated what it means be a human being.

In Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individualistic. The self is considered not in
isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe. Eastern thoughts aim at transformation in
consciousness, feelings, emotions, and one's relation relation to other people and the world. The theories of
Eastern philosophers demonstrate of sociocentric view presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the
concrete situation or role occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012).
 Western thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous, unitary, and stable (van Meijl, 2008). Nevertheless,
Western thought about the self have been examined by renowned theorists like Freud, Erickson, Bandura,
Rogers, Jung, James, Mead, Cooley, and others. They conducted scientific investigations is an effort to
understand the self and have developed theories ans concepts to account for the similarities and differences
among them. They emphasize the importance of scientific methods to provide satisfactory answers to
understanding the self.

It is vitally important that both East and West appreciate each other' s attempts to understand the self. To do
so can only enrich both (Engler, 2012). Thus, Quinto (Garcia, 2013) seeks to place Western and Eastern
theories of the self io perspective by making some comparisons and contrast among them.

For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the three-mode of cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. On the other
hand, the Western concepts of is linear as it is concerned with absolute beginning and endings in time and
space.

Asian thought considers institution as a valid means to gain wisdom, it does not rely mainly reason and
logic which are the more popular sources of knowledge in the West.

Another distinction between Eastern Western thought is about nature and self. According to Sarza
(2013), one unique feature of Eastern philosophy is its great reverence for nature. It is believed that nature
promotes introspection into one's inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment can be attained by observing
nature. On the other hand, Peacock (1986) mentions that Western culture tends to set the individual against
nature, that is, to struggle against nature which is dangerous enemy.

This viewpoint can be traced from Christian theologies that consider nature as fallen and evil. However,
recently there are objections to this view of nature opposing the human being. It has been argued that the
individual and nature are part of a single whole.

Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to Understanding the Self

The application of the different perspectives and approaches contributed to improvements in the
conceptualization of self. The Western and Eastern perspectives of the self grew from a combination of
sociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and religion. The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to
combine the good elements of the different.disciplines to totally understand the self.

Chapter 6

INTRODUCTION

 “To keep the body in good health is a duty…. otherwise we shall not be able to keep our mind strong and
clear.” – Buddha

 Understanding the physical self requires an analysis of the life span and the physical development that
happens in each stage.

 Particularly, the physical changes that occur at the start of adolescence result largely from the secretion of
various life, particularly the way they view themselves (Fedman,2010).

 For girls, self-consciousness and dissatisfaction with their appearance reach their peak between the ages
from 13 and 15 (Newman & Newman, 2009).
THE PHYSICAL SELF

 The physical self explores the process of physical growth and development.

 The physical self refers to the body.

 Both physical extremities and internal organs work together for the body to perform many of its function
such as breathing, walking, eating, and sleeping, among others.

 the body's ability to perform its functions gradually changes through an individual's aging.

 Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty. This stage is characterized by rapid physical changes that
include the maturation of the reproductive system.

 Lifespan refers to the development from conception to death.

 Elizabeth B. Hurlock outlines the stages in the life span:

1) Prenatal – fertilization to birth

2) Infancy – birth to 2 weeks of life

3) Babyhood – 2 weeks of life to 2nd year

4) Early childhood – 2 to 6 years old

5) Late childhood – 6 to 10 or 12 years old

6) Puberty – 10 or 12 to 14 years old

7) Adolescence – 14 to 18 years old

8) Early adulthood – 18 to 40 years old

9) Middle adulthood – 40 to 60 years old

10) Late adulthood or senescence – 60 to death

TWO FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Heredity is the biological process of the inheritance of traits from parents to offspring.

 Environment refers to the factors an individual is exposed to throughout life which include learning and
experiences.

- such as diet, nutrition, and diseases play an important role in an individual’s physical development.

 Sex and other physical traits are determined by the combination of chromosomes and genes during
fertilization when the egg and sperm cells unite.

 Chromosomes are thread-like tissues that carries the genes, and are usually found in pairs.

- There are 23 pairs of chromosomes which are classified as autosomes or trait chromosomes (22 pairs) and
gonosomes or sex chromosomes.

- The sex of the offspring depends on the pairing of the sex chromosomes (23rd) from the father and mother.

 Genes are the basic carrier of hereditary traits and are classified as dominant (strong genes) and recessive
(weak genes).

THEORIES OF PHYSICAL SELF

 Theory of Physiognomy

- Suggests that a person’s physical characteristics such as facial features and expressions and body structure
could be related to a person’s character of personality.

 Five-element theory as archetypes for everything occurring in the natural world:

- According to the ancient Chinese practice of face reading, the face is a three-dimensional reflection of “Who
we are and how life has affected us.”

1. Water

2. Wood

3. Fire

4. Earth

5. Metal

 In ancient Greece, Hippocrates developed a theory based on the prominence of body fluids. The theory
suggests that an excess of or deficiency of any of the four bodily fluids (or humors) in a person influences their
personality, temperament, and well-being.

Theory based on the prominence of body fluids

a) The Sanguine Type has the prominence of red bile. They tend to be impulsive, cheerful, happy and
optimistic.

b) The Melancholic has the prominence of black bile. They tend to be depressed and pessimistic.

c) The Choleric has the prominence of yellow bile. They are easily angry, jumpy, and temperamental.

d) The Phlegmatic has excess phlegm. They tend to be sluggish, dull, and slow.

 Body-Type Theory

- In the 1940s, William Sheldon has developed a body-type theory based on physical characteristics.

The three body types are:

1. Endomorphic Body Type

 is soft and plump

 perceived to be easy going and sociable

2. Mesomorphic Body Type

 characterized by a strong muscular body.

 perceived to be energetic, adventurous, assertive, and courageous.

They are competitive and tend to be dominant.

3. Ectomorphic Body Type

is tall and thin

people who have this body type tend to be restrained, quiet, introverted, and artistic.

The Wisdom of Your Face, Jean Haner (2008)

1. Oval-shaped faces are generally hospitable and tactful.

2. Round-shaped faces tend to be friendly, kindhearted, and selfless.

3. Square faces tend to be witty, analytical, and great leaders.

4. Heart-shaped faces are patient and intuitive by nature.

5. Long-shaped faces are perfectionists and tend to be aggressive.

6. Triangle-shaped faces tend to be creative, artistic, sensitive, and determined.

7. Diamond faces are very detail-oriented and like to be in control.

Haner also suggests that people with full and thick eyebrows tend to be confident, assertive, and goal-oriented.

Persons with large or highly-defined jaws have strong values and firm beliefs.

Squier and Mew (1981)

- Suggests that person with long and angular-shaped faces tend to be more responsive, assertive, and genuine
than person with short and square-shaped faces tend to be more restrained, conforming, and shrewd.

BODY IMAGE

 Body image refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their body and physical
appearance.
 Appearance refers to everything about a person that others can observe such as height, weight, skin
color, clothes, and hairstyle.
 Body image is related to self-esteem which is a person’s overall evaluation of his or her own worth.
 Body image can affect the adolescent’s physical and psychological well-being.
 Adolescents worry about different parts of their bodies.
 The way adolescents react to their physical appearance depends in part on sociocultural factors.
 The emphasis that peers, parents, or the media put on ideal body types which is slim or thin leads girls to
experience body dissatisfaction (Gabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008; Dunkley, Wertheim, & Paxton, 2001).
 For both boys and girls, bullying and peer pressure are associated with greater body dissatisfaction
(Webb & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2014). Television, advertising, music, and movies are full of women who
are thin, thus constructing the notion that the ideal body shape is slim.
 Some girls and young women compare themselves to models and actresses in advertisements. The result
is that they try to change their physical appearance either through cosmetic surgery, dieting, or excessive
exercise.
 For girls, in particular, too much concern with thinness and the ideal body shape may result in body
dissatisfaction. Girls who have higher body dissatisfaction are likely to experience depression, low self-
esteem, and eating disorders (Demello, 2014).
 For example, anorexia is an eating disorder in which the person refuses to eat for fear of gaining weight
which can result in severe starvation and death. It mostly afflicts females between the ages of 12 and 40,
although men may also develop it. Another disorder is bulimia nervosa in which the person induces
purging after binging on large quantities of food (Feldman, 2010).

THE IMPORTANCE OF BEAUTY

  In Egyptian art

- women with slim, high waist, narrow hips, and long black hair.

 During Renaissance period

- women with a full figure and rounded hips were considered beautiful

 During the Medieval Age

- considered chubby, fat, or plump women beautiful

 Beauty

- has always been considered important throughout history because these features indicate youth, health, good
genes, and fertility. (Demello, 2014)

Body Modification

1. Tattooing

- which injects ink onto the skin to draw design

- Makeup can also be permanently tattooed

2. Body piercing

- people wear jewelry through different piercings in their body such as the ears, nose, and tongue

- Tattooing and piercing were considered signs of one's strength, bravery, and social status

3. Cosmetic surgery

- includes surgical and non-surgical procedures to restore, reconstruct, or alter body parts.

Ex. breast enhancement, nose lift, liposuction, and botox.

 The reality, however, is that beauty standards presented in media are so unrealistic, that even the most
beautiful and handsome supermodels cannot achieve it.
 Different cultures have different definitions and perceptions of beauty. People often say that beauty is in
the eye of the beholder.
 People tend to judge others based on physical appearance. However, physical appearance alone is not
enough to know a person’s true character. It is important to see into a person’s inner thoughts and
feelings – one’s inner self. Above all things physical, it is more important to be beautiful on the inside.

Some ways to improve your body image and inner self:

1. Smile a lot

2. Take good care of your health

3. Live a well-balanced life

4. Dress well and be neat

5. Spend some time alone to reflect

6. Be creative and do something new all the time

7. Develop a wholesome attitude toward sex

8. Avoid temptations

9. Respect individuality

10. Make friends

11. Face your fears

12. Be independent

13. Accept things as they are

14. Ask and listen

15. Think positive

16. Pray

17. Count your blessings

18. Be thankful

CHAPTER 7 SEXUAL SELF

Development of characteristic and the Human Reproductive System- The beginning of adolescence is a marked
by rapid physical changes, including the maturation of the reproductive system.

 Primary sex characteristic- Physical characteristic present at birth. These are the characteristic
that distinguish male from female.

In female

▪ Vagina

▪ Uterus

▪ Ovaries

In Male

• Penis

• Testes

• Testicles

Secondary Sex Characteristic-

 Develop during the onset of puberty, the earliest evidence of puberty for men and women are:

female :

 Enlargement of the breasts

 Onset menstruation

 Widening of hips

 Enlargment of buttocks
 Growth of pubic hair

Male

 Testicular growth

 Sperm production

 Appearance of facial, public and other body hair

 Deepening of the voice

 Primary Sex Characteristic-Develop as the embryo grows in the womb as a result of the chromosomes
contained within the embryonic cells as hormonal influences.

In men

The Gonads release testosterone that causes the male’s sex organ to develop

In Women

the ovaries estrogen and progesterone as well as small amount of testosterone.

estrogen promotes female reproductive capacity and secondary sex characteristic

Primary sex characteristic-Women’s production follows a cyclical pattern on an approximately 28- day monthly
cycle.

The greatest production occurs during the ovulation period, the an egg is released from the ovaries.

Ovulation can accur 14 days after the beginning of the menstrual period.

Female reproductive system

Ovary

 Endometrium

 Myometrium

 Cervix

 Fallopian tube

 Vagina

 uterus

 Female reproductive system-Clitoris – which is made of erectile tissue swells with blood and hardness
when a woman is sexually aroused.

 Vagina- is a muscular tube that serves as the receptacle for the penis and carrier of the sperm to the
uterus. It also the birth canal where the fetus passes out of a mother’s body.

 Ovaries- produce, store and release the egg cell during ovulation.

 Uterus- is a hollow organ where the fertilized embryo grows to become a fetus.

 Cervix- a passageway between the uterus and the vagina that expands during childbirth.
 Fallopian tube- carry the feertilized egg from the ovary to the uterus.

The Male Reproductive system-The male reproductive system includes :

 Penis – is the organ through which males urinate and deliver the sperm cells in the vagina.

 Scrotum – loose pouch-like sac of skin

 Testes – responsible in production of sperm cells and male hormones.

 Vas deferens – transports the sperm-containing fluids called semen

 Epididymis – set of coiled ducts where the sperm cells are stored.

 Prostate gland and seminal vesicles – produce the semen and nourish the sperm cells.

 Ejaculation – is the release of sperm cells affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion.
Each ejaculation pproximately contains 300-500 million sperm cells, it can live up to 48 hours.

Sexual arousal and erogenous zones: what turns people on

 Human sexual arousal is complex. It may be produced by direct stimulation of the body’s erogenous
zones on the areas of the body that provide pleasure.

 Erogenous zones – are areas of the body which are highly sensitive and produce sexual responses when
stimulated.

Erogenous zones-

 Genitals

 Mouth

 Breasts

 Ears

 Anus

 The entire surface of the body

Sexual Stimulation-The most most basic form of sexual stimulation is Masturbation or self-stimulation that
causes sexual pleasure or orgasm.

It involves the rubbing or fondling of the genital areas and provides a good index of sexual desire.

Important activities in sexual arousal-

 Intimate kissing

 Cuddling

 Necking

 Petting

 touching the erogenous zones.

Excitement phase-

During this phase:

 Pulse rate increases

 Blood pressure arises

 Breathing quickens

 Nipples harden in both men and women.

 Penis become erect

 The lips vagina open and the insides becomes wet.

Plateau phase-

In men

 The penis becomes more erect

 The circumference of the penis head increases

 Few drops of liquid are released

In Women

 Clitosis becomes very sensitive

 The outer lips of vagina become redder in color.

Orgasmic Phase-

 Contractions of the muscle in the around the penis stimulate the release of semen with sperm cells.

 Women orgasm involves the contraction of the pelvic muscles that surrounds the vaginal walls.

Resolution phase-

 The body returns to normal state after orgasm.

 In Men, the erection is lost, the testes decrease in size,

 In women, the vagina return to their normal state.

Attraction, Love and Attachment-

 As adolescents grow and mature, they make new patterns of relationships and commitments with other
people. During adolescence, dating and courtship emerge and become increasingly important.

 Puberty is an important stage in sexual development. It is the time when many boys and girls first
experience their first sexual attraction. Social exchange theory proposes that attraction is the result of an
exchange process. As the relationship develops, the sharing of activities and information contributes to
increased attraction, liking, trust and love.

 Romantic love includes a complex combination of different emotions such as fear, anger, sexual desire,
joy, and jealousy. Some of these emotions may also be sources of suffering. In the context of interpersonal
relationships, psychologist Robert Sternberg suggest that there are three components of love: Intimacy, passion
and commitment.

 The intimacy component refers to the feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness.
 The passion component refers to the drives that lead to romance, physical attraction,and sexual
consumption.

 Commitment component refers to the decision to love ad the commitment to maintain that love.

Sexual Orientation-

 Sexual orientation- refers to a person’s sexual identity anchored on what gender they are attracted to.

 The most common sexual orientation in which one is sexually attracted to members of opposite sex is
heterosexuality.

 Homosexuality- is the orientation of one who is sexually attracted to the same sex.

 Homosexual- males are referred to as gays.

 Homosexual- females are referred to as lesbian.

Bisexuality- is an orientation where one is attracted to both opposite and same sex.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and Early Pregnancy-

 Are contracted primarily through sexual contact. Many STIs affect the sex organs themselves while
others have broader and more life-threatening effects.

Bacterial infections are treatable with antibiotics, but those caused by viruses are more difficult to treat and are
often incurable such as HIV/AIDS

 Bacterial infections can cause serious health problems if ignored and left untreated, and some bacterial
infections are difficult to detect because some symptoms are not immediately noticeable.

 HIV/AIDS infections are caused by direct contact with body fluids such as blood transfusion breast
feeding, and sexual intercourse. It attacts the immune system and the infected person eventually dies.

 Anyone who is sexually active is at risk of STIs and STDs and should practice safe sex.

 It is important to remember that not having sex can be safest sex method to avoid STIs and STDs as
well as other problems such as early pregnancy.

Methods of Contraception and the Reproductive Health Law-

Over the years, sexual activities have become less restricted. Premarital sex is now more accepted. Over the past
several decades there has been a gradual trend toward initiating sex at an earlier age (Atkinson, Smith, Bem, &
Nolen-Hoeksema, 2009) Alarmed by the rising cases among filipinos, some government officials are calling for
stronger programs of sex education that include information about the different forms of contraception.

 Contraception refers to methods that are used to prevent pregnancy. One common method of
contraception is the use of condoms which can also prevent some STIs.

 Intrauterine device or IUD- a tiny device made of flexible plastic that is inserted in the uterus to prevent
pregnancy.

 Birth Control- Injectibles that are given every three months to women.

 Oral Contraceptive-Pills which are taken every day.

CHAPTER 8

THE MATERIAL SELF

All of the physical elements or tangible possessions that reflect who you are such as car, home, body, clothes
and the like.

According to William James (1980, p. 291), the self is everything that an individual considers to be his or hers,
not only his or her body material possessions but also his or her reputation and beliefs.

Material Possessions - are usually a reflection of a person’s success or failure.

The Self - is composed of the material self which is the manifestation of one’s identity through his material
possessions.

THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE MATERIAL SELF

➢ THE BODY

The body is the innermost part of the material self in each of us; and certain parts of the body seem more
intimately ours than the rest.

• One of the tasks of adolescents is to accept and appreciate the physical characteristics of their body. However,
few adolescents are able to do this successfully.

• Generally, girls are more concerned of their appearance than boys.

• Majorly influenced by the media; television and internet.

➢ CLOTHES

• Clothes represent the self. We so appropriate our clothes and identify ourselves with them that there are few of
us who, if asked to choose between having a beautiful body clad in raiment perpetually shabby and unclean, and
having an ugly and blemished form always spotlessly attired, would not hesitate a moment before making a
decisive reply.

• Significant symbols: style and brand.

• Greatly influenced by: peer groups and what they find fashionable and attractive.

➢ OTHER MATERIAL COMPONENTS

Things that he or she considers as his or her possession including:

•One’s house

•Car

•Pets

o Could symbolically define a person’s identity.

o Could be an expression of one’s social status, pride and prestige.

The Material Components of the Self also includes:

Relationships with:

1. One’s immediate and extended family members

Our immediate and extended family is a part of ourselves. Our father and mother, our wife and babes, are bone
of our bone and flesh of our flesh. When they die, a part of our very selves is gone. If they do anything wrong, it
is our shame. If they are insulted, our anger flashes forth as readily as if we stood in their place.

2. Close friends

3. People whom one feels psychologically connected

Importance of Relationships with People

• They shape and influence the development of one’s self and identity.

THE ROLE OF MATERIAL POSSESSIONS ON THE SENSE OF SELF AND IDENTITY

Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people have, they remain valuable, because these
possessions are symbolic of one’s social status.

Most Valuable Possessions – The most visible in the eyes of others. The more expensive they are, the more
people are impressed.

➢ Cars, Houses, Gadgets, Clothes

In Russel Belk’s work Are We What We Own?

➢ Suggests that material possessions act as an objective manifestation of the self.

➢ Material possessions can be a reflection of hard work and success.

➢ Normally, people tend to measure success through the amount of their material possessions.

➢ Owning material possessions becomes a driving force in urging an individual to seek high level of
achievement in order to be able to acquire more possessions.

Defining the self by material possessions can also contribute to a feeling of well-being, including a sense of
personal growth and purpose or meaning in life. However, lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive
to one’s mental health, like people losing their houses and other possessions because of disasters and calamities.

People tend to judge others through their material possessions. Thus, the greater the material possessions, the
more likely one will be accepted and regarded well by other people. The important point is that these
components of the material self becomes a significant reference to one’s sense of self and identity.

However, the desire for material possession also have negative effects on one’s sense of self and identity.

MATERIALISM

• Giving more importance to material possessions than intangible things

• A dominating sense of desire to pursue wealth and other tangible things that can provide physical comforts
that ignores the importance of spiritual values.

Examples:

➢ Explaining love in terms of material things.

➢ Valuing a new car over friendships.

Materialistic Person – one who is excessively concerned with the acquisition of material possessions.
The strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological dysfunction or impairment in functioning
such as Compulsive Buying Disorder (CBD) which is characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying
behaviors that can cause adverse consequences (e.g., debts).

People are exposed to images in television, the internet and magazines that brag about the importance of
material possessions such as branded clothes, mobile phones, cars and the like.

Lack or loss of these material possessions could lead to anxiety, insecurity, and depression in people who are
overly materialistic. Thus, when a person is about to make a purchase, he or she should ask himself or herself a
very important question: Do I really need this?

CONSUMER CULTURE

Can be broadly defined as a culture where social status, values, and activities are centered on the consumption
of goods and services. In other words, in consumer culture, a large part of what you do, what you value and how
you are defined revolves around your consumption of stuff.

• It is a social system in which consumption is dominated by the consumption of the commercial product.

• Consumer culture denotes a social arrangement in which the relations between lived culture and social
resources, and between meaningful ways of life and symbolic and material resources on which they depend on,
are mediated through markets. s (Arnold, 2010).

Consumerist Society - one in which people spend a great deal of time, money, and energy to “consume”
commercial products, goods, and services.

CONSUMERISM

Is the consumption of material goods and services in excess of one’s basic needs. It refers to the theory that
spending money and consuming goods is good for the economy. Opponents of consumerism suggest simple
living is a more sustainable lifestyle and better for the environment.

• Consumerism is closely tied to materialism.

• Both heavily influence the way individuals view the self. It can be viewed positively and negatively.

Example of Effects:

For instance, people tend to be happier and more motivated when their wants and needs are met. On the other
hand, it encourages people to buy products and services that they do not really need or afford. The state of needs
and wants tend to be endless, and thus could cause negative effects such as dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and
depression.

Positive Effects:

• Happier;

• And more motivated individual

Negative Effects:

• Dissatisfaction

• Unhappiness

• Depression