Types of Mistakes

Mistakes
 Mistakes are often categorised into errors and slips.

Errors
 Errors occur when learner's try to say something that is beyond their current
level of knowledge or language processing.
 Usually, because they're still processing or don't know this part of language,
learners cannot correct letters themselves because they don't understand what
is wrong.

Slips
 Slips are the result of tiredness worry or other temporally emotions or
circumstances.
 We make them because we are not concentrating on what we are saying or
writing.
 These kinds of mistakes can be corrected by learner's themselves once they
realise they have made them.

Interference (or transfer)

 Interference happens when the learner's mother tongue affects performance in
the target language, especially in the pronunciation, lexis or grammar.
 For example, a learner may make a grammatical mistakes because they
applied the same grammatical pattern as they use in their mother tongue to
what they are saying in the target language but the mother tongue grammatical
pattern is not correct in the target language.

Developmental Error
 A developmental error is an error made by a second language learner which
could also be made by child learning their mother tongue as part of the normal
development.
 Common development errors in English or making mistakes with past verb
forms.

Overgeneralization
“She drove fastly.”
 When a learner uses a grammatical rule he/she has learnt but uses it in
situations when it's not needed or not appropriate, for example there were
three girls and two mans.
Interlanguage
 While they're learning a new language learner's create their own version of a
grammatical system for the new language which they use as they are learning.
 Interlanguage is the most recent version of the language that learners create
and is made from rules from their mother tongue and from the rules of the new
language.
 Interlanguage is constantly changing and developing as learner's learn more of
the new language.

Fossilised error

 A fossilized error is an error that has become almost permanent in a learner's

language and has become a habit.
 Fossilised errors cannot easily be corrected.
 Fossilised errors may be the result of lack of exposure to the L2 the result of a
learner's conscious or unconscious lack of motivation to improve the level of
accuracy, or the fact that they cause no problem in communication.

Fossilization
 The process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be
corrected.

L1 Interference:
“This restaurant is so sympathetic.”
 Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and
crosslinguistic influence) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from
one language to another language.
 Interference most commonly affects pronunciation , grammar, structures,
vocabulary, and semantics.
 L1 Interference L1 interference or language transfer occurs when a learner’s
primary language influences his/her progress in the secondary language.
 Positive Transfer: When the L1 and L2 of the learners have common rules.
(For example: Police is coming. Police are coming. )
 Negative Tranfer: Negative transfer occurs when the rules of L2 and L1 of the
learners are conflict with each other. This is the cause of numerous mistakes
that the L2 learners may encounter. (For example: ENG (I like to read) - KOR
(read I like to) )
Receptive (Processing) Mistake
 With processing or receptive errors, students mishear a word in spite of having
normal hearing in pure tone.

Syntax Mistake
“Please be closing it quickly.”
 A “syntax error” is a mistake in the grammar of a language.

Lexical error
"Close the light before you go to bed."

 Lexical error is when the choice of word is wrong for the context.
 L1 Learning
 An L1 is your first language, your native language, or your mother tongue.
 You are a native speaker of that language.
 L1s are learned through a process known as first language acquisition, or FLA.

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION:

 Language acquisition is the process whereby children acquire their first languages.
 Children may acquire one or more first languages.
 Acquisition (as opposed to learning) depends on children receiving linguistic input during the
critical period (the age of twelve or puberty).
 Language acquisition cannot normally occur after the critical period because the brain
becomes "hardwired" to the first language

Features:
 Appropriate use of idiomatic expressions.
 Correctness of language form.
 Natural pronunciation.
 Cultural context including “response cries”, swear words, and interjections.
 Above average sized vocabulary, collocations and other phraseological items.
 Metaphors.
 Frozen syntax, such as binomials or bi-verbials.
 Nonverbal cultural features.

===========================================================================

L2 Learning
 An L2 is a second language, a foreign language, a target language, or a foreign tongue.
 If you have an L2, you are a non-native speaker of that language.
 Unlike L1s, not everyone has an L2. If you have learned or are learning a new language,
that language is your L2.

Features:
 Learning an L2 requires conscious effort.
 L2s are not learned during infancy, and most often after puberty.
 An acquired L2 can only be known at non-native proficiencies.
 Highly advanced L2 learners are often called near-native speakers.
 Helping learners develop their language
Exposure
 Exposure to language means being in contact with Language by hearing it or reading
it.
 We can learn another language through exposure to it.
 We can learn a language without realising we are learning it and without setting it in
the same way that children learn their mother tongue.
 Learners can get exposure to language outside the classroom by watching movies in
English and reading books or magazines in English.

Prompt
 To help learner's think of ideas or to remember a word of phrase by giving them a
part of it all by giving another kind of clue.
 Learning Strategies
Organising learning aids
‘I always keep new vocabulary on cards which I separate into topics.’
 Just as teaching aids are things that help a teacher to teach a lesson, learning aids are any
things that help a student to learn better.

Memorising
‘To learn new words, I always create pictures of them in my mind.’
 This is the process by which we put things into our memory.
 It will typically involve actions such as reading and re-reading the thing we want to
remember or saying something again and again to ourselves.
 For example, a learner who wants to remember the word cupboard may try to think of an
image of a cupboard they know and say the word cupboard a few times while they think of
this image.
 For example, the student may notice that the first three letters of the word spell cup and try
to picture some cups in the cupboard.

Self-monitoring
‘I pay attention to my own language to make sure it is accurate.’
 The verb monitor means to watch someone or something in order to see if there are any
problems or other things that need attention.
 It is typically used to talk about the way that a teacher watches what the students are doing
so that she or he can make sure that they are doing what they have been asked to do, and
help them if they are having problems.

Linguistic Clues
“If I don’t know a word, I try to work it out from the rest of the sentence.”
 Seeking and using language-based clues in order to guess the meaning of what is heard or
read in the target language, in the absence of complete knowledge of vocabulary, grammar,
or other target language elements.

Notetaking
‘Learners make a mind map of what they have learned from a lesson.”

 It is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way.

Self-monitoring
“I focus on the language I use to make sure it is correct.”

Language Use
“I make notes about how native speakers use English in films and TV shows.”

Routing for Revision

“I keep small cards with new expressions on them and test myself on them when I’m
travelling to work.”

Consulting reference materials

“If I don’t know what something means, I look it up.”
 Teaching Methods / Approaches
Total physical response (TPR)
 It is a language teaching method.
 It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement.

TPR can be used to teach and practise many things.

 Vocabulary connected with actions (smile, chop, headache, wriggle)

 Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean my
teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast)
 Classroom language (Open your books)
 Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, close your eyes)
 Storytelling

Lexical approach
The basic concept on which this approach rests is the idea that an important part of
learning a language consists of being able to understand and produce lexical
phrases as chunks.

Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations)

 by the way
 up to now
 upside down
 If I were you
 a long way off
 out of my mind

Lexical Chunks (that are collocations)

 totally convinced
 strong accent
 terrible accident
 sense of humour
 sounds exciting
 brings good luck
Grammar Translation
 Sometimes also known as the Classical Method, this is a traditional teaching
technique that was used to teach Latin and Greek.
 The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules of the
language.

Test-teach-test
“For learners who like to study grammar and lexical patterns and check what
they already know.”
“For learners of a higher level who enjoy doing exercises on language but
have already studied structure.”

 It is an approach to teaching where learners first complete a task or activity

without help from the teacher.
 Then, based on the problems seen, the teacher plans and presents the target
language.
 Then the learners do another task to practise the new language.

Task-based Learning
“For learners who just want to communicate, using all the language they know
to convey meaning.”
“For learners who enjoy doing extended pieces of work such as project work.”

 It focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do

meaningful tasks using the target language.
 Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling
customer service for help.
 Descriptions of Assessment (Test)

Summative Test:

The end of a course – The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student

learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard.

Examples of summative assessments include:

 a midterm exam
 a final project
 a paper
 a senior recital

Formative Test:

The goal of formative assessment is to monitor student learning to provide ongoing

feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students
to improve their learning.

Examples of formative assessments include asking students to:

 draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of a topic

 submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a lecture
 turn in a research proposal for early feedback

Cloze Test
Reading test - Cloze Test questions are somewhat similar to the usual (fill in the blanks);
questions. In a cloze test, multiple blanks are given within the passage so it becomes important to
understand the entire context of the passage to fill the blanks appropriately, while in the fill in the
blanks questions, the response is purely based on the given sentence only.

Diagnostic Test
Learners’ strong and weak points in language. – it is a test that helps the teacher and learners
identify problems that they have with the language.

Placement Test
Put learners in a suitable class. – This placement test is designed to give students and teachers of
English a quick way of assessing the approximate level of a student's knowledge of English
grammar and usage
Proficiency Test:
It assesses the level of language that learners have reached.

Achievement Test:
It assesses how well learners have learned what has been taught in class.

Objective
not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts.

Subjective
based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions.
 Definitions
False friends
a word or expression that has a similar form to one in a person's native language,
but a different meaning (for example English magazine and French magasin ‘shop’).

Connected speech
Connected speech is spoken language that's used in a continuous sequence, as in
normal conversations. It is also called connected discourse. There is often a
significant difference between the way words are pronounced in isolation and the
way they are pronounced in the context of connected speech.. (For example fish and
chips (fish´n chips) = Content words are usually stressed.

Homophones / Homonyms
Each of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings,
origins, or spelling. (For example, meet and meat)

Lexical sets
A lexical set is a group of words with the same topic, function or form. Example. 'Cat,
dog, tortoise, goldfish, gerbil' is part of the topical lexical set pets, and 'quickly,
happily, completely, dramatically, angrily' is part of the syntactic lexical set adverbs.

Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a
preposition, or both. (For example Put out)

Idioms
An idiom is a common word or phrase with a culturally understood meaning that
differs from what its composite words' denotations would suggest. (For example,
Break a leg = Good luck)

Word boundaries
Word boundaries are the beginning and the ending of a word. (For example, In
writing, word boundaries are conventionally represented by spaces between words. )

Verb patterns
different meanings. Sometimes in a sentence, one verb follows another. For
example, 'I remember telling her about the bowling'

Affixations
affixation is the process of adding a morpheme — or affix— to a word to create
either a different form of that word or a new word with a different meaning .
(prefix/suffix)
Contrastive stress
a stress imposed on a word or syllable contrary to its normal accentuation in order to
contrast it with an alternative word or syllable or to focus attention on it, as the stress
given to the normally unstressed word of in government of the people.

Brainstorming
a group of people to suggest a lot of ideas for a future activity very quickly before
considering some of them more carefully

Choral drill
The teacher models the language and then invites the whole group to repeat the
utterance. A choral drill can build confidence as individual learners do not feel they
have been put on the spot or singled out.

Role-play
Role plays are an excellent way of getting students to practise their English. They
simulate real life situations and allow them to act out what they would do in a real
situation.

Transformation drill
Transformation Drill is a strategy which involves manipulating structure in a
systematic way. (Rewrite exercise / Do as shown)

Visualisation
Survey
Jumbled Sentence
Rank ordering
 Speaking Skills
Adapting
Adapting to your audience also means adapting to the setting in which you give a speech. The time
of the speech (time of day), speaking order and current events.

Interactive Speaking:
Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we
are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification,
repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner.

Look for opportunities to involve your audience in what you are speaking about. Ask for validation
of points you are making ("Am I right?" "Has that ever happened to you?") Or allow time for
questions. Also, make sure to establish eye contact with your audience, and keep it throughout
your speech. (Exchanging Ideas)

Self-Correction

Common Feature of Speech

Stuttering (Hesitation)
 Phonology
Contraction
A contraction is a shortened version of the written and spoken forms of a word, syllable, or word
group, created by omission of internal letters and sounds. (example, negative form = can’t)

Phonemes
A phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular
language.

Weak vowel
In phonetics, a VOWEL that normally occurs only in unstressed syllables. There are two weak
vowels in English SCHWA /ə/, as in the unstressed syllables of above and sofa, and short i /ɪ/, as
in the unstressed syllables in example and Sophie.

Minimal pair
A minimal pair is a pair of words that vary by only a single sound, usually meaning sounds that may
confuse English learners, like the /f/ and /v/ in fan and van (cut – cat)
 Ways of Reading
Skimming
“They look at a text quickly to get general understanding.”
“Looking through a magazine article to see if it is about cooking”
focus on the main ideas of a text. When skimming, deliberately skip text that
provides details, stories, data, or other elaboration

Scanning
“They quickly search the text to find particular information.”
When you're reading, you don't have to read everything with the same amount of
care and attention.

Predicting
“They use titles and pictures to give themselves ideas about what the text is
about.”
It allows students to use information from the text, such as titles, headings, pictures
and diagrams to anticipate what will happen in the story

Inferring
“They decide how writers feel from the way they write.”
It is about looking back and reflecting about what has already been read.

Deducing meaning from context

“They use parts of the text to help them understand unfamiliar lexis.”

Intensive reading
“They focus on how language is used in a piece of text.”

Identifying text organization

“They look how the information is structured, by noticing headings or
introductory phrases.”

Reading for Gist

Reading the first line of every paragraph in a news story.
 Receptive skills
Generic Structure
Based on generic structure and language feature dominantly used, texts are divided
into several types. They are narrative, recount, descriptive, report, explanation,
analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, procedure, discussion, review, anecdote,
spoof, and news item.

Discourse marking
Discourse markers are words or phrases like anyway, right, okay, as I say, to begin
with. We use them to connect, organise and manage what we say or write or to
express attitude.
 Motivation

Global Motivation

Institutional Motivation
"My teacher is always really positive and helpful."

Task Motivation
"I always enjoy working in pairs and helping each other to understand."
"I don't understand what I am supposed to do." (poor)

Integrative and Instrumental Motivation

"I need English to study in America and join in with my classmates' social life."

Instrumental and Extrinsic Motivation

Integrative and Intrinsic Motivation