Name : Alan Panigoro

Nim : 321 417 077

Class : 6A

Psycholinguistics

Language production : Bilingualism, code-switching, code mixing, transfer and interference.

A. Bilingualism

Bilingualism refers to the ability to use two languages with equal or almost equal fluency.
Bilingualism can simply also be defined as using two languages on a regular basis. As
noted by Richard (1980), the concept of bilingualism came into play around 1960 where
the objective was to liberalize the attitude of the community towards non-English
speaking people as well as preserving the culture. It got vast support from Hispanics
Americans with initial objective of making sure their children could communicate in their
mother tongue as well as in English. There is an ongoing controversy about the question
whether it is advantageous or disadvantageous being bilingual. Some people like Mujica
as purported by Susan (2003) digs deeper as to why U.S should adopt English as a
national language a stand that is challenged by Spanish speaking regions. Judd goes
further to reinforce the importance of bilingual and in his write up challenges America
when they wanted to make English their national language. This move was seen as a
measure to curtail other immigrants from different countries that could not be able to use
their language. Though some authors have claimed bilingual and multilingual could lead
to animosity between the communities, data has shown that some countries have many
tribes and still co-exist peacefully. However studies conducted on this area show positive
effects of bilingualism. The results indicate that bilinguals can perform better on
intellectual reasoning tests than monolinguals. Bilingualism is extremely widespread and
is the norm in today’s world (and not the exception).

To some extent these results seem to indicate that the linguistic and cultural experience of
the Bilinguals is an advantage. The evidence seems to demonstrate the significance of
social interaction and social environment as ingredients of experience. Intelligence
factors necessary for concept formation tend to be developed to a greater extent in the
bilingual subjects (Ibid). If bilingualism boosts intellectual capacity and is beneficial to
concept development then a second language should be pioneered at the early years when
knowledge and environmental factors are most effectual in contributing to the
development of intelligence. This study seems to indicate that becoming bilingual speeds
up the normal process of some parts of mental development (Saunders, 1998).
There are several merits of bilingualism as suggested by G. Saunders (1988) earlier and
greater awareness of the arbitrariness of language is one of them. The continual change
between two languages can lead to increased sensitivity in conversations or generally in
communication. By no means all bilinguals are good translators. There are many other
skills involved, and bilinguals, just like monolinguals, are too different to allow for easy
generalizations. There is one important exception however the sign language interpreters
often observed on television or at public events are most often hearing children of Deaf
parents, who grew up bilingual (Fabbro,2001).

Bilingualism brings new opportunities to the individual as well as the society. Bilingual
individuals, ownership of two languages are increasing seen as an asset as the
communication world gets smaller day by day. With the vast amount of information
available, and the ease of distributing it to the global village, bilinguals have become
more important in the employment market. It is a fact that bilinguals are highly useful in
the extremely competitive international trade as well as other global functions. As a result
many bilinguals are now working in professions perceived to be prestigious such as
transnational business corporations, governments, tourism and journalism. Bilingualism
also brings different opportunities not only to the society but generally to the whole
society. In the global world, the economic strength of a nation in the global market is not
associated with the number of bilinguals it may have but how many bilinguals it has. The
larger the number of bilinguals a country produces, the greater the competitiveness in
educational standards, economic and cultural vibrancy of that particular country (Haugen,
1974).

In conclusion, when people go to another country and learn the new language, it becomes
better and easier for them to adapt to the new system and their new life. These people can
have more opportunities in several areas like personal, work environment as well as
family. There are many advantages of being bilingual. It can get one many places in life
and could help someone in times of need. Moreover, knowledge or the ability to learn
other languages increases the career opportunities, offering several job options. In general
it extends individuals social and professional limits. It is therefore imperative to promote
bilingualism as an asset and not a defect or to uphold the appreciation and recognition of
such non formal competencies as bilingualism, but that is not all. Language is intimately
related to culture. Our history, customs, traditions and beliefs are expressed and
transferred through our use of language. In a nut shell, current evidence indicates that to
the bilingual capacity of the human mind and refutes earlier misconceptions which
viewed bilingualism and bilingual acquisition as burdensome and a hindrance to
development.
B. Code switching and code mixing

One of the most common reasons for code switching is trying to speak like others, in
most schools this means speaking properly. Most people, including kids, have different
dialects when speaking English or any other language. These different dialects are seen as
improper to speak at professions and in schools. Most people do not speak to their parents
the same way that they speak to their friends because of the concept that there is a place
and time for everything. Schools have a similar unwritten rules. Schools require students
to code switch in order to speak in a professional manor.

Code switching can happen unconsciously, but, when in school it is done consciously to
show respect by speaking properly. An article on code switching states that it is done for
many reasons one of the most popular being, “We want to fit in: Very often, people code-
switch — both consciously and unconsciously — to act or talk more like those around
them.”(Five Reasons Why People Code-Switch)One of the main reasons for code
switching is to try to fit in, although in school it occurs mostly because of
professionalism, fitting in is a large factor as well. Having an accent or a different way of
speaking a certain language is sometimes seen as an unsuitable way of speaking. In order
to speak ‘suitably’ people code switch to seem more like others, fit in. Fitting in is an
important reason for code switching at school but so is the idea, that schools imply but
never explicitly say, of having a time to speak relaxed and a time to speak properly and
act professionally. Code mixing can be related to mixing of two or more languages while
doing conversation. Every bilingual experience this kind of occurrence at different stages.
This linguistic device is used by bilinguals for many reasons in their communication
(Mixing and Code Switching, 2010).

The way people speak is dependent on the occasion and the location, for example, in
schools speaking ‘correctly’ is of importance. This article states that there are times when
people need to use dialect and times when they need to talk differently, code switch.
“And in that beautiful line of thinking, one could argue that there’s a time to talk in
dialect and a time to talk like you’re in mixed company.” (The When and Where of Code
Switching and “Talking Black”) The writer believes that there are certain times when
society favors people who speak ‘standard English’ and times when speaking ‘slang’ is
fine. In school students who speak ‘properly’ seem to be more correct than those who
speak English differently or informally. A person should not have to change the way they
talk at school solely because it is ‘socially correct. Others might argue that, a person
would not use the same vocabulary they use to talk to a teacher to talk to a younger child.
Though this opinion is valid, it does not justify weather speaking ‘proper’ should be as
important as it is. In schools code switching occurs to appeal to the general idea that
proper is better.
 Code switching has many positive and negative views depending on the point of view
that a person looks at it. Code switching in schools from English to ‘better’ English is
useful in a world where proper is seen as better, but in a way does not stay true to who
you are. A person should not have to depart from how they are to a person who they
should be, but in order to be accepted and respected it is necessary. Code switching in
schools most commonly occurs to fit in and be accepted by society, the people who
surround you. Code switching in schools transpires because what society defines as
proper.

C. Transfer
Language transfer is the application of linguistic features from one language to another
by a bilingual or multilingual speaker. Language transfer may occur across both
languages in the acquisition of a simultaneous bilingual, from a mature speaker's first
language (L1) to a second (L2) or third (L3) language they are acquiring, or from an L2
back to the L1. Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference,
and cross linguistic influence) is most commonly discussed in the context of English
language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not
have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.
Language transfer is also a common topic in bilingual child language acquisition as it
occurs frequently in bilingual children especially when one language is dominant.

Language transfer may be conscious or unconscious. Consciously, learners or unskilled

translators may sometimes guess when producing speech or text in a second language
because they have not learned or have forgotten its proper usage. Unconsciously, they
may not realize that the structures and internal rules of the languages in question are
different. Such users could also be aware of both the structures and internal rules, yet be
insufficiently skilled to put them into practice, and consequently often fall back on their
first language.

The unconscious aspect to language transfer can be demonstrated in the case of the so-
called "transfer-to-nowhere" principle put forward by Eric Kellerman, which addressed
language based on its conceptual organization instead of its syntactic features. Here,
language determines how the speaker conceptualizes experience, with the principle
describing the process as an unconscious assumption that is subject to between-language
variation. Kellerman explained that it is difficult for learners to acquire the construal
patterns of a new language because "learners may not look for the perspectives peculiar
to the [target/L2] language; instead they may seek the linguistic tools which will permit
them to maintain their L1 perspective.
 The conscious transfer of language, on the other hand, can be illustrated in the principle
developed by Roger Andersen called "transfer-to-somewhere," which holds that "a
language structure will be susceptible to transfer only if it is compatible with natural
acquisitional principles or is perceived to have similar counterpart (a somewhere to
transfer to) in the recipient language. This is interpreted as a heuristic designed to make
sense of the target language input by assuming a form of awareness on the part of the
learner to map L1 onto the L2. An analogy that can describe the differences between the
Kellerman's and Anderson's principles is that the former is concerned with the
conceptualization that fuels the drive towards discovering the means of linguistic
expression whereas Andersen's focused on the acquisition of those means.

D. Interference
Language interference (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, cross-
linguistic interference or transfer) is the effect of language learners' first language on their
production of the language they are learning. The effect can be on any aspect of
language: grammar, vocabulary, accent, spelling and so on. It is most often discussed as a
source of errors (negative transfer), although where the relevant feature of both languages
is the same, it results in correct language production (positive transfer). The greater the
differences between the two languages, the more negative the effects of interference are
likely to be. Interference is most commonly discussed in the context of EAL teaching, but
it will inevitably occur in any situation where someone has an imperfect command of a
second language.
Interference may be conscious or unconscious. Consciously, the student may guess
because he has not learned or has forgotten the correct usage. Unconsciously, the student
may not consider that the features of the languages may differ, or he may know the
correct rules but be insufficiently skilled to put them into practice, and so fall back on the
example of his first language. Interference can also take place between acquired
languages: an English learner of French or Spanish, for example, may mistakenly assume
that a particular feature of one language applies also to the other.
Language interference produces distinctive forms of learner English depending on the
speaker’s first language. Some well-known examples are:

Chinglish (Chinese)
Engrish or Japlish (Japanese)
Franglais (French)
Spanglish (Spanish)
Tinglish (Thai)
Hunglish (Hungarian).
The positive aspects of language interference are less often discussed, but they can be
very important. Generally the process will be more positive the closer the two languages
are, and the more the learner is aware of the relationship between the two languages.
Thus, an English learner of German may well correctly guess an item of German
vocabulary from its English equivalent, but the word order is more likely to differ. This
approach has the disadvantage that it makes the learner more subject to the influence of
false friends. Then the wider effect, Language interference in immigrant communities can
break out of those communities and affect the native-speaking population.
References :

https://www.smart-words.org/bilingualism.html

https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/Lingua/article/view/761

https://callhavid.wordpress.com/2010/01/07/code-switching-atau-code-mixing/

https://www.linguistics-journal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/TLJ_MA-thesis_Lanfeng-
Lu.pdf

https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Language_interference

https://www.academypublication.com/ojs/index.php/tpls/article/view/tpls051021122117/0